ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
Organs and their function

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CONTENT

Glands: structure & functions Parathyroid Mechanisms of hormone

Definition Adrenal action

Types & functions of each Pineal Hormone target cell

 Endocrine Thymus specificity

 Exocrine Pancreas (islets of Half-life, onset & duration of

Langerhans) hormone activity

Major endocrine organs:
Control of hormone release
location, structure, function, Hormones
hormones Types Regulatory mechanisms  

Pituitary Chemistry Hypothalamus

Thyroid Prostaglandin
O V E RV I E W
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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 The endocrine system’s function is to communicate with cells using chemicals

called hormones.

 Endocrine glands and their hormones regulate several metabolic processes

within cells, and the whole body.

 Their actions are precise, they only affect specific target cells

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 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Endocrine glands include the

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

Parathyroid glands

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Other hormone - secreting

glands and tissues.  

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HORMONES
 Tropic – target other endocrine glands and stimulate their
growth and secretion.

 Sex – target reproductive tissues.

 Anabolic – stimulate anabolism in target cells.

 Steroid – molecules are manufactured by endocrine cells

from cholesterol.

 Nonsteroid – molecules are synthesized primarily from

amino acids.

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C H E M I C A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F H O R M O N E S

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 GENERAL
PRINCIPLES OF
HORMONE ACTION

 Hormones signal a cell by binding to the target cell’s

specific receptors in a “lock-and-key” mechanism

 Different hormone-receptor interactions produce different

regulatory changes within the target cell through chemical
reactions

 Combined hormone actions:

Synergism
Permissiveness
Antagonism
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 STRUCTURE OF THE
P I T U I TA RY G L A N D

 1.2 to 1.5 cm (about ½ inch) across

  
 Weighs 0.5 g ( ounce)

 Located on the ventral surface of the brain within the skull

 Made up of two separate glands:

Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland)
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary gland)

 Adenohypophysis
Pars anterior forms the major portion of the adenohypophysis
and pars intermedia

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 ADENOHYPOPHYSIS

 Three types of cells can be identified

according to their affinity for certain
stains

Chromophobes: Do not stain

Acidophils: Stain with acid stains

Basophils: Stain with basic stains

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ANTERIOR
P I T U I TA R Y
HORMONES

 The anterior pituitary consists

mostly of epithelial tissue
arranged around blood vessels
and enclosed in a capsule of
collagenous connective tissue.

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ANTERIOR
P I T U I TA RY G L A N D
HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES

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 NEUROHYPOPHYSIS:
ANTIDIURETIC
HORMONE

 The neurohypophysis serves as a storage and release site for

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT)

 ADH
Prevents the formation of a large volume of urine, thereby
helping the body to conserve water
Causes a portion of each tubule in the kidney to reabsorb
water from the urine it is forming

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P O S T E R I O R P I T U I TA RY
HORMONES
 Oxytocin plays a role in childbirth by
contracting muscles in the uterine wall, and in
milk-letdown by forcing milk into ducts from
the milk glands.

Stretching of the uterus in the latter stages of

pregnancy stimulates release of oxytocin.

Suckling of an infant at the breast stimulates

release of oxytocin after childbirth.
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 PINEAL GLAND

 Tiny, pine nut–shaped structure located on the

dorsal aspect of the brain’s diencephalon region

 Member of the nervous system because it receives

visual stimuli

 Also a member of the endocrine system because it

secretes hormone

 Melatonin secretion producing sleepiness occurs

during darkness due to lack of stimulation from
sympathetic ganglion

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 STRUCTURE OF
THE THYROID
GLAND

 The thyroid gland is made up of two large lateral

lobes and a narrow connecting isthmus

 A thin, wormlike projection of thyroid tissue, called

the pyramidal lobe, extends upward from the
isthmus

 In an adult, the thyroid weighs approximately 30 g

(1 ounce)

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THYROID GLAND

Structure of the Gland

The thyroid consists of secretory parts called
follicles filled with hormone-storing colloid.
Follicular cells :
Tetraiodothyronine (T4), or thyroxine
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Regulate the metabolic rate of all cells, cell
growth, and tissue differentiation; it is said
to have a “general” target
C Cell – Calcitonin : Decreases blood Ca2+ levels.

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S T R U C T U R E O F T H E PA R AT H Y R O I D
G L A N D S A N D PA R AT H Y R O I D
HORMONE (PTH)
 Four or five parathyroid glands are embedded in the
posterior surface of the thyroid’s lateral lobes

Tiny, rounded bodies within thyroid tissue that are

formed by compact, irregular rows of cells

 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an antagonist to

calcitonin and the primary hormone that maintains
calcium homeostasis

PTH acts on bone and kidney

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HORMONES OF THE
THYROID GLAND
A N D PA R AT H Y R O I D
GLANDS
 STRUCTURE OF
THE ADRENAL
GLANDS

 The adrenal glands are located on top of

the kidneys, fitting like caps

 They are made up of two portions:

Adrenal cortex: Composed of endocrine

tissue

Adrenal medulla: Composed of

neurosecretory tissue

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 A D R E N A L C O RT E X

 All adrenal cortical hormones are steroids and are known as

corticosteroids

 The adrenal cortex is composed of three distinct layers of secreting

cells:
 Zona glomerulosa
 Zona fasciculata
 Zona reticularis

 The adrenal medulla is made up of modified postganglionic

neurons that are connected to the sympathetic nervous system.
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 The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and

HORMONES OF THE
ADRENAL MEDULLA norepinephrine into the blood stream.

 The effects of these hormones resemble those of the

sympathetic division neurotransmitters of the same
name, except that they last up to 10 times longer when
they are secreted as hormones.

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 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

HORMONES OF
 The are used in times of stress and for “fight or flight.”
THE ADRENAL
MEDULLA  Release of medullary hormones is regulated by nervous
impulses from the central nervous system.

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 STRUCTURE OF
T H E PA N C R E AT I C
ISLETS

 The pancreas is an elongated gland that

weighs approximately 100 g (3.5 ounces)

 Its head lies in the duodenum, it extends

horizontally behind the stomach, and then
it touches the spleen

 It is composed of endocrine and exocrine

tissues

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 STRUCTURE OF
T H E PA N C R E AT I C
ISLETS

 Each islet contains five primary types of

endocrine cells joined by gap junctions:
Alpha cells (α cells)
Beta cells (β cells)
Delta cells (δ cells)
Pancreatic polypeptide cells (F or PP
cells)
Epsilon cells (ε cells)

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R E G U L AT I O N O F B L O O D G L U C O S E L E V E L S

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 TESTES AND
O VA R I E S

 Testes
Paired organs in the scrotum of the male
Composed of seminiferous tubules and a
scattering of interstitial cells

 Ovaries
Primary sex organs in the female
Set of paired glands in the pelvis that
produce several types of sex hormones

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  Tissue that forms on the lining of the uterus as a connection
between the circulatory systems of the mother and the developing
P L A C E N TA child

 Serves as a temporary endocrine gland that produces human

chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), estrogens, and progesterone

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 THYMUS

 Gland located in the mediastinum just

beneath the sternum

 The thymus is large in children and

begins to atrophy at puberty; by old
age, it is a vestige of fat and fibrous
tissue

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 GASTRIC AND
INTESTINAL
MUCOSA

 The mucous lining of the GI tract contains cells that

produce both endocrine and exocrine secretions

 GI hormones, such as gastrin, secretin, and

cholecystokinin (CCK), play regulatory roles in
coordinating the secretory and motor activities
involved in the digestive process

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 H E A RT

 The heart has a secondary endocrine

role

 Hormone-producing cells produce

several atrial natriuretic peptides
(ANPs), including atrial natriuretic
hormone (ANH)
Decreases blood pressure

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 MEDICINAL USES OF
HORMONES

 Both steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are effective when

taken by mouth. They are not split apart during digestion and
easily cross the intestinal lining because they are lipid-soluble.

 By contrast, peptide and protein hormones, such as insulin, are

not effective oral medications because digestive enzymes destroy
them by breaking their peptide bonds. Therefore people who need
insulin must take it by injection.
 HORMONES AND STRESS

 Sympathetic ANS: fight-or-flight response

 Endocrine response

Epinephrine: facilitates sympathetic ANS response

Cortisol: deals with starvation stress

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): conserves water

Growth hormone: increases blood glucose levels

Insulin production reduced: increases blood glucose levels

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 • Endocrine glands decrease in size

• Muscular strength decreases as GH levels decrease

• ADH levels increase due to slower break down in liver and kidneys

• Calcitonin levels decrease; increase risk of osteoporosis

L I F E - S PA N C H A N G E S
• PTH level changes contribute to risk of osteoporosis

• Insulin resistance may develop

• Changes in melatonin secretion affect the body clock

• Thymosin production declines increasing risk of infections

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 AGING AND THE
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM

 Decline in hormone secretion

 Common clinical conditions

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Osteoporosis
I M PA C T O F I N S U L I N  Deficiency in insulin production or action impairs the

DEFICIENCY ability of cells to take up and use glucose.

 Results in hyperglycemia (abnormally high blood glucose

levels):
Hyperglycemia causes excess urine production,
dehydration, thirst
Chronically, hyperglycemia damages small blood vessels
and nerves

 Results in impaired glucose metabolism: Lethargy, hunger

 Impairs protein synthesis: Tissue wasting

 ENDOCRINE
DISORDERS

 Caused by abnormal hormone

effects in target tissues
Could result from hypersecretion or
hyposecretion of hormones
Undersensitivity or oversensitivity
in target tissues

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 H Y P E R C O RT I S O L I S M

 Excess cortisol production causes

many visible clinical signs, as
shown by this woman with
hypercortisolism.
 THYROID
HORMONE
DISORDERS

 A. Hypothyroidism (left) and

hyperthyroidism (right) result in
opposite clinical signs and
symptoms.
 GROWTH HORMONE

 Growth hormone (GH) secretion is controlled by

hypothalamic factors and negative feedback. GH
stimulates growth in cooperation with IGF-I, and
independently increases glucose and fatty acid
availability to fuel tissue growth and repair.
 Growth Hormone Ups and Downs
CLINICAL • Hypersecretion of GH in children
A P P L I C AT I O N • Hypersecretion of GH in adults
• Hyposecretion of GH in children

Figure shows oversecretion of GH in adulthood as changes occur in the same

person at ages (a) nine, (b) sixteen, (c) thirty-three, and (4) fifty-two

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 GROWTH
HORMONE
DISORDERS

A. 5.5 year-old boy with GH

deficiency (left) is considerably
shorter and chubbier than his
fraternal twin sister.
B. A man with gigantism alongside
his identical twin.
QUESTIONS?

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Word Part Meaning Example

The Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

andr/o male An androgen is any male sex hormone.

cortic/o cortex Adrenocorticotropic hormone acts on the adrenal cortex.

glyc/o glucose, sugar Hyperglycemia is high blood glucose.

insul/o pancreatic islet, island Insulin is a hormone produced by pancreatic islets.

lact/o milk Prolactin stimulates milk production in the breasts.

nephr/o kidney Epinephrine (adrenaline) is secreted by the adrenal gland near the
kidney.

WORD ANATOMY
Word Part Meaning Example
oxy- sharp, acute Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions during labor.

ren/o kidney The adrenal glands are near (ad-) the kidneys.
-sterone steroid hormone Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the testes.
toc/o labor See “oxy” example.
trop/o acting on, influencing Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the testes.
ur/o urine Antidiuretic hormone promotes reabsorption of water in the
kidneys and decreases excretion of urine.

WORD ANATOMY
Word Part Meaning Example
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues
natri sodium (L. Atrial natriuretic peptide stimulates
natrium) release of sodium in the urine.
-poiesis making, forming Erythropoietin is a hormone from the
kidneys that stimulates production of red
blood cells.

WORD ANATOMY
RECOMMENDED McConnell, T. H. & Hull, K. L. (2011).
READING Human form and function: Essentials of
anatomy& physiology. Philadelphia:
Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.

Shier, D., Lewis, R. & Butler, J. (2002).

Hole’s human anatomy & physiology. New
York: McGraw Hill.

Tortora, Gerard J. & Derrickson, Bryan H.

(2011). Principles of anatomy and
physiology. Somerset, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons.