EACQ 3115 CONSTRUCTION PLANT AND EQUIPMENT 1 Unit (48Hrs)

Course description:
Nature of construction equipment, Construction operations and equipment used; selection and
procurement of construction equipment. Equipment economics; ownership versus hiring costs,
calculation of plant hire rates. Classification and types of construction equipment; tractors,
dozers and rippers, loaders and haulers, graders and compactors, excavating equipment, earth
moving equipment, lifting and hoisting, foundation construction equipment, dewatering
equipment, conveyors, aggregate production equipment, concrete plant and equipment, air
compressors, assorted hand tools Contractor plant policies .Plant productivity and schedules.
Plant maintenance: planned, preventive, corrective and unplanned; safety inspections. Transport
to and from site and movement within site.

Recommended Reading Material

1. Caterpillar Performance Handbook, 35 edition, USA
2. Dagostino, F.R (2003). Estimating in Building Construction, Sixth Edition. Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey USA
3. Smith, R.C (1976). Principles and Practices of Heavy Construction, 2nd edition. Prentice Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey USA
4. Reed Construction Data (2010). RS Means Heavy Construction Cost Data 24th Annual Edition.
Construction Publishers and Consultants 63 Smiths Lane, Kingston, USA

Further Reading Material

1. Bartholomew, S H (2000). Estimating and Bidding for Heavy Constructions. Prentice Hall ,
California State University, USA
2. Roy Holmes, (1983). Introduction to Civil Engineering Construction. College of Estate
Management, London Uk
3. Illingworth, JR (1980). Construction Methods and Planning. E & FN Spons, New York
MECHANICAL PLANT
Introduction

Mechanical plant comprises of all machinery and tools used by a contractor in workshops or on site. The
plant may be classified according to their degree of mobility.

a) Fixed or Stationary
b) Portable
c) Mobile

The use of mechanical plant on site can reduce, cost and speed up building operations whereas the
production of building materials is generally mechanised the installation of this materials into structure
on site is far less mechanized. There are several reasons for these: -

 each building contract presents different construction problems and each construction site is
different in;
i.) layout of the site
ii.) type of ground
iii.) the topography(contours)
iv.) weather conditions

 all these affect the method of construction desired upon. Another disadvantage is that building
techniques and sequences of operation are still based on manual methods.
 Unless the building is designed and operations organised so that the machines can be operated
for continuous periods at full capacity, their use will not be economical. The high cost of
expensive plant can only be justified if the plant is kept in constant use.
 The problem is tackled to a certain extent by the fact that it is now possible either to hire a
contractor to perform a certain mechanical operation. These are firms who stock plant for the
purpose of hiring out only. There are other contractors specialised in business to carry out
specific mechanical operations in buildings or civil engineering. Thus, even a small contractor
can make use of mechanisation by employing the services of such contractors.
 It should be remembered however that mechanical plant is not the only solution for economic
production. Careful planning of site operations by programming so that labour is used to the
best advantage using ordinary manual methods can also result in efficient and economical
production.

The aims of mechanisation can be summarised as follows;

1) Reduce production cost
2) Perform work which cannot be done by hand
3) Increase speed of production
4) Eliminate heavy manual labour
5) Maintain production when there is a shortage of labour
Production costs are reduced by reducing labour cost - increasing the speed of production. The contract
is completed earlier and the client is able to occupy the building and recover his capital outlay sooner.

The aims listed above apply to the capital-intensive system where the main objective is to obtain
Maximum production for minimum cost in the shortest time.

Developing countries make use of the large resources of cheap labour rather than mechanical methods
to carry out construction operation. This method is called labour intensive system and is one method of
overcoming the cost of importing foreign machinery, in addition it alleviates the problem of
unemployment in such countries.

Cost of mechanical handling is influenced by the following factors: -

a) Sequence of work dictates the work design of buildings. The design of the building determines
the work to be done during its construction.
b) The method of construction used by the contractors
c) The working space available on site. The size of the site will affect the choice e of plant. Confined
sites may provide insufficient room for mixtures, tractors etc

A site which is surrounded by tall buildings will require tower crane with a lifting jab.

d) Quantity of work involved

e) Time available to do the work

Plant utilization depends on;

i.) Type of work

ii.) Quantity of work
iii.) Time available
iv.) Finance available
v.) Availability of labour

Economic utilization depends on

i.) Planned program to keep the machines continuously employed to maximum capacity
ii.) Skilled machine operators
iii.) Correct plant/labour balance
 PLANT OUTPUT

Capacity and output affect cost: -site outputs do not always match related output due to the following;

i) Lack of planning
ii) Poor organization
iii) Late time due to late starts and early stops
iv) Restriction due to site layout
v) Manoeuvring on site
vi) Weather conditions
vii) Insufficient operators
viii) Incorrect plant/labour balance

SELECTION OF PLANTS

The contractors should basically ask himself 4 questions;

i) What work is to be done

ii) How much work is to be done (quantity)?
iii) Where is the work to be done?
iv) When can it be done?

Example

A contractor worn a tender to excavate a basement size(150M x 100m x 50m) deep. Discuss the factors
that will influence his choice of plant.

Solution

- The condition of the of the ground should be considered because some ground have rock which
has to be blasted.
- Transportation of the excavated soil to be deposited thus we need to consider the no. of size of
transporting plant keeping in mind the distance on site
- Is the plant going to be bought or hired?
- The sizes of plant available owned or hired to complete the work on time
- The site, location will make and consider whether we can hire plant or transport and is the plant
available in the area of location
- Is the location having enough plant labour prepared for maintenance and availability of skilled
maintenance
- The condition of site in terms of the ground, will decide whether to bring trucked or plants
Cause soils are hard soft or wet
- Is the area having security for the plant i.e., some areas are insecure, clash area
- Is the location near residential areas where it will inconvenience people, …….
- Is the topography of the area good, i.e., slopy, flat etc?
- Will the machine be owned or will be hired? Will the hired machine be available at the time?
We need to book or give a good notice
 - Will the season be raining, or dry because if it is raining, we should have some dewatering plants
to drain water?
- Can the machine you will be using (excavating and transporting) will they work during rain
seasons
- What is the condition of the infrastructure i.e., roads etc?

The problem which a contractor has to solve is the selection of the most suitable plant to use for
a particular project. He must consider the money spent for equipment as added instalment
which we can expect to recover with a profit during the useful life of the equipment. The
equipment must pay for itself by earning the contractor money than its cost.
Unless it can be established in advance that the types of equipment’s will earn more money that
it costs it should not be purchased.
A contractor can never afford to own all the types of equipment he requires. He should only
purchase equipment which he can use during the life span of the plant. Such equipment should
be standard i.e., equipment which is commonly manufactured and required by most
contractors. Such equipment can be readily disposed of at favourable price. A factor which
showed be considered is the case and speed with which replacement parts may be obtained.

CONCEPT OF PLANT MANAGEMENT

Concept of plant management include;

i) Plant acquisition
ii) Standard and specialized equipment
iii) Owning and operating costs
iv) Plant depreciation
v) Plant maintenance
vi) serviceability, operating and utilization factors
vii) Safety
viii) Plant matching and balance.

PLANT ACQUISITION

Methods of acquiring plant

There are 3 methods by which a contractor can obtain the plant he requires;

i) He may purchase it(buying)

 ii) He may hire or rent it
iii) He may rent it with an option to purchase it at a later date(leasing)

The method selected should be the one that will provide the use of the equipment at the lowest total
cost

Each method has advantages and disadvantages which must be carefully considered before a decision is
made

The purchase of equipment compared with hiring has the following advantages;

i) More economical if the equipment is used sufficiently

ii) More likely to be available for use when needed
iii) Usually better maintained by its owner
iv) The contractor has complete control over the method of carrying operations in question if
the operation is done by a sub-contractor, he has less control over the procedure.
v) Can get tax rebate
vi) Equipment ownership improves on status.

Disadvantages of owning equipment’s are;

i) More expensive than renting if the machine is not used sufficiently

ii) Purchase of the equipment ties up money which may be needed for other purpose.
iii) Ownership of the plant may influence the contractor to continue using obsolete plants
instead of employing newer equipment’s
iv) It may also induce the contractor to carry on doing the same kind of work instead of a
different kind of work at a higher profit.
v) He may also use the machine beyond its economic life.
vi) If business closes, resell value value particularly for specialised equipment is very low.

There is an increasing tendency nowadays for contractors to use hired plants for their construction,
since it is becoming recognised that the use and maintenance of plant is a skilled occupation

The advantages of hiring plant are;

i.) the rate include the drivers’ wages

ii.) It is less liable to breakdown than poorly maintained contractor’s plant.
iii.) The contractors have no need to start his own repair shop on site or to organise the supply of
spare parts which would entail much clerical work. He does not have to pay when the plant
owner to send a replacement.
iv.) the contractor can ask for new equipment as well as try out the latest equipment before
purchasing it himself if he so requires.
v.) The haulage of plant on and off site is costly and it may be cheaper for contractors to hire a
plant locally than the transport his own plant long distances.
vi.) It does not tie up capital
vii.) Customers tend to be impressed by a contractor using new equipment rather than using his
own not very well-maintained equipment even though the end product maybe the same
 Disadvantages;

i.) The amount of plant that the contractor will purchase depends on the amount of capital you can
keep tied up in plant and upon the maintenance organisation he can afford to run.
ii.) A large contractor will use plenty of space at his disposal can afford such an organisation.
iii.) One tends to be dependent on the hiring firm.
iv.) Charges are also high.
v.) Specialist contractors such as piling specialist or exaction specialist tends to own their own plant
since they usually act as sub-contractors for their special type of work.

HIRED – PURCHASE(LEASING) OF PLANT

A contractor may hire plant with the option of purchasing it at a later date if he decided to do so. Part of
the hired price is taken towards the purchase price; an agreement may specify that 70% of the hire
charge may be taken towards the purchase price. Leasing is therefore payment of monthly instalments
and allowed to own the equipment after paying the residual value.

Advantages;

i.) It requires less capital initially’

ii.) If the business closes, the equipment reverts to the leasor.

Disadvantages:

i.) One tends to pay high interest.

ii.) No tax rebates.
iii.) If disagreement crops, one tends to loose so much.

STANDARD AND SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT

This are the two categories of plant;

Standard – this are plants that can be used for a variety of projects. One can invest more on this
type because it must repay for itself. Standard equipment is designed to meet the wide demand of
the equipment users and to sell in large quantities at comparatively low prices. A standard machine is
the result of years of experience and therefore had considerable reliability in operation. They include
equipment such as wheelbarrows, mixers, lorries etc.

Advantages of Standard Construction Equipment

1. The initial investment in standard equipment is usually much less than in a more specialized
machine.
2. Standard Machines are easily procurable
3. In cases of breakage, the shutdown period of the machine is comparatively short, because
replacement parts are readily available from the manufacturer.
 4. Since there are many users of the standard equipment the resale value of standard machinery is
generally higher than that of more specialized machinery.
5. Delivery of standard equipment may be obtained more quickly.
6. The standard equipment may be used economically on more than one project.
7. Standard equipment is disposed off more easily.
8. Standard machines are readily adaptable to a variety of applications, such as shovels,
convertible into a dragline.

Specialised – They are bought for certain project or categories of project. Special equipment is one that
is manufactured for use on a single project or for a special type of operation. Such equipment may not
be suitable or economical for use on another project. The initial investment in such equipment is
comparatively high and there is a risk of loss of investment in the equipment when radical design
changes occur or the character of demand changes. They include equipment such as chain saw, pile
hammer etc.

OWNING AND OPERATING COSTS

There are several methods of determining the cost of owning and operating construction plant.
Doing an estimate of such cost is possible because of the available records of the working
conditions which may be encountered.
Factors affecting the cost of owning operating equipment’s include the following;

- Cost of equipment delivered to the owner

- The conditions under which it is used
- The number of times it is used/yrs.
- The care is which the owner maintains and repairs it
- The demand for used equipment when it is sold which will affect the salvage value

The cost should be considered include;

- Lubrication and fuel

- Operation wages
- Overhead
- Deprecation
- Maintenance and repair

INVESTMENT COST
It costs money to own equipment regardless to the extent which it is used. These costs include interest
on more invested, various taxes, insurance and storage and all this are classified as investment cost.

OPERATING COST

Construction equipment which is driven by internal combustion engine requires free and lubricating oil
which must be considered as operating cost.

It is possible to estimate this cost when the type of equipment and condition of use are known.

Example

Calculate the cost of owning and operating a mixer given the following data.

purchase price kshs. 2.8m

Salvage value kshs. 1.3m

Useful life of plant -5yrs.

Maintenance and repairs 25% of depreciation

(investment cost) insurance, taxes and interest 150000/= per yr.

- Diesel consumption 12ltr per 9hr day

Cost 31/= per litre

- Lubricating oil - 31 per week

Cost 120/= litre

Profits + overheads -20%

(assume there is 50 working hrs per week and 2000 working hrs per yr.)

Soln

Hrly depreciation=( purchase price – salvage value) /Useful life

= (2.8 - 1.3) 1000000/ (5 x 2000)

 = kshs.150.00

Hrly maintenance and repairs=25/100 of depreciation

=25/100 x 150 = kshs. 37.50

Hrly insurance + taxes + interest= 150000/2000= kshs. 75.00

Hrly owning cost= 150.00+37.50+75.00

= kshs. 262.50

Operating cost

Hrly diesel = (12 x 31) / 9 = kshs.41.33

Lubricating oil =(3 x 120) / 50 = kshs.7.20

Hrly operating cost = 41.33 + 7.20 = 48.53

Owning + operating cost= 262.50+48.53

=311.03

Overheads = 20/100 x 311.03

Add 20% overheads and profits= 62.21 + 311.03

= kshs.373.24

Example 2

Calculate the cost of owning and operating a highway damper given the following data.

Purchase price kshs.7.5m

 Salvage value kshs.2.4m

Useful life 4yrs

Average cost maintenance and repairs – 480000 per yr

Taxes- 120000 per yr

Interest- 3% depreciation

Insurance – 250/= per week

Diesel consumption – 25litres per day

Cost per litre—31/=

Tyres – 3 sets @ 750000/= each.

Operators’ wages – 12000/= per month

Overheads and profits – 25% (assuming 9hrs per day,

50hrs per week, 2000hrs
per yr)
Hrly depreciation ={ (7.5 – 2.4) / (4 x 2000)} x 1000000 = 637.50

Hrly maintenance and repair = 480000 /2000 =240.00

Taxes = 120000 /2000 =60.00

Interest= 3/10 x 637.50 =19.13

Insurance = 250/50 = 5.00.

Total owing cost = 961.63

Operating cost

Hrly diesel = (25 x 31)/9 = 86.11

Lubricating oil = (6 x 120)/50 = 14.40

Tyre 3 sets = (3 x 750000) / (4 x 2000) =281.25

Wages = (12000 ) / (50 x 4 ) = 60.00

Hrly operating cost = 441.76

Total owning + operating cost = 961.63 + 441.76

= kshs.1403.39

Add 25% overheads and profits = 350.86

Total cost = kshs.1754.25

Example 3

Calculate the cost of owning and operating a grader given the following data.

Purchase price 7.5 m

Useful life of plant 6yrs.

Salvage value kshs.2.3m

Average annual repairs / maintenance = kshs.0.65m

Investment costs.

(Insurance, taxes, interest) = 10% of depreciation

Diesel consumption= 22litres/9hr per day

Cost= sh 31.00per litre

Lubricating oil

Consumption = 5 litres per week

@ 25/= per litre

Tyres 3 sets @ kshs.1.2million

Rippers 25 sets @ kshs.750000

Operators’ wages kshs 2500 per week

Banksman 300 per day

Average annual storage costs kshs.120000

Overheads and profit 20%

Soln

owning costs

Hrly depreciation ={ (7.5 – 2.3) 106 } /(6 x 2000)=kshs. 433.33

Hrly repairs and maintenance =( 0.65 x 106) /2000 =kshs. 325.00

Investment costs 10% depreciation

(insurance, tax, interest) = 0.1 x 433.33 = 43.33

Annual storage cost =(120000)/2000 = 60.00

Owning cost = kshs 861.66

ii) operating cost

Hrly diesel consumption = 22/9 x 31 = 75.78

Hrly oil cans = 5/50 x 25 = 2.50

tyres 3 sets = 3(120000) /(6 x 2000) =300.00

Rippers 2 sets @ 750000

= (750000 x 2 )/(6 x 2000) = 125.00

Operators’ wages = 2500/50 = 50.00

Banksmen = 300/9 = 33.33

Total operating cost =586.65

Owning + operating cost = 861.66 + 586.63

=1448.29

Add 20% ***** =289.66

1737.94 = kshs.1737.94

PLANT DEPRECIATION
This is the reduction in value of the original purchase price in the equipment resulting from the use of
age over an estimated services life in hrs.

It is usual to allow a salvage value which may be as much as 60% of the original price of the machine.

The actual useful life of the machine can use extended by proper maintenance but is largely determined
by job conditions.

The total cost of the equipment should include the purchase price, the cost of transporting it, the cost of
delivering, unloading and assembling at its destination.

To determine the cost per hr done to depreciate the following expression may be used.

Depreciation cost per hr =purchase value/estimated service life -

- tyre value assuming there is no salvage value.

Assuming the following there are 2000 working hrs in a year, if

- Purchase value ksh 3m

- Service life 4yrs

Hrly depreciation=kshs.( 3.0m-0.9m) / ( 4yrs x 2000hrs)

=262/50 per hr
The following methods maybe used to determine depreciation;

i.) Straight line method

ii.) Sum-of-the yrs. digit method
iii.) Declining balance method

 Straight line method.

Fn this method it is assumed that the equipment will reducing in value from its original cost at a uniform
rate. Depreciation may be expressed as a cost per unit time or a cost per unit of work product.

The depreciation cost per unit of time is obtained by providing the original cost less the estimated
salvage value by the useful life hrs.

I.e., depreciation/hrs=( purchase price-salvage value ) / Estimated economic(useful)life in it

E.g., assume purchase price of a mixer is 2.5m after 4yrs it is sold and the salvage value at this time is
kshs0.9m

dep= {(2.5-0.9) 1000000}/ (4 X 2000) = 200/=per hr

 The sum of the year digit

In this method the digits representing each yr of the estimated life of the equipment are added
together. For an estimated life of 5yrs, the sum of the digits will be 1+2+3+4=15.

Deduct the salvage value from the total cost of the machine. During the first year the depreciation will
be 5/15 of this value.

During the second yr the cost of depreciation will be 4/15

1st year – 5/15 x (2500000 – 900000)= 533333

2nd year – 4/15 (2500000 – 900000) = 4226666.7

3rd year – 3/15 {2500000 – 900000)= 320000

This will continue until year 5

 Declining balance method

This method assumes that depreciation occurs at a uniform % rate until one gets to the salvage value.
Consider mixer at 2.5 m and a D.B rate of 10%;

1st year – 10/100 x 2500000 = 250000

2nd year – 10/100 x (2500000 – 250000)= 225000
3rd year – 10/100 x {2500000 – (250000+225000)} = 202500
This will continue until year 5

PLANT MAINTENANCE

MAINTAINANCE AND REPAIRS

The cost of maintenance and repair varies * with the type of equipment, the salvage which it can
perform and the care which it receives. The annual cost and maintain ace maybe expressed as a % of the
purchase price and it should be sufficiency to cover the cost of keeping the equipment operating.

Repair normally is the largest single item operating cost and include spare parts and direct labour except
the operators wages changeable to the machines. Workshop’s overheads are charged on machines as
percentages of labour cost.

Hrly * cost for a single machine normally follow an upward * stop pattern. Since major outlet comes at
intervals over the use of machines

However, costs may be * out resulting in a smooth upward curve. Since this repair cost curve starts low
and gradually rises over the life of the machine, its common practice to have the average repair cost
which gives a straight-line operating cost.

Since repair cost is low in the beginning when the machine is new and gradually increase, the average
cost in the early stage is higher that than the actual cost and the excess is used to provide a fund to
cover higher cost than the average at a later date.

Average repair costs

cost

Time

Machine application, operating function and maintenance determine the repair cost. This can for similar
machines. If they are not available estimates may be obtained by reference from available tables.

MECHANICAL PLANT ADMINISTRATION AND MAINTAINANCE

Contracts are affected by machine cost and it is important for a contractor who has his capital invested
in plant to a policy of plant maintenance since efficiency of his plant is reflected in his profits.

The policy he adopts will depend on whatever he can be able to pay for such facilities out of the venue
of the plant. A large contractor with a large fleet of plant will find it cheaper to maintain his own plant.

Smaller contractors with minimum of plant will employ the services of specialities firm to maintain plant
or hire a plant.

Most contractors require plant to carry out the type of work they undertake or require general purpose
plant and an important consideration when deciding to buy plant is whenever sufficient work is
available to keep the plant fully occupied, machines work should be able to earn enough revenue to pay
for its maintenance.
A contractor may carry out a contract by;

a) Sub-contract – to another contractor who is a specialist in that particular type of work. The
advantage is that he pays a fixed price per unit of output but has less control over the operation.
b) He may hire plant from a specialist firm, the cost to the contractor is the cost per unit time the
machine is usually working. But he has less control over a hired machine.
c) He may buy plant to use and then hire them out when not required by him to earn revenue to
that upkeep.

New plant may be purchased with the object of;

a) Operating it for full time economic life from new

b) Operating it from new and selling it before major mechanical attention is necessary for a high
residue value.
c) Recovering its costs against a single contract
d) Purchase 2nd hand plant and using it for its working life.

A.) Requires good mechanical sources for maintenance

B.) New plant attracts customers since it gives impression of efficiency
C.) Requires good maintain ace but will result in a high tender price with a consequence of losing
the contract
D.) Requires good maintenance for efficiency

It should be remembered that as a machine draws to end the working life, it becomes less efficient and
less productive and it may not be good economics to adopt this procedure of using the plant to the very
end of its working life.

It will be seen therefore that plant must be adequately maintained in order to get a good return of
investment.

PLANT MAINTAINANCE

It is required to;

i.) Reduce wear

ii.) Increase working life of plant
iii.) Reduce stoppages for repair
iv.) Increase reliability
v.) Keep maintenance cost minimum

Plant maintenance can be divided into 3 types of operations:

i.) Site of field services

ii.) Preventive maintenance
iii.) Plant maintenance *
  Site and field service

Field service to a machine is what ford drink and cleanliness are to the operate and should be provided
with the same efficiency and regularity.

Items of service are;

a) Lubrication- checking oil levels at regular intervals and keeping and grease nipple clean.
b) Internal cleanliness-check and replace oil and air filters
c) Attend to cooling systems, battery level, etic cooling systems should be flushed out at regular
intervals
d) External cleanliness is required to provide ready access to lubricating points, centres of an
adjustment e.g.; formation of oil- dirt mixtures should be prevented and soil removed.
e) Attention to the effect of vibration to nuts and bolts and other securing devices should be
checked and tightened.

These operators should be recorded and * out at intervals specified by the manufacturer. It should be
remembered that when the machines are not working, they are not earning revenue to pay for
themselves, so this interval should therefore pose as little interface as possible.

Daily or weekly services should be carried out by the operators or a team under his supervision.

Field maintenance has a twofold objective;

1. To prevent mechanical breakdown

In case of a breakdown, to put the machine back into the service with a minimum ibs of time.

Machine’s breakdown due to;

i) Incorrect operation
ii) Irregular or inadequate servicing
iii) Lack of attention to adjustment
iv) Failure to carry out repairs when they are needed
v) Failure to make regular inspection

PREVENTIVE MAINTAINANCE

It helps to prevent the initial causes of major breakdown. Incorrect adjustments lead to elusive wear and
loss of efficiency

i. Check for obvious defects and rectify them

 ii. Check for wear on moving parts and replace before they are too badly worn
iii. Check tightness of all securing devices
iv. Check the tyre condition, wire rope, wire etc

Field maintenance for a fleet

Would require;

i) Adequate workshop space

ii) Parking space
iii) Fitting shop
iv) Lifting tackle
v) Loading equipment
vi) Stores for spare parts

Plant maintenance (overhaul)

It is economically unsound to run a machine until its breakdown since it will have been losing efficiency
resulting into a loss of output for some time previously. A machine should be overhauled when warning
system appear such as;

1. Heavy lubricating oil consumption

2. Noisy transmission
3. Lack of adjustment margins

A good operative will detect unusual sound and report them to the workshop. He should be a good
mechanic and know how the machine works and how to the repair it and should be present when the
machine is being overhauled

It is good practice to allocate one, achene to one operator and maintenance team as this leads to pride
in machine. The operator should be therefore be trained. Men skilled in the running and maintenance of
their welfare while on sites by providing good facilities and wages.

SERVICEABILITY, OPERATING AND UTILIZATION

FACTORS;

They include;

1) Suitability of job condition- equipment’s should need job condition.

2) Availability of the spare parts in the market.
3) Versatility of equipment’s should be able to perform more than one function
4) Availability of workers- equipment’s should be handled by available operators and mechanics.
 5) Use in future projects- whether it can be used for other purpose.
6) Reliability of the equipment’s
7) Service support should be available e.g., after sales services
8) Operating requirements- equipment’s should be easy to operate and maintain

SAFETY;
Machines cause 40% of accidents site, therefore safety precautions should be followed to avoid them.

Accidents can be caused by;

- Dangers from machines

- Unsafe physical conditions
- Moving objects
- Personal factors
- Unsafe acts
- Electrical *

Preventive measures

1) Safety guards
2) Providing *
3) Proper maintenance
4) Regular inspection
5) Use of PPE
6) Proper placement of equipment’s
7) Proper training of workers and operators of equipment’s
8) Use of danger signs
9) Insurances
10) Clear safety policy

PLANT MATCHING;
Often during the case of a project various types of plants are used in conjunction with one another.

Example

Lornes with an excaunter

or concrete mixes with *

because of the high cost of plant, it is most necessary to keep it working at max. efficiency and careful
matching of plant is essential.
Requires of plant matching

Transport units be such that output plant is not delayed by having to wait for one to empty one.

OUTPUT PER HR. + ** Transport unit to ensure transport carrying capacity per hr. full productively
at output storage

Carrying capacity of transport unit.

Effective id per trip x number of trips per hr.

Time of trip is made up of:

 Loading time
 Unloading time
 Travelling time

Travelling time includes;

 Loading outward haul

 Empty untrain haul
 Manumitting at both end of the trip.

Example

How many 0.5m3 dumpers are required to maintain a 0.5m3 non-tilling mixer at max. efficiency if
concrete is to be filled at 200m in distance.

Soln

Mixer output=6m3/hr

Therefore 6m3/6m3 =12 loads per hr.

Vehicle loading time

60min------12loads

5min-------1 loads

Vehicle loading time=60/12=5min

Vehicle unloading time assumed=0.5min

Travelling time 200m at average speed of 12km/hr + 0.2min each end for

* say 1.5min/7.00min

#of trips per hr=60/7 =9trips

Carrying of each vehicle

=0.5x9 =4.5m3 per hr

No. of dumpers required = 6/4.5 +1

= 3

Example 2

A back actor has an output of 12m3 per/hr with a shovel capacity of 2m3. how many tippers must be
required to keep the excavator working for max efficiency given the following data

Tipping capacity=6m3

Unloading time =1min

Tipping distance=5km

Loaded speed=30km/hr

Unloaded speed=50km/hr

Manoeuvring at both ends=5min

OPERATIONS CARRIED OUT BY PLANTS
1) Excavation – back actor, bulldozers
2) Levelling – graders
3) Lifting and transporting- cranes and lorries
4) Mixing – mixers
5) Pilling – prop hammers
6) Compact - rollers
7) Bitumen laying- lorries
8) Demolition of stacks- bulldozers
9) Watering and dewatering- pumps and lorries
10) Drilling – drilling machines
11) Applying finishes- sprayers

NB: the person who selects the type of plant must be competent. The manufacturers recommended
maintenance scheduled for the plant must be followed.

The site layout and organisation must be planned with the knowledge of the capabilities and
requirements of the plant.

Having taken the decision and use a piece/pieces of plant, the contractor now has the choice of buying,
hiring or a combination of both.

EARTH MOVING AND EXCAVATION PLANT

Introduction

The selection, manufacture and maintenance of construction plant is particularly important when
considered in the context of earth moving and excavation plant

Before deciding to use any plant for these activities, the site conditions and the volume of work
expected is assessed to determine whether such activity will be of economic venture.

NB: The difference between plant which will be classified as earth moving equipment and excavating
machine is very narrow since a piece of plant which is primarily designed to excavate will also be capable
of moving the earth to an attendance transporting vehicle and also particulary, to more loose earth will
also be capable of excavating the earth to some degree.

Factors affecting productivity of excavating plant

1. Type of soil
2. Nature of the ground
3. Gradient
4. Haul distance
5. Altitude and temperature
6. Operator and machinery efficiency
7. Weather condition
8. Quantity of excavation

MACHINES

 Bulldozers and angle dozers

Crawler bulldozer
Machines are primarily a high providence tractor fitted with a mould board or blade at the front for
shipping and oversite excavators up to a depth of 400mm (depending upon the machine specifications)
by pushing the loosed materials ached by the machine.

For backfilling operations, the angle dozers with its mould board set at angle to the machines centre line
can be used.

On some models the leading edge of the mould board can be filled with teeth for excavating hard
grounds. These machines can be very large with mould board of 1.2 – 4m in width by 600mm-1.2m in
height with a depth of cue of up to 400mm.

Most bulldozers and angle dozers are mounted on crawler tracks although some small ones which are
wheeled are also available. The mould board on most models are hydraulic the alternative being a winch
and wire controlling system

NB: In common with all tracked machines, one of the disadvantages of this arrangement is the need
for special transporting such as a low loader to move the equipment between sites.

Before any earth moving work is started a survey indicating the areas and volumes of cut and fill
required is done to enable a program to be prepared to reduce machine movements to a minimum.

When large qualities of earth is involved a pre-determined level or gradient is established.It is good
practice to draw up a mass diagram indicating the volumes of earth to be moved the direction of
movement and the need to import more spoil alternatively, to carry away the surplus.

 Scrappers
This piece of plant consists of a power unit and a scrapper bowl and is it used to excavate and to
transport soil. When surface stripping, site levelling and cut and fill activities * planned, particularly
where large volumes are involved.

These machines are capable of producing a very smooth and accurate formation level and they come in
three basic types;

i) Crawler draw scrapper

ii) Two axle scrappers
iii) Three axle scrappers

The design and basic operation of the scrapper is similar to all three types consisting of a shaped bowl
with a cutting edge which can scrap the ground. As the bowl moves forward, the loosened material is
forced into the container and when the cutting edge is reversed it seals the bowl.

The speed of operator is governed by the speed of towing vehicle which does not normally exceed 8
km/hr when hauling and 3 km/hr when scrapping.

The two-axle scrapper has a two wheeled bowl pulled by two wheeled power units which has
advantages over its four wheeled power unit or the axle scrapper because it is more manoeuvrable.
It offers less rolling resistance and has better action since the engine is mounted closer to the driving
wheels.

The three-axle scrapper has advantages of being able to use its top speed more frequently it is generally
easier to control and the power units can be used for other activities which is not possible with two axle
scrapper power units.

Scrapper bowls heaped capacities range from 5-50 m3. To achieve maximum output and efficiency of
scrappers the following should be done;

I) When working in hand ground, the surface should be pre- broken by another machine and
the scrapper should be assisted by a pushing vehicle. Usually, one bulldozer acting as a
pusher can assist 3 scrappers if the cycle of the haul, deposit and return are correctly
balanced.
II) Where possible, the cutting operator should take place down hill to take full advantage of
the weight of the machine.
III) Haul roads should be smooth to enable the machine obtain maximum speed
IV) Recommended tyre pressure should be maintained otherwise extra resistance to forward
movement shall be encountered.

 Graders

These are smaller machines to bulldozers in that they have adjustable mould blade fitted either at the
front of the machine or under the centre of the machines body.

They are used for finishing to fine line, large areas of ground which have been separated or bulldozed to
the required formation level.

These machines can only be used to grade the surface since their moulds are low. Power generation can
be insufficient. By tilting the mould they also grade the banks of the road.
 Tractor shovel

It is sometimes called a loading shovel. It is generally a powered unit in the form of a wheeled or hacked
tractor with hydraulically controlled bucket mounted in the front of vehicle and is one of the most
versant plant available to the building contractor?

Its primary function is to scoop up the loose materials in the bucket, raise the loaded material and
manoeuvre it into a position to discharge its load into an attendant lorry or dumper. The bucket or
shovel is driven towards the spoil hip with its bucket lowered almost to ground level and it uses its own
power to force the bucket to bite the spoil hip then filling the bucket.

Instead of the straight cutting edge to the lower tip of the bucket, the shovel can be fitted with
excavating teeth enabling the machine to carry out excavating activities such as stripping top soil to
reduce level digging in loose soils.

Another popular version of the tractor shovel is filled with a four in one bucket which enables the
machine to perform the function of building excavating and loading. Then alternatives to the
conventional front discharging machine at the near by swinging the bucket over the top of tractor and
machines equipped with shovels which have side discharge facility enabling the spoil to be hipped into
the un attendant vehicle parked alongside the machine from saving time normally taken by the tractor
in manoeuvring into a suitable position to discharge its load.

Output of these machines is governed largely by the bucket capacity which can be from 0.5-4m3 and the
type of soil encountered.

 Skimmer

This machine is based on the universal power unit and and a bucket sliding among the horizontal jib. The
bucket slides along the jib clinging away from the machine. Skimmers are used for oversite excavation
up to a depth of 300mm where great accurately in level is required and they can achieve with output of
50 buckets per hr.

To exchange the spoil the jib(600mm) is raised and the power unit is rotated until the raised bucket is
over the attendant vehicle enabling it to discharge the spoil

 Face shovel

This type of machine before was used as a loading shovel or excavating a piece of an entrainments.
Universal power unit or hydraulic machines are available with a wide choice of bucket capacities
achieving output in the region of 80 bucket per hr.

The discharge is similar to that of a skimmer described above except that in the universal machine. The
discharge opening is at the rear of the bucket whereas in the hydraulic machine the discharge at the
front of the bucket.

These machines are limited in the depth to which they can dig below the machine and this is generally
within the range of 300mm – 2m.

 Backactor

This piece of plant is the most common form of excavating machinery used by building contractors for
excavating basements pits and trenches. universal power units and hydraulic versions are available.
Discharge is by raising the bucket in a tricked position and emptying the spoil through the open front
end into attending vehicle parked alongside the trench. The outputs will vary between 30-60 buckets
per hour depending upon how confined is the excavation area.
  Dragline

This type of excavator is essentially a crane with a long jib to which is attached a drag bucket for
excavating in loose and soft soils below the level of the machine. This machine is for bulk excavator
where fine limits are not of paramount importance since this is beyond the capabilities of the machines
design.

Discharge of the collected spoil is similar to that of the Backactor being through the open front back of
the bucket. A machine rigged as a dragline can be filled with a grab bucket as an alternative for
excavating in very loose soils below the level of the machine.Output of dragline excavators with vary
according to operating restrictions from 30-80 buckets loads per hour.
TRANSPORTING AND LIFTING PLANT

CRANES

Cranes are named by their mode of fixation

- Stationary cranes
- Portal
- Tower crane
- Crawler mounted
- Rail mounted crane
- Portal

- Crawler mounted
- Rail mounted crane
 - Rail mounted crane

The need to make maximum use of development land has led to the design of high rise of buildings, the
construction of which taken place in restricted site. The need to solve erection transport problems of
high-rise buildings has led to the tower crane becoming an essential tool of plant and has the expertise
in their use and crane technical development continues as they become suitable for an increasing
number of buildings.

Basically, there are 2 types of mast and 2 types of jibs. The mast can be slewing or stationary. The
slewing mast is mounted on a chassis with the slewing bucket below the mast so that the whole mast
turns.
The non-slewing type is mounted and fixed on the chassis and the slewing using cap and jib are
mounted on to the mast as shown in fig 1

Two types of jibs are available, the vertical and the horizontal. The vertical jib is hanged at the top of the
mast and move the bucket in and out by raising and lowering the jib. These jibs can also be Brocken so
as to luff and then be horizontal and they may also be equipped for more id in and out by *. This is the
normal method for horizontal jib.

The horizontal jib usually has a counter jib weighted to balance the jib and load.

The lifting jib is usually counter weighted to balance the base as the figure shows.

FORK LIFTS

Forklift drivers may work behind the scenes, but they play a critical
role in the company’s smooth running. Whether they’re unpacking
deliveries in a warehouse, checking goods, or transporting parts from
A to B, they help businesses fulfil vital orders. This requires a delicate
balance of skills and qualities in an easy-to-read format.

DUMPERS

These are the most common transportation means for building materials and removal of debris or spoils
from the site. Dumpers can either be inform of lorries or tractors depending on the volumes involved.
The output of dumpers is based on;

- Efficiency of the driver

- Loaded and the unloaded speeds
- Distance being transported
- Capacity of the dumpers

The following terms have been used in describing capacity;-

- Payload :- the maximum weight that a trailer can safely haul. The capacity it was manufactured
to carry
- Struck volume:- It is the volume of the wagon(hauling bucket) straight/flat to the edges.
- Heaped volume:- volume carried inside the bucket plus what is mounted above.