10/09/2024

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THE ROLE OF

HORMONES

What is Endocrine System?

1
 10/09/2024

…….
 The endocrine system is a complex network of chemical signals
and messages that control many immediate and life-long bodily
responses and functions.

 The term endocrine is derived from Greek, which means

endo=inside, crinos=secretion.

 All animals with backbones - from fish to mammals - have an

endocrine system that works hand-in-hand with the nervous
system to:

………..

1. maintain the body's internal steady state (nutrition, metabolism,

excretion, water and salt balance);
2. react to stimuli from outside the body;
3. regulate growth, development and reproduction; and
4. produce, use and store energy.

Both systems enable cells to communicate with others by using

chemical messengers.

2
 10/09/2024

………….
The endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones
that are transported by the circulatory system (blood).

 They act on target cells that may be anywhere in the body.

 In general, the cells, tissues, and organs of the endocrine system
make hormones, which complement the nervous system in
carrying out coordinating functions.

 Unlike nervous system, the endocrine system is basically related to

comparatively slow metabolism of carbohydrate and water by
adrenal cortical tissue, nitrogen metabolism by adrenal cortical
tissue and thyroid glands and the maturation of sex cells and
reproductive behaviour by pituitary gland and gonadal hormones.

………

 The endocrine system consists of a set of glands, such as the thyroid,

gonads, adrenal and pituitary glands, and the hormones they produce,
such as thyroxine, oestrogen, testosterone and adrenaline which is
liberated in the blood stream, help guide the development, growth,
reproduction, and behaviour of animals.

 The endocrine system's three parts - glands, hormones and target cells
(Receptors) - relay information and instructions throughout the body.

 Sometimes the whole process works within seconds, say, in response to

fear.

3
 10/09/2024

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THE ROLE OF

HORMONES

Other times it reacts more slowly, telling body

parts when and how much to grow and
developing characteristics that distinguish male
from female.

Hormones
 A hormone may be defined as a specific product (organic
substance) of an endocrine gland secreted into the blood,
which carries it to some part of the body where it produces
a definite physiological effect.

 The effect may be excitatory or inhibitory in its action.

 The term hormone was first coined by Bayliss and Starling in
1902. It is derived from Greek which means “to excite”.

 Hormones act specifically on certain organs. Such organs are

referred to as target organs. Thus, the hormones act as chemical
messengers.

4
 10/09/2024

…………..
 The endocrine system is slower than the nervous system
because hormones must travel through the circulatory system to
reach their target.

 Target cells have receptors that are specific to the signaling

molecules.

 The binding of hormones to the receptors on or within the target

cell produces a response by the target cell.

………..

 The target cells read and

follow the hormones'
instructions, sometimes
building a protein or releasing
another hormone.

 These actions lead to many

bodily responses such as a
faster heart beat or bone
growth.

5
 10/09/2024

……

 The hormones do not participate in biochemical reactions and

hence they are also called autonomes or autocoids.

 Hormones maintain internal environmental factors of the body like

temperature regulation, water and ion balance, blood glucose
level etc: such maintenance is known as homeostasis.
i. Hormones have no cumulative effect.
ii. After performing their function, they get destroyed or inactivated
or excreted.
iii. They are soluble in water.
iv. They also act as catalysts.

…..
 Hormones are also important in regulating substances which control
almost every aspect of the metabolism in living cells.

 Hormones are classified into four types:

1) Protein or Peptide hormones: Peptide hormones are composed of

amino acids.
 These hormones are made up of proteins or peptides. A peptide
hormone binds to a cell-surface receptor; it does not enter the cell.
 Example: Hormones of pituitary, parathyroid, pancreas,
hypothalamus and relax ovary.
 The hypothalamus is part of the brain.

6
 10/09/2024

……..

 The hypothalamus mainly maintains homeostasis

(constant internal conditions) by regulating the internal
environment (examples: heart rate, body temperature, water
balance, and the secretions of the pituitary gland).

2) Steroid hormones: These hormones are made up of

steroids.
 Example: Hormones produced by adrenal cortex, ovaries and
testes.

 They differ from the peptide hormones in that steroid

hormones enter the cell and bind to receptors in the
cytoplasm.

…..

 The hormone-receptor
complex enters the nucleus
where it binds with
chromatin and activates
specific genes.

 Genes (DNA) contain

information to produce
protein as shown on the
diagram.

 When genes are active,

protein is produced.

7
 10/09/2024

…………
 Steroid hormones act more slowly than peptide hormones
because of the time required to produce new proteins as
opposed to activating proteins that are already present.

3) Amino acid derivatives or biogenic amines: These hormones

are derived from amino acids.
 Ex: Melatonin and adrenalin of adrenal medulla.

4) lodinated amino acid: Iodine combines with amino acid and

forms different iodinated hormones.
 Example: Thyroxine.

Glands

 Animals contain two types of glands, namely exocrine glands

and endocrine glands.

 Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretions to

specific locations.

 The endocrine glands have no ducts to carry their secretions to

specific locations.

8
 10/09/2024

………..
 Endocrine glands secrete chemical messengers into the
bloodstream.

 Through the bloodstream they can have effects on a few or

many target organs or other glands.

 Classically, the endocrine glands have been defined as

being ductless glands, since they release their secretory
product directly into the blood or lymph.

……
 This Endocrine gland is found in all vertebrates—mammals
(including humans), birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish—
and is similar in location, structure, and function in these
diverse groups.

 They release similar hormones to control development,

growth, reproduction and other responses.

9
 10/09/2024

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram to show position of various endocrine glands in fishes. Ch, chromäffin tissue; Cs,
corpuscles of Stannius; G, gonad; I, intestinal tissue; Ir, inter renal tissue; K, kidney, P. pineal: Pc, pancreatic
islets; Pt, pituitary; T, thyroid; Th, thymus; U, urohypophysis: Ub,ultimobranchial.

The pituitary or hypophysis

 The most complex organ of the endocrine system, both functionally

and structurally, is the pituitary gland.

 The pituitary gland is located below the diencephalon (hypothalamus)

behind the optic chiasma and anterior to saccus vasculosus and is
attached to the diencephalon by a stalk or infundibulum.

 The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland located near

the base of vertebrate brain, and that produces secretions that
stimulate activities in other endocrine glands, impacting metabolism,
growth, and other physiological processes.

10
 10/09/2024

……

 The pituitary gland is sometimes called the "master gland" of

the body, since all other secretions from endocrine glands
depend on stimulation by the pituitary gland.

 The pituitary gland reveals aspects of the remarkable

coordination within vertebrates.

 Hormones produced in this gland at the base of the brain

travel to other parts of the body, impacting particular targeted
cells.

……
 The pituitary gland reveals aspects of the remarkable
coordination within vertebrates. Hormones produced in this
gland at the base of the brain travel to other parts of the body,
impacting particular targeted cells.
 In vertebrates, the pituitary gland is divided into two lobes: the
anterior or front lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior or
rear lobe (neurohypophysis).
 Each gland is made up of different tissue types.

 Some vertebrates, like fish, however, have a third distinct

intermediate section.

11
 10/09/2024

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

 The anterior lobe is derived from the invagination of the oral

mucosa called Rathke's pouch.

 The lobe is usually divided into three regions:

 pars distalis ("distal part") — the majority of the anterior

pituitary

……..

 pars tuberalis ("tubular part") — a sheath extending up from the

pars distalis and wrapping around the pituitary stalk

 pars intermedia ("intermediate part") — sits between the bulk

of the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary; often very
small in humans.
 The function of the tuberalis is not well characterized. The
anterior pituitary is functionally linked to the hypothalamus
via the hypophyseal-portal vascular connection in the pituitary
stalk.

 Through this vascular connection, the hypothalamus integrates

stimulatory and inhibitory central and peripheral signals to the
five phenotypically distinct pituitary cell types.

12
 10/09/2024

……….
 The different hormones secreting cell are spread over in part
of the adenohypophysis.

 All hormones secreted by the pituitary are not necessarily

proteins or polypeptides.

 There is a slight difference in the pituitary hormones of the

different group of fishes.

……

 The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secrets seven important

endocrine hormones:
1. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. Growth hormone (also called somatotrophin)
4. The gonadotropins (FSH and LH).
5. Prolactin
6. and Melanocyte stimulating hormone (HSH or Melanotropin).
7. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

13
 10/09/2024

…..

 These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary

under the influence of hypothalamic hormones.

 The hypothalamic hormones travel to the anterior lobe by

way of a special capillary system, called the hypothalamic-
hypophyseal portal system.

 Once the hormone is released, it either targets another

gland (or organ) or it controls the secretion of another
hormone from a gland.

……..

 In that case, the first hormone is called a trophic

hormone. The control of hormones from the anterior
pituitary exerts a negative feedback loop.

 Their release is inhibited by increasing levels of hormones

from the target gland on which they act.

14
 10/09/2024

……….
 Despite its name, the posterior pituitary gland is not a gland, per se;
rather, it is largely a collection of axonal projections from the
hypothalamus that terminate behind the anterior pituitary gland.

 Classification of the posterior pituitary varies, but most sources

include the three regions below:

 pars nervosa, or neural/posterior lobe — constitutes the majority

of the posterior pituitary, and is sometimes (incorrectly) considered
synonymous with it

Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

 Infundibular stalk — also known as the "infundibulum" or "pituitary

stalk"; the term "hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract" is a near-
synonym, describing the connection rather than the structure

 Median eminence — this is only occasionally included as part of the

posterior pituitary; some sources specifically exclude it

 The posterior lobe is connected to the hypothalamus via the

infundibulum (or stalk), giving rise to the tuberoinfundibular
pathway.

15
 10/09/2024

……..
 Hormones are made in nerve cell bodies positioned in the
hypothalamus, and these hormones are then transported down the
nerve cell's axons to the posterior pituitary.

 They are stored in the posterior pituitary in cell terminals until a

stimulus reaches the hypothalamus, which then sends an electrical
signal to the posterior pituitary to release the hormone(s) into
circulation.

 The hormones released by the posterior pituitary are:

 Oxytocin
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin and AVP,
arginine vasopressin)

…………..

 The neurohypohyseal hormones are synthesized in the

hypothalamus and are transported to the neurohypophysis for
release, whereas the adenohypophyseal hormones are synthesized
and released from the cells of the adenohypophysis.

16
 10/09/2024

Intermediate Lobe

 There is also an intermediate lobe in many animals. For

instance, in fish it is believed to control physiological colour
change.

 In adult humans, it is just a thin layer of cells between the

anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary, nearly
indistinguishable from the anterior lobe.

 The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating

hormone or MSH, although this function is often (imprecisely)
attributed to the anterior pituitary.

Tropic or stimulating hormones

 The pituitary hormones of fishes are of two types.

 (1) Those which regulates the function of other endocrine

glands. Such hormones are called tropics or tropic hormones.
These are
a. Thyrotropin activates thyroid
b. Adrenocorticotropic hormones activate adrenal
cortex,
c. The gonadotropins (FSH and LH).
d. Growth hormones - somatotropin.

17
 10/09/2024

Tropic or stimulating hormones

(2) Those which directly regulates the specific enzymatic

reactions in the various body cells or tissues.

 These hormones are melanin hormones (MH) and

melanophore stimulating hormone (MSH) etc.

 Thyrotropin hormone is secreted from

proadenohyopophysis and stimulates activity of thyroid
hormones.

………….

 The TRH is secreted under the influence of thyroid

releasing hormones from diencephalon in fishes.

 It is proved that TRH influences the TSR cell activity and

thyroid activity in fish.

18
 10/09/2024

Gonadotropin (GTH)

 Gonadotropin (GTH) cell are richly found in the proximal

pars distalis (PPD), where they may form a solid ventral
rim of cells.

 In fishes there is only one functional gonadotropin found,

which is often regarded as piscian pituitary gonadotropin
(PPG).

 This single gonadotropin has similar properties of two

hormones, LH and FSH of mammals.

……………

 Mammalian luteinizing hormone (LH) promotes

release of gametes from nearly mature gonads in
fishes and stimulates appearance of secondary sexual
characters.

 This indicates that there must be a similar hormone in

fishes also. Salmon pituitary secretes gonadotropins
which resembles LI-I.

 Furthermore, the gonadotropins from human chorion

and urine of gravid mares, have LH like properties
which hasten the release of eggs in female fishes.

19
 10/09/2024

Fig. 1.2. Section of the pituitary to show various hormone secreting cells in the adenohypophysis (Ah).
ACTH. adeno corticotropic cell; GTH, gonado tropic cell; MSH melanotropic cell; Nh, neurohypophysis; PAS,
periodic acid Schiff— positive cell in pars intermedja; PPD, proximal pars distalis: P. prolactin producing cell;
RPD, rortral pars distalis Ce; STH, somatotropic II, TSH;, thyrotropic cell.

20
 10/09/2024

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

 It is secreted by ACTH cells located between the rostral

pars distalis and the neurohypophysis.

 Secretion of ACTH from pituitary is stimulated by the

hypothalamus through corticotropin releasing factor (CRF).

 Prolactin- It is a similar hormone that influences lactation

in mammals and is released from proadenohypophysis.

 Growth hormone (GH) - also called somatotrophin

 Mesoadenohypophysis secretes a growth hormone which

accelerates increase in the body length of fishes.

21
 10/09/2024

 Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) or melanotropin

 MSH is secreted from the meta-adenohypophysis and acts

antagonistically to melanin hormone. MSH expands the pigment in
the chromatophores, thus take part in adjustment of background.

Oxytocin and vasopressin hormones

 In fishes the neurohypophysis secretes two hormones i.e.

oxytocin and vasopressin, which are stored in hypothalmic
neurosecretory cells.

 Vasopressin and antidiuretic (ADH) hormones are

responsible for the constriction of blood vessels in mammals
and thus stimulates retention of water by their action in
kidney.

 Oxytocin stimulates mammalian uterine muscles and

increase the discharge of milk from lactating mammals.

 In fishes this control osmoregulation by maintaining water and

salt balance.

22
 10/09/2024

Thyroid gland

 Location: In many teleosts the thyroid gland is

situated in the pharyngeal region in between the
dorsal basibranchial cartilages and ventral sternohyoid
muscle.

 The thyroid surrounds anterior and middle parts of

first, second and sometimes third afferent brachial
arteries of ventral aorta.

 In Heteropneustes fossilis it occupies almost the entire

length of the ventral aorta and afferent arteries.

………..

 Thyroid hormone is synthesized in the thyroid gland, for

which inorganic iodine is extracted from the blood.

 Thyroid hormones appear to be involved in carbohydrate

metabolism in fish, as liver glycogen is low when this gland
is active.

 Thyroid hormones also play an important role in

reproduction, osmoregulation and migration of fish.

23
 10/09/2024

……

 There is no true adrenal gland present in most fish (exception

is sculpins). The adrenal cortical tissue in most fish is
represented by the interrenal cells.

 These cells are pale eosinophilic cuboidal cells associated with

major blood vessels in the anterior kidney.

 Adrenal cortical tissue or interrenal tissue secretes two

hormones. These are (i) mineral corticoids concerned with
fish osmoregulation, (ii) glucocorticoids, which regulate the
carbohydrate metabolism, particularly blood sugar level.

……

 The adrenal medullary cells (chromaffin cells) may vary

in location. These cells are usually found with the
sympathetic ganglia in clumps between the anterior
kidney and spine or in the interrenal tissue.

 In sharks and rays chromaffin tissue are found

associated with the sympathetic chain of nerve ganglia
while in bony fishes the chromaffin cells have wide
variation in their distribution.

24
 10/09/2024

…….

 Chromaffin tissue of fishes richly contain adrenaline and

noradrenaline. Injection of adrenaline and noradrenaline
causes changes in blood pressure, bradycardia, branchial
vasodilation, diuresis in glomerular teleosts and
hyperventilation.

Fig. 1.3. Diagram to show location of interrenal glands in fishes. BC,body kidney; CC, chromaffin cells; HK,
head kidney; IR, interrenal tissue; LPVC, left post cardinal view; RPCV, right post cardinal view.

25
 10/09/2024

Ultimobranchial gland

 This gland lies ventral to the esophagus in the

transverse septum separating the heart from the
abdominal cavity. This organ secretes calcitonin
(lowers serum calcium levels) that acts with
hypocalcin (secreted by the corpuscles of Stannius) to
regulate calcium metabolism.

 The ultimobranchial gland is under the control of

pituitary gland.

Sex glands as endocrine organs

 The sex hormones are synthesized and secreted by

specialized cells of the ovaries and testis.

 The release of sex hormones are under the control

of mesoadenohypophysis of pituitary.

 In fishes these sex hormones are necessary for

maturation of gametes and in addition of secondary
sex characteristics such as breeding tubercles’,
colouration and the maturation of gonopodia.

26
 10/09/2024

Sex glands as endocrine organs

 In elasmobranchs (Raja) and in salmon the blood

plasma contains male hormone testosterone with a
correlation between plasma level and the reproductive
cycle.

 Oryzias letipes (medaka) and sockey salmon comprise

another gonadal steroid i.e 11- ketotestosteron, which is
10 fold more physiologically androgenic than
testosterone.

 Ovary secretes estrogens of which estradiol -17- has

been identified in many species in addition of presence
of estrone and estriol.

Sex glands as endocrine organs

In some fishes progesterone is also found but

without hormonal function.

There is little information about the influence of

gonadial hormones on the reproductive
behaviour of fish.

27
 10/09/2024

Corpuscles of Stannius (C.S.)

 These are islands of eosinophilic granular cells located in paired organs on

the ventral surface of the kidney.

 This organ secretes a protein called hypocalcin (teleocalcin) that acts with
calcitonin to regulate calcium metabolism.

 Their number varies from two to six according to species. The C.S. may be
flat oval as in gold fish, trout and salmon. It is made up of columnar cells
which are covered by a fibrous capsule.

 They are filled with secretory granules. The parenchyma comprises

vasculoganglionic units consisting of a bunch of ganglia ion cells, blood
vessels and nerve fibres.

…………..
 The corpuscles of Stannius reduces serum calcium level which have
environment containing high calcium, such as seawater.

 Recently, it has been shown that corpuscles of Stannius work in

association with pituitary gland, which exert hypercalceriic effect, in
order to balance relatively constant level of serum calcium.

28
 10/09/2024

Fig. 1.4. Diagram of kidney of fishes showing corpuscles of Stannius. Cirrhina niri gala. (b) Labeo rohita.
CS. corpuscles of Stannius: IF. interrenal corpuseles.

…………..
 The intestinal mucosa produces secretin and
pancreozymin which are controlled by nervous system
and regulate pancreatic secretion. Secretion affects flow
of enzyme carrying liquids from the pancreas.

 Whereas pancreozymin accelerate flow of zymogens.

These hormones are usually synthesized in anterior part of the
small intestine.

 In carnivorous fish these hormones are brought into the

stomach, containing acidified homogenate of fish flesh or by
injection of secretin into gastric vein which stimulates the
secretion of pancreas.

29
 10/09/2024

Endocrine Pancreas

 The endocrine pancreas is present in most fish as islet of

Langerhans and is associated with the exocrine pancreas.
 In some species the islets are very large and may be grossly visible
(Brockman bodies).
 In some fishes like Labeo, Cirrhina, and Channa small islets are
present which are separate from pancreas and are found near gall
bladder, spleen, pyloric caeca.
 Such islets are often referred to as principle islets.
 During the spawning season the size and number of islet will
increase in some fish. These should not be confused with an
adenoma.

………..

 But in some species like Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes

fossilis the number of large and small islets are found to be
embedded in the pancreatic tissues, similar to the higher
vertebrates.

 In fish the islets are big and prominent and consists of there kinds
of cells (Fig. 1.6).
 (i) The beta cells which secretes insulin and take aldehyde fuschin
stain. (ii) Another type of cells are alpha cells, which do not take
aldehyde fuschin stain and have two types.

 A1 and A, cells, which produce glucagon. The function of the third

type cells is not known. Insulin is secreted by beta cells and
regulate the blood sugar level in fishes.

30
 10/09/2024

Endocrine Pancreas

Fig. 1.5. Diagram of pancreas showing endocrine components IL, islets of langerhans, PL, pancreatic lobule

Pineal Gland

 The pineal gland is a light sensitive neuroendocrine structure

that lies in the anterior brain and is a well-vascularized organ.
This gland secretes melatonin that may play a role in
controlling reproduction, growth, and migration.

 Removal of pineal from Lebistes species causes reduced

growth rate, anomalies in the skeleton, pituitary, thyroid and
corpuscles of Stannius. It has been reported that thyroid and
pituitary glands influence the secretion of pineal.

31
 10/09/2024

Urophysis

 This is a neurosecretory organ found on the ventral aspect of

the distal end of the spinal cord. These bodies are composed
of unmyelinated axons terminating on a capillary wall.

 It is an organ deposits, which releases materials produced in

the neurosecretory cells situated in the spinal cord.

 These cells together with the urophysis are called the caudal
neurosecretoty system.

 This neurosecretory system is found only in elasmobranchs

and teleosts but it corresponds to the hypothelamo
neurosecretory system present in vertebrates.

SUMMARY

 The ductless glands are called as endocrine glands.

 Their secretions are known as hormones.

 The endocrine glands in fishes are pituitary glands,

interrenal tissue, chromaffin tissue, corpuscles of stannous,
ultimobranchial glands, islets of Langerhans, thyroid gland,
gastro intestinal glands, pineal glands and urophysis.

32