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    English

    Uploaded by

    tlhaoleoarabile
    english term 2 past paper

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    English

    Uploaded by

    tlhaoleoarabile
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    english term 2 past paper

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    © © All Rights Reserved

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    english term 2 past paper

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    3 views12 pages

    English

    Uploaded by

    tlhaoleoarabile
    english term 2 past paper

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
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    English

    ### English Grammar Notes

    ## The Sentence
    A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. It starts with a capital letter
    and ends with a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark. A sentence must contain a
    subject and a finite verb.

    ### Identifying the Subject


    To find the subject, ask "who" or "what" before the verb. The subject can be replaced with
    pronouns like he, she, or it.

    ## Types of Sentences
    1. **Statements**: Provide information.
    2. **Questions**: Ask for information.
    3. **Exclamations**: Express emotions like surprise or anger.
    4. **Commands (Imperatives)**: Give orders or instructions.

    ## Sentence Structures
    1. **Simple Sentence**: One finite verb, one idea.
    2. **Compound Sentence**: Two or more finite verbs, joined by coordinating conjunctions.
    3. **Complex Sentence**: One main clause and one or more subordinate clauses joined by
    subordinating conjunctions.

    ## Sentence Components
    ### The Subject
    The subject is the person or thing performing the action.

    ### The Predicate


    The predicate is the rest of the sentence, starting with the verb.

    ## Phrases
    A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb, conveying a single idea and always part of
    a sentence.

    ### Types of Phrases


    1. **Adjectival Phrases**: Qualify the noun.
    2. **Noun Phrases**: Answer who or what.
    3. **Adverbial Phrases**: Modify the verb.
    ## Clauses
    A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb and conveying a single idea.

    ### Types of Clauses


    1. **Main Clause**: Can stand alone and makes complete sense.
    2. **Subordinate Clause**: Cannot stand alone, depends on the main clause.

    ### Types of Subordinate Clauses


    1. **Noun Clauses**: Perform the same functions as nouns.
    2. **Adjectival Clauses**: Qualify a word in the main clause.
    3. **Adverbial Clauses**: Perform the same functions as adverbs.

    ## Punctuation
    Punctuation marks aid readability and comprehension.

    ### Capital Letters


    Start sentences, proper nouns, adjectives, and titles.

    ### Full Stops (.)


    End sentences.

    ### Commas (,)


    Separate items in a list, indicate pauses, and separate additional information.

    ### Semicolons (;)


    Balance related ideas, indicate antithesis, and join main clauses.

    ### Colons (:)


    Introduce lists, explanations, or ideas.

    ### Question Marks (?)


    End questions.

    ### Exclamation Marks (!)


    Follow exclamations or interjections.

    ### Quotation Marks


    Indicate direct speech, quote someone else's words, and indicate slang or foreign words.

    ### Parentheses (Brackets) ( )


    Enclose explanations, asides, or additional information.
    ### Hyphens (-)
    Link prefixes to words or form compound words.

    ### Dashes (—)


    Separate parts of a sentence, create pauses, and provide additional information.

    ### Bullets (•)


    Itemize points visually.

    ### Ellipsis (...)


    Indicate incomplete sentences or omissions.

    ### Italics
    Highlight and emphasize words or phrases.

    ## The Apostrophe
    Indicate contractions and possession.

    ## Parts of Speech
    - Noun
    - Pronoun
    - Adjective
    - Verb
    - Adverb
    - Conjunction
    - Preposition
    - Article

    ## Common Errors

    ### Pronouns I and Me


    - **Usage of Pronouns I and Me**
    - Determine correct usage by removing the 'other person' from the sentence.
    - "I" is used when the sentence makes sense with "I" alone.
    - "Me" is used when the sentence makes sense with "me" alone.
    - **Preposition Between**
    - "Me" always follows the preposition between.

    ### Its and It's


    - **Its**: Possessive adjective indicating ownership.
    - **It's**: Contraction for "it is."

    ## Plurals

    ### Regular Plurals


    - **Standard Plural Formation**
    - Most words form the plural by adding "s."

    ### Special Plural Rules


    - **Words Ending in Ch, Sh, S, Ss, X**
    - Add "es" to form the plural.
    - **Words Ending in Vowel + Y**
    - Add "s" to form the plural.
    - **Words Ending in Consonant + Y**
    - Drop the "y" and add "ies."
    - **Words Ending in F or Fe**
    - Drop the "f" and add "ves."
    - **Words Ending in O**
    - Generally add "es," but some take only "s," especially musical terms.
    - **Words Ending in Oo**
    - Simply add "s."
    - **Words Ending in Eau**
    - Add "x" or "s."
    - **Words Ending in Us**
    - Can add "es" or "i," often depends on Latin or Greek origins.
    - **Invariable Nouns**
    - Some nouns have the same singular and plural forms.
    - **Uncountable Nouns**
    - Take singular form.

    ### Plurals of Compound Nouns and Special Cases


    - **Compound Nouns**
    - Pluralize the last word.
    - **Preposition-containing Compounds**
    - Pluralize the word before the preposition.
    - **Initials and Abbreviations**
    - Add "s" to form the plural.

    ### Irregular Plurals


    - **Words Changing Form**
    - Certain words change entirely in the plural form.
    - **Words Always Plural**
    - Some nouns appear only in plural form.

    ## Articles

    ### Definite Article


    - **The**
    - Refers to something specific or definite.

    ### Indefinite Article


    - **A/An**
    - Refers to something non-specific or indefinite.
    - Use "an" before vowel sounds, "a" before consonant sounds.

    ## Gender of Nouns

    ### Classification of Genders


    - **Masculine**
    - E.g., prince, bachelor.
    - **Feminine**
    - E.g., queen, daughter.
    - **Neuter**
    - E.g., book, engine.
    - **Common Gender**
    - Used for nouns referring to either males or females.
    - **Nouns with Assigned Gender**
    - Often inanimate objects referred to as masculine or feminine.

    ## Adjectives

    ### Functions and Types


    - **Position in Sentence**
    - Before a noun or after a linking verb.
    - **Formation from Nouns**
    - Adjectives can be derived from nouns.
    - **Kinds of Adjectives**
    - Descriptive, Proper, Quantity/Number, Order, Demonstrative, Possessive, Interrogative,
    Compound.

    ### Degrees of Comparison


    - **Positive Degree**
    - Refers to one thing.
    - **Comparative Degree**
    - Compares two things.
    - **Superlative Degree**
    - Compares more than two things, indicating the highest degree.

    ## Verbs

    ### Types and Usage


    - **Action Words**
    - Test by asking "Can you...?" or placing a pronoun before it.

    ### Tenses
    - **Present, Past, Future**
    - Indicate the time of action.

    ### Detailed Tenses


    - **Simple, Continuous, Perfect**
    - Differentiate based on the nature of the action.

    ### Finite Verbs


    - **Stand Alone**
    - Must have a subject, number, and tense.

    ### Infinitive
    - **Form**
    - Preceded by "to" and cannot stand alone.

    ### Auxiliary Verbs


    - **Helping Verbs**
    - Regulate tense and require a main verb.

    ### Linking Verb


    - **Verb "To Be"**
    - Connects a noun with another noun or adjective.

    ### Transitive and Intransitive Verbs


    - **Transitive**
    - Takes a direct object.
    - **Intransitive**
    - Does not take a direct object.
    ### Mood of the Verb
    - **Indicative**
    - Expresses fact.
    - **Imperative**
    - Expresses commands.
    - **Subjunctive**
    - Expresses wishes, doubts, or hypotheticals.

    ### Participles
    - **Present Participle**
    - Indicates ongoing action, ends in "ing."
    - **Past Participle**
    - Used for past tense, often ends in "ed," "d," "en," "n."

    ## Voice

    ### Active and Passive Voice


    - **Active Voice**
    - Subject performs the action.
    - **Passive Voice**
    - Subject receives the action.

    ### Changing Voice


    - **Active to Passive**
    - Requires a direct object in the sentence.

    # Notes on Language Functions and Usage

    ## The General Rule (Transitive Verb)


    ### Function:
    - A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object.
    ### How to Use:
    1. Underline the verb in the sentence.
    2. Divide the sentence into Subject, Verb, and Object.
    3. Rearrange the sentence to start with the object:
    - Object, Subject, Verb
    - Object, Verb, Subject
    ### Where to Use:
    - When analyzing sentence structure.
    - In exercises involving transformation from active to passive voice.
    ## Pronouns
    ### Function:
    - Pronouns change from the subject form to the object form.
    ### How to Use:
    - In passive sentences where the agent (doer) is often omitted.
    ### Where to Use:
    - When it is understood or clumsy to mention the doer.
    - Especially true if the agent is a pronoun.

    ## Commands
    ### Function:
    - To give direct orders or instructions.
    ### How to Use:
    - Directly address the action to be taken.
    ### Where to Use:
    - When giving instructions or orders.

    ## Questions
    ### Function:
    - To inquire about information.
    ### How to Use:
    - Structure the sentence to ask who performed the action.
    ### Where to Use:
    - When seeking information about the doer of an action.

    ## Effective Use of the Passive Voice


    ### Function:
    - To emphasize the action or effect rather than the doer.
    ### How to Use:
    - Use passive voice when the subject is not necessary, unknown, or should be de-
    emphasized.
    ### Where to Use:
    - When the doer is not important or is anonymous.
    - When making demands or accusations without naming the subject.

    ## Singular and Plural Pronouns


    ### Function:
    - To ensure pronouns match in number and person.
    ### How to Use:
    - Use appropriate pronoun forms based on whether they are singular or plural.
    ### Where to Use:
    - In sentences requiring pronoun-antecedent agreement.

    ## Adverbs
    ### Function:
    - Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole sentences.
    ### Types of Adverbs:
    1. **Manner (how?)**
    2. **Place (where?)**
    3. **Time (when?)**
    4. **Degree (to what extent?)**
    5. **Frequency (how often?)**
    ### Where to Use:
    - To provide details about how, where, when, to what extent, and how often an action occurs.

    ## Sentence Modifiers
    ### Function:
    - Modify the entire sentence, often expressing the speaker's opinion.
    ### How to Use:
    - Place at the beginning of the sentence.
    ### Where to Use:
    - To add emphasis or express opinion.

    ## Comparative Adverbs
    ### Function:
    - To compare actions or states.
    ### How to Use:
    - Use regular, comparative, and superlative forms of adverbs.
    ### Where to Use:
    - When comparing two or more actions or states.

    ## Concord (Agreement)
    ### Function:
    - Ensure agreement between subjects and verbs, and nouns and pronouns.
    ### How to Use:
    1. Subject and Verb Agreement
    - Match the verb to the subject in number and person.
    2. Agreement Between Nouns and Pronouns
    - Ensure pronouns agree with the nouns they replace.
    ### Where to Use:
    - In all sentences to maintain grammatical correctness.
    ## Conjunctions
    ### Function:
    - Join words, phrases, or clauses.
    ### Types:
    1. **Co-ordinating Conjunctions** - Join equal elements.
    2. **Subordinating Conjunctions** - Join main clause to a subordinate clause.
    3. **Relative Pronouns as Conjunctions** - Act as conjunctions.
    4. **Connecting/Linking Words** - Add flow and meaning.
    ### Where to Use:
    - In sentences requiring connection of ideas or elements.

    ## Prepositions
    ### Function:
    - Show the relationship between two words or phrases.
    ### How to Use:
    - Prepositions usually precede nouns, pronouns, articles, or gerunds.
    ### Where to Use:
    - To clarify relationships in sentences.

    ## Combinations
    ### Function:
    - Recognized combinations of adjectives + prepositions and verbs + prepositions.
    ### How to Use:
    1. **Adjectives + Prepositions**
    2. **Verbs + Prepositions**
    ### Where to Use:
    - In sentences to accurately express relationships and actions.

    ### Prefixes

    **Prefixes create new words and antonyms, modifying the words they precede. Here are
    commonly used prefixes with their meanings and usage.**

    ### Synonyms

    **Synonyms** are words with the same or similar meanings. They are often interchangeable
    but the word choice depends on the context. Varied use of synonyms extends language
    skills. A thesaurus is a useful tool for finding synonyms.

    #### Usage and Functions


    - **Usage**: Employed in writing and speaking to avoid repetition, enhance vocabulary, and
    achieve more precise expression.
    - **Function**: Enhances clarity, avoids redundancy, and makes the language more
    engaging.

    ### Strong Verbs

    **Strong verbs** add power and clarity to writing, replacing overused or weak verbs. The
    choice of strong verbs depends on context and desired impact.

    #### Usage and Functions


    - **Usage**: Applied in all forms of writing and speech to convey actions more vividly and
    accurately.
    - **Function**: Renders writing more dynamic and compelling, ensuring that verbs match the
    intensity or nuance needed for the context.

    ### Words Often Confused

    **Words often confused** are pairs or groups of words that are similar in spelling or
    pronunciation but have different meanings and usages. Correct usage depends on
    understanding these differences.

    #### Usage and Functions


    - **Usage**: Employed in writing and speaking to ensure accuracy and prevent
    misunderstandings.
    - **Function**: Maintains clarity and correctness in communication.

    ### Homonyms and Homophones

    **Homonyms** are words spelled and pronounced the same but with different meanings.
    **Homophones** are words pronounced the same but differ in spelling and meaning.

    #### Usage and Functions


    - **Usage**: Correct usage requires understanding the context to choose the right word.
    - **Function**: Avoids confusion and ensures precise communication.

    ### Figurative Expressions/Idioms

    **Figurative expressions** or **idioms** are phrases where the meaning is not literal but
    metaphorical. These expressions can enrich language but must be used appropriately.
    #### Usage and Functions
    - **Usage**: Deployed in creative writing, speech, and informal communication to add color
    and express ideas more vividly.
    - **Function**: Conveys meanings in a more imaginative way, creates a specific tone or
    mood, and connects with the audience on a cultural or emotional level.

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