1

Scandoromani - Remnants of
a Mixed Language

By Gerd Carling, Lenny Lindell and Gilbert Ambrazaitis

 2

Table of Contents
List of figures ....................................................................................... 5
Acknowledgements .............................................................................. 6
List of abbreviations............................................................................. 8
List of contributors ............................................................................. 13
1. Scandoromani: language and speakers........................................... 14
1.1. Background ............................................................................. 14
1.1.1. The various groups of Travellers and Roma in Scandinavia
......................................................................................................... 14
1.1.2. The Scandoroma: Language, culture, and identity ........... 16
1.2. Scandoromani: A mixed language .......................................... 19
1.2.1. Introduction ...................................................................... 19
1.2.2. Earlier sources of Scandoromani...................................... 22
1.2.2. What is a ‘real’ language? On broken variants and in-group
lexicons ........................................................................................... 25
1.2.4. Influence on Scandinavian ............................................... 30
1.3. Structure and position of Scandoromani ................................. 32
1.3.1. Mixture patterns ............................................................... 32
1.3.2. Placing Scandoromani in the northwestern Romani
continuum ........................................................................................ 33
2. The sounds of a mixed language .................................................... 40
2.1. Introduction ............................................................................. 40
2.1.1. Speakers and available recordings ................................... 40
2.1.2. Allophonic variation, minimal pairs, and the phoneme
inventory.......................................................................................... 41
2.2 Methods and materials ............................................................. 43
2.3 The vowel system..................................................................... 43
2.3.1 Swedish ............................................................................. 43
 3

2.3.2 Swedish Romani................................................................ 45

2.4 The consonant system .............................................................. 46
2.4.1 The core system of equivalent Swedish consonants ......... 47
2.4.2 The bilabial approximant [w] ............................................ 47
2.4.3 Affricates ........................................................................... 48
2.4.4 The voiceless post-alveolar fricatives ............................... 49
2.4.4.1 Swedish /ɕ/, /ɧ/, and [ʂ] .................................................. 49
2.4.4.2 Swedish Romani [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] ............................. 50
2.4.4.3 Free allophonic variation................................................ 52
2.4.5 Stops and aspiration .......................................................... 58
2.5 Word-level prosody.................................................................. 65
2.5.1 Lexical stress ..................................................................... 65
2.5.2 Quantity ............................................................................. 68
2.5.3 Lexical pitch accents ......................................................... 69
2.6 Patterns of allophonic variation ............................................... 73
2.7 Phonological complexity .......................................................... 75
2.8. Historical background ............................................................. 77
3. The interdependence of adaptation, derivation, and inflection in a
mixed morphology .................................................................................. 81
3.1. General remarks ...................................................................... 81
3.2. Nominal morphology .............................................................. 82
3.2.1. Basic principles ................................................................ 82
3.2.2. Nominal inflection ........................................................... 87
3.2.3. Derivational and loan word adaptational morphology ..... 93
3.3. Verb morphology .................................................................... 97
3.3.1. Background ...................................................................... 97
3.3.2. Inflectional morphology ................................................... 97
3.3.3. Derivational morphology ..................................................... 98
3.4. The emergence of a mixed morphology.................................. 99
 4

3.4.1. Development of a new morphology: Innovation and

structural memory ........................................................................... 99
3.4.2. Strategies for adaptation of loan words .......................... 101
3.4.3. Attributes of a mixed morphology: Lexical manipulation,
heavy morphology, and the anti-zipfian effect .............................. 102
4. Outline of a syntax ....................................................................... 109
4.1. Use of unmarked verbal infinitive form ................................ 109
4.2. Subject place-holder omission .............................................. 110
4.3. Verbal place-holder omission ............................................... 111
4.4. Relative pronoun deletion ..................................................... 112
4.5 Patterns of code-mixing in free, narrative and written speech 113
4.6. Samples of speech ................................................................. 115
4.6.1. Frog Story ...................................................................... 115
4.6.2. Story about a fight .......................................................... 118
5. Conclusion: support for an autonomous model............................ 120
References ........................................................................................ 123
Appendix II, Texts ........................................................................... 265
II.1 Trin phralarna ........................................................................ 265
II.2 Lollohubb .............................................................................. 300
 5

List of figures
Figure 1.1. Computational cladistic tree of Romani dialects, based on a
Swadesh-100 list, divided into 8 subgroups. Data from ROMLEX and
Vocabulary.
Figure 1.2. Map, showing the distribution og the groups 1-8 in the
cladistic tree in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.3. Map, showing the distribution of number of nodes in the
cladistic tree in figure 1.1.
Figure 2.1. Wave form diagrams and spectrograms of puv and its variant
phuv, spoken contrastively by speaker LL.
Figure 2.2. Semitone F0 tracks aligned with corresponding speech signals
for an Accent I/II Swedish Romani near-minimal pair spoken by LL:
lánglo ‘lame, limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’.
Figure 2.3. Rules of pitch-accent assignment in Swedish (from Gårding
1977).
Figure 2.4. Stylized pitch contours for disyllabic words in the five
prosodic Swedish dialect types (from Bruce 2010; after Gårding and
Lindblad 1973, based on data from Meyer 1937).
Figure 3.1. The mixing process in Scandoromani morphology.
 6

Acknowledgements

A number of persons have been involved in the current project, whom we

wish to acknowledge:

First, we thank our families for their endurance and support.

Further, we thank our colleagues at the Department of linguistics, Lund

University, Arthur Holmer, Jan-Olof Svantesson, Mechtild Tronnier,
Anastasia Karlsson, and My Segerup, for valuable discussions and
advice.

We thank all contributors, research assistants, engineers, and others, Ylva

Blomstrand, Hans Carling, Anne Goergens, Anja Hoppe, Niklas
Johansson, Edin Kukovic, Per Lindell, Alex Rau, and Joost van de
Weijer, for spending hours in typing, analyzing, glossing, editing,
translating, coding, checking, and so forth (see Contributors).

We thank Jens Braarvig and Faculty of Humanities, Oslo University, for

giving us access to the material of the department (see Appendix I,
Vocabulary).

We thank Joel Parthemore for correcting our English.

We also thank the anonymous rewiewers for valuable proposals.

Finally we acknowledge Sandra Cronhamn and Anna Hed, who assisted

in typing when Gerd broke her hand three weeks before final manuscript
delivery.

Lund September 25, 2013

Gerd Carling, Lenny Lindell, and Gilbert Ambrazaitis

 7

Funding

This project has been funded by a grant from the Swedish Research
Council (VR). Additional funding has been received from Marcus and
Amalia Wallenberg Foundation (Swadesh-data and maps), Elisabeth
Rausing Foundation, and Fil.Dr. Uno Otterstedt Foundation (traveling),
and Faculty of Humanities and theology, Lund University (proof-
reading).
 8

List of abbreviations
Language abbreviations

Arm. Armenian
Dard. Dardic (dialect)
Eng. English
Fi. Finnish
Gm. German
Hi. Hindi
It. Italian
Lat. Latin
MHG Middle High German
MLat Middle Latin
MLG Middle Low German
Norw. Norwegian
OFr. Old French
ONor. Old Norse
Pasht. Pashtun
Pers. Persian
Pkt. Prakrit
Pol. Polish
Rotw. Rotwelsh
Ru. Russian
Serbcr. Serbo-Croatian
Skt. Sanskrit
Slov. Slovak
Sw. Dial. Swedish Dialectal
Sw. Swedish

KTD Speaker Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf

LL Speaker Lenny Lindell
 9

Grammar abbreviations*

adj adjective
adv adverb
art article
aux auxiliary
cl clitic
coll collective
comp comparative
conj conjunction
cop copula
def definite
dem demonstrative
expr expression
fem/f feminine
gen genitive
indef indefinite
inf infinitive
interj interjection
interr interrogative
itr intransitive
loc locative
masc/m masculine
n neuter
neg negation
nom nominative
num numeral
obl oblique
part particle
pass passive
pers personal
pl plural
poss possessive
prep preposition
pron pronoun
pst past
pst ptc past participle
r non-neuter (realis)
s noun/substantive
sg singular
subj subjunction
sup supine
tr transitive
uninfl uninflected
v verb
 10

vpart verbal particle

*With punctuation in text, without punctuation in Appendix I,
Vocabulary. Longer forms are used in text (e.g., masc)

Glossing abbreviations

ADV adverb
CMP comparative
DEF definite
DEM demonstrative
GEN genitive
INF infinitive
NT neuter
PASS passive
PL plural
POSS possessive
PPT past participle
PRS present
PST past
PTC participle
REFL reflexive
REL relative
SG singular
SPL superlative
SUP supine
 11

Spelling conventions

Our main source – both for the dictionary and for examples in the text –
is Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Therefore, we follow their
spelling conventions in chapters 1-5, see Table i. However, the Appendix
I, Vocabulary comprises several other sources (see Appendix I,
Vocabulary), all with their own spelling conventions, which we have
opted to conserve here.

Table i. Orthographic table for Swedish Romani: spelling according to

Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008); pronunciation respresented by
IPA, based on Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), adjusted to
present analysis. Some deviations exist (see Chapter 2 for examples).
Letter Pronunciation Comments, examples
Long Short
i iː ɪ *
y yː ʏ *
e eː e *
ö øː œ *
ä ɛː ɛ *
a ɑː a *
â aː note: long but front quality, e.g. nâni /ˈnaːnɪ/
o oː ɔ/ʊ [ʊ]: 1. word-final, e.g. bengalo /ˈbɛŋalʊ/; 2. in –
opa, e.g. ternopa /ˈtɛrnʊpa/
ô uː ʊ *
u ʉ̟ː ɵ *
ē, ī, etc. eː, iː etc. **
p p, pʰ contextual allophones, see 2.4.5.1
ph pʰ aspiration and/or breathy voice, see 2.4.5.1
t t, tʰ contextual allophones, see 2.4.5.1
th tʰ aspiration and/or breathy voice, see 2.4.5.1
k k, kʰ contextual allophones, see 2.4.5.1
kh kʰ aspiration and/or breathy voice, see 2.4.5.1
b b
d d
g ɡ
gh ɡʰ [ɡ] plus breahy voice, see 2.4.5.2
tj tɕ / ɕ optional pronunciations, see tables 2.8, 2.9
kj kç
f f
v v
s s
c ɕ see 2.4.4
sh ʂ see 2.4.4
sch ɧ see 2.4.4
 12

ch χ see 2.4.4
shj ɕ see 2.4.4
h h
w w/v optional pronunciations, see 2.4.2
j j
r r dialectal variation, e.g. [ɾ] [ʁ]
m m
n n
ng ŋ
l l
*Short vowel occurs before double consonant letter or cluster and in
unstressed syllables, e.g. rommani /ˈrɔmːanɪ/, arknom /ˈarknɔm/, salvaris
/salˈvɑːrɪs/.
**A bar above vowel letter denotes a long vowel, used in cases where
subesequent consonant pattern would predict short vowel, e.g. sēnslo /ˈseːnslʊ/,
or when long vowel occurs in unstressed syllable, e.g. bekknepā /ˈbɛkːnɛpɑː/.
 13

List of contributors
Main authors/co-authors:

Gerd Carling Main author, chapters 1, 3-5, co-author chapter 2,

main author/editor Appendix I, main editor
Appendix II.

Lenny Lindell Language consultant, main author Appendix II.

Gilbert Ambrazaitis Main author chapter 2.

Other contributors:

Ylva Blomstrand Editing, typing, translating, Appendix I and

Appendix II.

Hans Carling Checking etymologies, Appendix I, glossing

Appendix II.

Anne Goergens Maps, figure 1.2-1.3, translating, Appendix II.

Anja Hoppe Checking etymologies, Appendix I.

Niklas Johansson Collecting Swadesh-data, Figure I, editing,

Appendix I.

Edin Kukovic Programming of database which is the foundation

of Appendix I.

Per Lindell Programming of database which is the foundation

of Appendix I.

Alex Rau Translating and editing, Appendix I.

Joost van de Weijer Computational cladistics analysis, Figures 1.1-

1.3.
 14

1. Scandoromani: language and speakers

1.1. Background
1.1.1. The various groups of Travellers and Roma in Scandinavia

Like anywhere else in Europe, the Nordic countries have a number of

groups known as Travellers or Roma. The identification of these groups –
their language, their ethnicity, and their origin – is a complex and
problematic issue. It is also a highly sensitive one, governed by changes
in the political climate.
Both Sweden and Norway have signed the European Charter for
Regional and Minority Languages (Council of Europe): Sweden in 2000
and Norway in 1998 in which Romani has been included. As
implemented by these countries, the charter differs somewhat concerning
the various dialects of Romani. The Norwegian treaty
(Minoritetsspråkspakten) distinguishes Romani (the language of the
Romany people: the so-called Travellers) from Romanes (the language of
the Roma minority: the Gypsies). 1 The Swedish treaty
(Minoritetsspråkskonventionen) makes no such distinction but speaks
only of Romani chib. 2 That said, it does distinguish five dialects:
Kelderash, Lovari, Arli, Kale, and Swedish (“Travellers’”) Romani.
Meanwhile, the Danish treaty implementing the charter does not
recognize Romani as a national minority language, even while
acknowledging that Romani was spoken historically in Denmark. The
Finnish treaty does recognize Romani and targets the Kale Romani
minority in particular. 3 The situation in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and

1
See http://www.sprakrad.no for further information from the Norwegian
government and the EU.
2
See Bijvoet and Fraurud (2007) and http://www.sprakradet.se for further
information from the Swedish government, the Swedish Language Council, and
the EU.
3
For further details, see http://www.coe.int and look under the various
countries.
 15

Finland reflects half a millennium of Romani immigration into the Nordic

countries, originating from various countries in at least three waves.
Linguistic evidence (see e.g. Matras 2010, 31ff.) reveals much about
the origin and spread of Romani and the migration of the Romani people,
all the way back to their presumed homeland in central India in the mid-
First Century AD. The story leading up to their first appearance in the
Nordic countries at the beginning of the 16th Century (one cannot exclude
completely the possibility of earlier migrations) is both interesting and
complex. The reconstruction of inward migrations in the 16th through 19th
centuries is problematic, not least because of the almost complete absence
of linguistic sources (see Section 1.2.2). Further migrations from Europe
have continued, particularly during the 20th Century.
The dialect Scandoromani, described in this volume, is a remnant of
the language spoken by the first Romani immigrants to the Nordic
countries. It belongs to the northwest continuum of Romani dialects (see
Matras 2002, 10f., 2010, 45ff., cf. also 1.3.2.): a group that also embraces
the Sinte/Manouche dialects spoken in Germany, France, Netherlands,
Hungary, Bohemia, Slovakia, Russia, and northern Italy, and the Finnish
Kale dialect. All share a period of intense contacts with German dialects
(Matras 2002, 10; see Section 1.4.).
Scandoromani – often mistakenly referred to as a “special vocabulary”
(Matras 2002, 10) – is a mixed language. It almost completely lacks the
prototypically Indo-Aryan inflectional system found in other Romani
dialects, including Sinte or Kale. It is very different – not just in
vocabulary, but also in inflection, grammar, and syntax – from later in-
migrating dialects of Romani such as Kelderaš, Lovari, and Čurari
(1860s-1920s); Polska Roma, Lovari and Kelderaš (1950s-70s); and Arli
(1990s-2000s). 4 The level of mutual intelligibility between speakers of
Scandoromani and other dialects in the Nordic countries is generally very
low. Unsurprisingly, loanwords into Scandoromani from other, later in-
migrating dialects are almost completely absent, indicating that contact
between Scandoromani speakers of the first migration and speakers of
Kelderaš, Lovari, Romungro, Polska Romani, etc., of the second and later
migrations has been relatively limited.

4
For an overview of later immigrations, see Fraurud and Hyltenstam (1999,
272).
 16

1.1.2. The Scandoroma: Language, culture, and identity

Several studies have been devoted to the culture, language, and

disposition of Scandoroma in Sweden and Norway. Most discuss
problems of cultural/ethnic identity: a key notion in the wider debate on
Scandoroma. Historically, this has been the big issue in Sweden and
Norway: the identity of Resande (Reisende) and Tattare (Tatere),
whether or not they are to be regarded as ethnic minorities. This is
parallel to the situation in Great Britain, where one finds both Travellers
of non-Romani origin (i.e., Scottish and Irish Travellers) and Romani
Travellers (Romnichel) (see Matras 2010, 2f.). In the early literature such
as Sundt (1852), Etzler (1944), and Iversen (1944), the population of
Tattare (Tatere) is regarded as descended from the first Roma (Gypsies)
to immigrate to the Nordic countries in the 16th Century, as reflected
(among other things) in their language. Later literature such as
Heymowski (1968, 1977) and Svensson (1993) rejects this theory: e.g.,
Svensson (1993, 48ff.) regards the population of Tattare (Tatere) and
Reisende (Resande) as a social construction caused by society’s response
to perceived outsiders. The “social constructivists” employ mainly
anthropological, genealogical, and linguistic arguments. Language plays
a key role: i.e., whether the language of these groups is a “real” language
equivalent to the language of the Gypsies (see e.g. Etzler 1944) or a
variety of Swedish or Norwegian equivalent to other “secret” jargon-
based languages (more on this below), but with a large amount of Romani
loan words (see e.g. Gjerdman 1945, Svensson 1993, 38). Recent
literature (e.g., Schlüter 1993, Lindholm 1995) modifies this view. In the
preparatory work for the treaty on Swedish national minority languages
(see Fraurud & Hyltenstam 1997, 1999), the language of the Scandoroma
– labeled Swedish Romani – is fitted into the framework of other mixed
languages of both Romani and non-Romani origin (see Section 1.3). The
Norwegian treaty likewise recognizes the language of the Scandoroma as
a national minority language, distinguishing it from Romanes.
Present knowledge about contact languages is much greater than it
was fifty years ago (Matras & Bakker 2003, Matras 2010); discussion of
whether they are “real” languages is no longer of interest. Meanwhile,
even if language is key to understanding the culture and identity of the
Scandoroma, it cannot alone resolve questions of their ethnic identity or
origin.
 17

Traditionally perhaps more than presently, the Scandoroma are clearly

an ethnic minority with cultural patterns distinct from those of the
majority population. Until recently, they have been subject to severe
discrimination, which has influenced both their culture and language.
This study treats the Scandoroma as a distinct group with a clear
ethnic identity, sharing a common language as well as a distinct ethnolect
of the majority language: something that is often spoken of by consultants
but has never been studied scientifically. A number of their cultural
practices deviate from the pattern of the majority population. Typically,
they engage in certain occupations, which reflect their itinerant nature
and ‒ at least to a certain extent ‒ low social status. These include
running circuses, amusement parks, and traveling shows and playing
music, often as a family: traditions that continue both in Sweden and
Norway (Enevig 1965). Other traditional occupations include dealing in
horses (and, more recently, cars), selling scrap, and taking part in
traveling markets. Among the occupations they have abandoned after the
industrialization of society are roofing, tin plating, knife sharpening,
horse gelding, and window replacement. Of particularly low social status
was their frequent former (up to 19th ct) employment as nattman or
rackare: the executioner’s henchman who disposed of the executed;
carried out corporal punishments; slaughtered dogs, cats, and horses;
buried dead animals; and, each night in the cities, disposed of garbage
and cleaned the latrines (Levander 1975 [1933], 216ff., Minken 2009,
409ff.). From time to time, the executioners themselves were of
Scandoroma descent (Minken 2009, 414f.).
Most typical and frequently noted among their cultural traditions are
their choice of names and style of dress (see e.g. Minken 2009, 399f.).
Their choice of names shows some change over time and between
populations in Norway and Sweden. Family names are borrowed from the
majority population and are typically peasant or soldier names: e.g.,
Björk, Magnusson, Djerf, Lindgren, Qvick, Faltin, Skenberg, Krans,
Wigart, Holm, Lundberg, Lindberg, Rosenqvist, Lund, Rodin, Kindberg,
Rosengren in Sweden; Lundberg, Faltin, Kvick, Bruun, Børessen,
Solstad, Nilsen, Dahl, Lindberg, Rohde, Swartz, Holm in Norway. Often
families have branches on both sides of the border: e.g., “Norwegian
Faltin” and “Swedish Faltin”. Double surnames are common, as are the
combination of a “big family” name with a “small family” name.
In earlier times, first names were often long or otherwise striking: e.g.,
Herrdinius, Severina; often borrowed from royalty or mythology: e.g.,
 18

Andreas Goliat Tyrfing, Adolf Amianoti Engelbrekt, Oskar Fredrik

Constantin Napoelon (Bergstrand 1942, 89f., Lindholm 1995, 174f.).
More recently, names have often been often borrowed from movie or pop
stars: e.g., Nemo, Elvis, Kid, Manelito. English sounding names are
common: e.g., Kevin, Jonny, Sonny, Conny, Mike, Dickie, Jackie. Names
with an obvious Romani etymology occur as well: e.g., Rajan, Soraya,
Angelo. Girls’ names are often particularly fanciful: e.g., Lolita, Marlene,
Marina, Rosita, and several traditional names are still being used, e.g.,
Elvira, Agusta, Severin, Fritjof, Brynolf, Gottfrid.
Dress code also is commonly noted (e.g., Minken 2009, 370,
Lindholm 1995, 175f.). Men often wear large hats, boots, earrings, and
gold bracelets. Women often wear long dresses, scarves, earrings, and
gold bracelets. Today’s style of dress is not nearly so distinct as in earlier
times, though some people try to keep up the old ways.
A less visible tradition – seldom mentioned and never studied – is the
recurrence of certain tattoo patterns particularly among males.
Typical cultural artifacts, often inherited from one generations to the
next, include gold jewellery (arm- and necklaces), knifes, (pocket)
watches, and paintings.
During the 20th Century, the Scandoromani were subject to severe
discrimination by the authorities, in particular during the 1920s through
1940s (Ericsson 2010, Montesino-Parra 2002, 106ff.). Partly in
consequence, the number of speakers of Scandoromani has rapidly
diminished and continues to do so. Most fluent speakers today are
elderly. They remain extremely reluctant to disclose their language,
thinking of it like a secret code that is forbidden to share with non-
Romani (buro). According to a very rough estimate – people do not all
live in one village where they can be counted! – around 100-150
individuals still speak the language in its “pure” form: horta romani
‘good Romani’. A far greater number know a broken variant: i.e., a form
of Swedish with some insertion of Romani vocabulary. The precise
boundary between horta romani and the broken variant is ultimately
arbitrary, making it very difficult to estimate the overall number of
speakers accurately.
 19

1.2. Scandoromani: A mixed language

1.2.1. Introduction

This study treats the language of the Swedish and Norwegian

Scandoroma – known as Rommano to the speakers themselves and
Tattare (Tatere) or Resande (Reisende) to the majority population5 – as a
single dialect of Romani, Scandoromani. 6 This is not a new view. It is
evident that the available sources share a number of commonalities: not
only with respect to the position within the Romani continuum, but also
in the way they’ve adapted to the Scandinavian languages: e.g., the
adaption of the Scandinavian inflectional system; see Section 3.2.2.
On the other hand, some features argue for distinct regional (Swedish
and Norwegian) varieties. The non-Romani vocabulary (i.e., the
vocabulary borrowed later than the split from other Romani dialects)
shows some correspondence to specifically Norwegian and Swedish
sources: i.e., the Norwegian sources are adapted more to Norwegian and
the Swedish more to Swedish (e.g., in their inflectional morphology: see
sections 3.2.-3.3). What is difficult to judge – in particular, when relying
on written sources – is whether this results from writing the language
with knowledge of a particular standard (Swedish or Norwegian), or if
the differences originate in spoken language.
Both primary and secondary sources indicate other dialectal divisions.
Speakers themselves often refer to a difference between South Swedish
Scandoromani and North Swedish/Norwegian Scandoromani (e.g.,
Johansson 1977, 12). The difference is most apparent in the vocabulary,
with regional variants for the same lexical notions. Speakers also claim a
difference in word pronunciation.
Within the framework of the present study, it has not been possible to
investigate these differences more deeply. The dialect of the two primary
speakers in this study reflects the North Swedish variant.
In Norway, another dialect-related ‒ or rather variety-related ‒
distinction is commonly made: between Romani and Rodi (Sundt 1852;
Iversen 1945, 1950). The Romani variant is spoken by the baro-
vandringene (‘larger vagabonds’) and the Rodi by the tikno-vandringene
(‘smaller vagabonds’). What lies beneath this distinction is unclear; the

5
For examples, see Appendix 1, Vocabulary.
6
For origins of the term ‘Scandoromani’, see Hancock (1992).
 20

present study offers no solution. A thorough study of Norwegian Romani

– including deep interviews with speakers – would be required.
Commonalities aside, the rich variation between the available sources
is striking. Because of their relative paucity, sources should be regarded
as doculects rather than dialects; the variation should be understood as
arising within the register of individual speakers: the ideolects.
The fieldwork for this study is based on linguistically deep interviews
with two Swedish native speakers originating from different families in
different parts of Sweden: Lenny Lindell from the province of
Västergötland and Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf from the province of
Halland (cf. Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008). It is quickly apparent
that the register of any individual speaker includes a rich number of
variants, which the speaker uses depending on the person addressed.
Carling in Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008, 13) proposes the term
familylect to supplement the usual term ‘dialect’, marking those
variations – most notably in pronunciation – that relate to usage within
families rather than between geographic areas. A given feature is often
usefully ascribed to both: e.g., “this is typical of family x in area y”.
The abundant linguistic variation is one of the most prominent
features of the language. Every lexeme has a number of variants
distinguished by allophonic, prosodic, and morphological variation, as
well as variation in inflection and usage. When all available sources are
brought together, the variation becomes even clearer. Working with the
language, one finds seemingly endless variation due to the language’s
non-standardized, non-literary character. In interviews with speakers,
awareness that speakers of other families may use a different variant of
the same lexeme is quickly apparent, and this is more important than their
using a different lexeme for the same concept. 7
The pragmatic aspect of the language’s learning and use is important
to note: taught and learned as a minority language in an environment
where the co-territorial, dominant language (Swedish and Norwegian) is
also used at home in daily communication, the language is transferred
with a pragmatic ‘overcoat’ attached to almost every form and lexeme.
Speakers have clear notions about whether something is ‘pure Romani’
(horta romani) or ‘bad Romani’ (rodi), whether it can be used in a certain
context, whether it is typical of a certain family, and how it should be
pronounced: e.g., whether or not, in the case of aspirated stops, it should

7
For allophonic variation, see Chapter 2.
 21

contain an h (see Section 2.2.2). This pragmatic transfer can partly

explain preservation of older forms – such as the aspirated stops – that
would otherwise have disappeared since they are hardly pronounced (see
2.4.5.). Whatever the cause of the preservations, it cannot be writing: the
language has never existed in written form as something of daily use in
the community. When the language sometimes pops up today in chat
forums and other online communities, the orthography is completely ad
hoc: i.e., non-standardized. Meanwhile, the level of education –
traditionally and today – is generally low. This is particularly the case in
families who preserve the language.
In Angloromani, his important book on the language of the British
Romnichel, Yaron Matras (2010) describes a language form that – in
contrast to the language forms described in Iversen (1944), Etzler (1944),
and Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) – has reached a relatively
high degree of dissolution. It is basically a variant of English with
insertion of a number of Romani lexemes. Labeled poggaddi jib (‘broken
language’) by the Romnichel, it is used by groups of British Romnichel
for communication. It often has the character of trying to remind its users
as much as possible of the Romani vocabulary: i.e., the special word for
this or that item (for mixture patterns in Angloromani, see Matras 2010, _
and Matras 2009, 295 ff.).
The equivalent form of Scandoromani is widely used in Sweden and
Norway today. This ‘broken’ form – a variant of Swedish or Norwegian
with Romani lexemes inserted – is the variant people normally admit to
having mastered when in contact with outsiders. When asked further
about their knowledge of Romani, speakers tend to answer that they
know ‘only a few’ words; but they claim to have an uncle, grandmother,
or other relative who ‘really’ knows or knew the language. This ‘broken’
form, which one would only be able to document by collecting material
from online chat forums and Traveller forum guest books or by
interviewing users, has not been described for Sweden or Norway, where
the focus has been instead on finding the ‘real’ speakers of ‘deep’
families (see e.g. Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008), describing their
language before it disappears.
That said, speakers of Scandoromani typically master forms of the
language all the way from horta romani (‘good Romani’) to rodi (‘bad
Romani’). They are always fully bilingual, speaking Swedish or
Norwegian as their first language. The terms horta romani and rodi are
often used when characterizing the dissolution of the language, noting in
 22

particular rodi lexemes that are either ad hoc loans (with Romani
adaptional morpheme) from Swedish or Norwegian or code-switched
Swedish/Norwegian lexemes.
The current study deals with several aspects of patterns of mixture in
Scandoromani. Different from earlier studies on mixed languages, such as
Bakker (1997), Muysken (1997) or Matras (2010), which have mainly
dealt with patterns of mixture in syntax and code-switching and code-
mixing, this study will focus on phonology, lexical stress/pitch accent and
derivational and adaptional morphology. Chapter 4 will give a brief
outline of patterns of mixture in syntax.

1.2.2. Earlier sources of Scandoromani

Even though Scandoromani is fairly well documented (Matras 2010, 9;

Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008) – at least its vocabulary – the
historical paucity of sources is problematic. Early documentation is
mostly limited to word lists, often of poor quality, mostly compiled by
lay persons and often in prison: e.g., by prison chaplains or prison guards
talking with sentenced convicts (Gjerdman 1947, 1950; Etzler 1944). No
information exists on word usage, inflection, syntax, etc., except for short
phrases showing how words are inserted into a framework of Swedish or
Norwegian grammar/syntax. This makes the possibility of tracking the
historical change from inflectional to mixed language very remote. Any
reconstruction of the change must be internal, relying mainly on indirect
synchronic or historical evidence.
The few existing phrase remnants indicate a very early change
towards a mixed language. The earliest attested source of Scandoromani
is a word list in a 1730 thesis by Samuel P. Björckman – Dissertatio
academica de cingaris – in which he asked an imprisoned native speaker
in Uppsala, Jacob Helsing, how much he recognized from the 1597 word
list of Bonaventura Vulcanius: one of the oldest records of Romani. 8
Björckman’s word list shows forms inflected in definite singular with
Swedish post-posed suffix: e.g., chero-n (‘head’), juk-et (‘dog’), manro-n
(‘bread’) (Ehrenborg 1909). This is an important change: Romani has a
pre-posed definite article (Matras 2002, 97).

8
See “A brief history of Romani linguistics” at Romani Project Manchester:
http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk.
 23

Another early record comes via a phrase from a 1764 court record in
Rönneberga in the province of Scania, southern Sweden, where Swedish
Law was introduced in 1682/83: bengan der lingero truppo (‘the devil in
their body’) (Etzler 1944, 179). The phrase is perfect Scandoromani – not
an inflected variant such as Kale or Sinte. Bengan is a variant of beng-en
(‘the devil’), der most likely a misspelling of dre (‘in’), and lingero the
3rd–person plural of the possessive pronoun lengro, and truppo (‘body’).
The reason this phrase is distinctly Scandoromani – and not an inflected
variant such as Kale or Sinte – is the post-posed definite article -an (Kale
and Sinte have a pre-posed definite article o beng [‘the devil’]). The form
dre is found in Sinte (Kale uses andre); while truppo corresponds to
trupo in Sinte, truppos in Kale (ROMLEX).
Another early source mentioned in several books (e.g., Etzler 1944,
179f., 312-314) is a booklet by Christfried Ganader (1780). Though the
booklet was published by the Swedish Royal Academy, the language
corresponds to the Finnish Kale dialect, including such examples as o
tscharo (ʻa plate’), o tschaw (ʻa boy’), and mä drapawawa (‘I read’),
which correspond well to later descriptions of Kale.
Another important early source is Dorph (1837), who describes the
now-extinct language of the peripatetic population of natmænd,
kieltringer, or tatere in Jutland, Denmark. As in Sweden (see Section
1.1.2.), this pariah-like group performed the dirty work of removing
garbage, cleaning latrines, assisting executioners with corpses, gelding
and slaughtering horses, and so forth. Because of the regulations allowing
them only to perform their duties at night, they were called – as in
Norway – natmænd (‘men of the night’).
In Carl Jonas Love Almquist’s Swedish novel Tre fruar i Småland
(‘Three Wives in Småland’, 1842-1843) one finds short sentences of
Scandoromani that demonstrate a mixed language and correspond very
well to later sources. Some of the words are misinterpreted or spelled
strangely (see examples 1a, 1b).

(1a) Almqvist 1842-43

dova besch-ar baschtado-a allezuvâro
they sit-PRS bastard-PL altogether
(‘They were all big bastards.’)

(1b) Almqvist 1842-43

dove dick-a-s je fulano tjavo
he see-PRS-PASS a dirty man
 24

(‘He is a nasty, mean man.’)

Several things should be noted here: the place-holder subject dova

(see Chapter 4.2.), the -a(r) plural on nouns ending in -o (see 3.2.2.1.),
the -ar (active) and -as (passive) endings on verbs (see 3.3.2.).
Another important 19th Century source is the account of the Swedish
prisoner Djos Per Andersson, written in prison in 1847 two years before
his execution (see Ehrenborg 1928; Gjerdman 1947a, 1947b, 1950). His
word list in Scandoromani also contains a few examples (see 1c) that
clearly demonstrate a mixed language incorporating a high number of
Swedish words – similar to to the samples of the languages of Almqvist
(1a, 1b) and, later, Etzler (1d).

(1c) Djos Per Anderson’s word list (Gjerdman 1950)

var kam-ar diro di vavriga
where have-PRS you they other

spanare som kira-de spän-ett med

thieves who do-PRT theft-DEF with

diro har di ga-tt sin drom

you have-PRS they go-SUP REFL way
(‘Where are the other thieves who did the theft with you; are they gone?’)

The first half of the 20th Century brings two, very important sources of
Scandoromani, both from Norway: Iversen (1944) and Ribsskog (1945).
Both sources consist mainly of vocabularies and contain no text samples;
thus, they offer little information on usage. Iversen (1944) does provide
information on inflection, as well as stress and pitch accent – making it
the more important of the two sources.
Meanwhile, Etzler (1944, 250-302) provides a contemporary source
for Swedish Romani. It is mostly a word list again, collected in
Långholmen Prison from nine informants over the years 1927-1943. The
vocabulary lists the lexemes without information on inflection or
stress/pitch accent. However, at the end one finds relatively long samples
of text. The mixed language is reminiscent of Djos Per Andersson,
containing a high number of Swedish words – as in Example 1d.

(1d) Etzler (1944, 306)

me gono-a i rulla-n vi
 25

with sack-PL in wagon-DEF we

tradr-ar vri i tämm att sjaffr-a

travel-PRS out in country to collect-INF

kutti ballvass å långast to våsjnos-a

little meat and oat to our-DEF

gräj
horse
(‘With sacks in the wagon, we travel out into the country to collect some meat
and oats for our horse.’)

The post-war period brings two principal scientific studies with native
speakers of Swedish Romani: Johansson (1977) and Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). The latter forms the basis for the current
study. Appendix I, Vocabulary is based mainly on the studies of Ribsskog
(1945), Iversen (1945), Etzler (1944), Johansson (1977), and Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), to which an unpublished source of
Norwegian Romani from Holm and Kristensen has been added. For
further information, see the introduction to Appendix I.

1.2.2. What is a ‘real’ language? On broken variants and in-group

lexicons

The ways in which Scandoromani is most frequently used – in particular,

the broken form – might, at first glance, resemble an in-group lexicon
rather than a language. An in-group lexicon or mixed code (Matras 2010,
20; 2009, 291) – also known as argot or secret language – is typically
used within a network of speakers of a language (often covert), who share
a need for encryption or camouflage of the co-territorial language. Their
common ground is, of course, their understanding of the majority
language. Through re-lexicalization, shared only within the group, they
create a joint linguistic platform. An in-group lexicon is different from
ordinary occupational jargons – the special lexicon of e.g. academics and
doctors – because the re-lexicalization normally goes beyond the special
vocabulary needed for practice of the profession. In-group lexicons are
frequently used by people with itinerant occupations (e.g., peddlers and
circus people), certain specialized occupations (chimney sweepers and
healers), marginalized groups (homosexuals), and people who are in
 26

some way outside the society (criminals) (Matras 2010:21f.). In-group

lexicons from Europe (e.g., Halliday 1976), Africa (e.g., Mous 2003), and
other parts of the world have been thoroughly studied.
A number of strategies characterize the re-lexicalization of in-group
lexicons. Several of these re-occur in mixed languages such as
Scandoromani, such as heavy or extending morphology, camouflaging
morphology with clipping, . The occurrence of in-group-type lexical
manipulation in Scandoromani compared to other Scandinavian in-group
lexicons is summarized in Table 1.1., which follows and extends Mous’
(2003, 222-223) overview. The mechanisms – with examples – will be
studied in greater detail in Section 3.4.3.

Table 1.1. Occurrence of strategies for re-lexicalization in Scandoromani vs.

other Scandinavian in-group lexicons, such as Månsing, Knoparmoj, or Gråmål.
STRATEGY IN SCANDO- IN OTHER IN-
ROMANI GROUP LEXICONS
Lexical creation
Lexical borrowing Yes Yes
Loan translation Yes Yes
Ideophones, onomatopoeia No Yes

Semantics
Semantic extension Occasionally Yes
Metonymy Occasionally Yes
Metaphor Occasionally Yes
Antonymy No Yes

Morphology
Borrowed derivational Occasionally Yes
morphology
Heavy morphology Yes Yes
Extending morphology Yes Yes
(prefix, infix, suffix,
circumfix)
Dummy affixes No Yes
 27

Camouflaging morphology Yes Yes

with clipping 9
Clipping No (see previous Yes
entry)
Syncope/apocope No Yes
Aphaeresis No Yes
Phoneme metathesis Occasionally Yes
Syllable metathesis No Yes
Sporadic phonetic Occasionally Yes
substitution
Reduplication No Yes
Compounding Yes Yes
Complex manipulation 10 No Yes
Anti-zipfian effect Yes Yes

Prosody
Prosodic manipulation Yes Yes

The strategies of lexical borrowing, loan translation, and

onomatopoeia – as well as semantic extension, metonymy, and metaphor
– are by no means phenomena restricted to in-group languages: they are
common also in the language-changing processes of ‘ordinary’
languages. That said, they are the most important source of lexical
innovation in in-group lexicons, often extended by other, more
manipulative strategies such as those listed in Table 1.1. under
‘morphology’. A combination of strategies is common in in-group
languages, setting them apart from languages like Scandoromani, even
though Scandoromani reveals in-group lexicalizing tendencies that go
beyond ordinary language.
A few strategies in Table 1.1. require clarification:
• ‘Borrowed derivational morphology’ means that the
derivational morphemes are borrowed from another language.

9
With respect to the vernacular and slang, this type of morphological
creation is often referred to as hypocoristic: i.e., it is a formation with a
pragmatic side effect. In Scandoromani, the purpose is rather camouflage of loan
words.
10
Mous (2003, 222-223), ‘Verlan, Loucherbem.’ This type of morphological
creation includes such various manufactured morphologies as syllable metathesis
and mechanical insertion of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes (often in combination
with syllable metathesis).
 28

• ‘Heavy morphology’ means that the derivational morphemes

are longer and more complex than is typical for the co-
territorial language. Examples include full-word and two-
syllable morphemes.
• ‘Extending morphology’ is a mechanism for adding
morphemes to lexemes for the purpose of encryption or
camouflage.
• ‘Dummy affixes’ are similar to ‘extending morphology’,
except that the derivation is not strategic in the same way.
• ‘Complex manipulation’ combines strategies – e.g., extending
morphology, syllable metathesis, sporadic substitution,
reduplication – to create new forms, unintelligible to
outsiders.
• The ‘anti-zipfian effect’ – described in more detail in Section
3.4.3.9. – is the tendency to create long, heavy forms of
lexemes that, in accordance with Zipf’s Law, are typically
short: e.g., pronouns (in the unmarked form), the copula,
auxiliaries, and negations.

Even though Scandoromani has many similarities to in-group lexicons

– mostly within the non-Romani parts of the lexicon (including loans
from Low German and Scandinavian: see sections 3.2.3 and 3.4.2) – one
finds important differences. It is quickly obvious that Scandoromani is
not a re-lexified variant of Scandinavian, as Para-Romani has previously
been considered (see Section 1.1.2.). Scandoromani has its own rules and
structure and shows a high degree of autonomy from the Scandinavian
languages. The use of transparently manipulated forms such as somtis
(‘if’) 11 – often referred to as rodi – has low status, suggesting that
speakers are consciously aware of the differences between an in-group
lexicon and the language itself. However, this consciousness need not
necessarily embrace earlier stages of manipulation. Lexical manipulation
seems to have a long history in Scandoromani: it occurs relatively
frequently with loan words from Middle Low German, as shown in
Section 3.4.3.
The Nordic countries are home to several documented in-group
lexicons, the most important being Månsing, originally (from the 17th
through 19th centuries) the language of Västergötland peddlers and later a

11
Derived from Swedish som (‘if’).
 29

general term for the common in-group lexicon of several peripatetic, low-
status groups (Bergman 1929, 1931, 1934c, 1935, 1941, 1947; Iversen
1950). Rodi (or Rotvälska) is the general term for the secret language of
non-Romani peripatetic groups (Bergman 1931, Iversen 1945). Finally,
one has occupational in-group lexicons such as Knoparmoj, the language
of chimneysweepers (Bergman 1939); Skinnarmål, the language of
tanners; and Gråspråk, the occupational jargon of peddlers – the latter
two both from the region of Dalecarlia (Steensland 2012).
Early sources – for Månsing, these go back to the beginning of the 18th
Century – mainly consist of word lists with a few example phrases. They
reveal a certain degree of co-occurrence of vocabulary between the in-
group lexicons. Most of the lexicons – with the exception of Skinnarmål
and Gråspråk, which are mainly based on Elfdalian and other, related
dialects – derive their lexicon partly from Romani and continental
Rotwelsch (Wolf 1985). Another important component – setting aside a
few loans from other languages such as Danish, Finnish, German, and
Sami – is lexical manipulation, mainly of words from the standard
language or dialects, but also applied to borrowings from those other
languages.
Differences in both the amount and type of lexical manipulation are
apparent between Scandoromani and the in-group lexicons mentioned
here. Complex manipulation (syllable metathesis; mechanical insertion of
prefixes, infixes, and suffixes; etc.) is common in the in-group lexicons
(see Table 1.1.) but very rare in Scandoromani. Furthermore, sound
symbolism is almost absent in Scandoromani. However, camouflaging
and heavy morphology, with clipping of the root, occurs frequently –
affecting mainly borrowings from Middle Low German and Scandinavian
languages, as shown in Section 3.4. On the other hand, clipping without
morpheme (frequent in slang) does not seem to occur in Scandoromani.
Metathesis and sporadic phonetic substitution do occur, though only
occasionally; while syllable metathesis – often the basis for complex
manipulation in in-group lexicons – does not seem to occur at all. The
derivational morphemes of Scandoromani essentially derive from Romani
proper, even though one finds form-related adaptation to Scandinavian
morphology (see Section 3.2.).

Table 1.2. Example of complex lexical manipulation in several Swedish in-group

lexicons described in the text
Type of In- Form Meaning Origin
 30

manipulation group
lexicon
Complex (b- + Månsing bärahuns how Swedish huru
syllable
metathesis)
Complex (b- Månsing bällakins tonight Swedish ikväll
/el- + syllable
metathesis)
Syllable Månsing fika coffee Swedish kaffe
metahesis break
Dialectal + -el Månsing ekel I, me Swedish dialectal
ek
Syllable Gråmål tşame the milk Swedish dialectal
metathesis mjåtşᶒ
Sound Gråmål knaster hard sound symbolic
symbolism bread
Metaphor Gråmål sker sugar Swedish skär
(‘rock’)

1.2.4. Influence on Scandinavian

The influence of Romani on the Swedish language is almost entirely

restricted to the dialects of the bigger cities – Stockholm, Gothenburg,
Malmö, and Jönköping – and specifically to the lexicon. 12 No comparable
study on the spread of Romani vocabulary has been done in Norway,
corresponding to Carling (2005). This study, which was based on
extensive fieldwork into the spread of Romani loans in Swedish slang,
demonstrated that knowledge of Romani vocabulary was limited to
particular regions. A handful of lexemes were borrowed into the standard
Swedish vocabulary, listed in Swedish dictionaries and known to all
informants. 13 Other words were known to all informants but not listed in
the standard dictionaries. Other words were known to a few informants
12
With a few examples of hypocoristic derivational morphology (see below).
13
In this study, informants with a Scandoroma background were treated
separately, different from ‘ordinary’ slang users.
 31

only; here, social and geographical background played an important role.

The borrowed-from-Romani vocabulary reflected many changes related
to slang or in-group lexicon (see Table 1.3.): the variation between forms,
depending on region and social background, was huge. The vocabulary
that had been borrowed into slang sometimes represented words or word
forms that obviously had been lost in Scandoromani itself: neither were
they recognized by speakers of Scandoromani nor did they occur in the
sources. However, they recurred in Kale, Sinte, or other dialects of the
region, but were not found in Scandoromani. When asked, Scandoromani
speakers said that ‘this word is avoided’ because it ‘is bad Romani’ (or
slang).
Scandoromani has influenced Swedish in another way: through the
hypocoristic suffixes –is and –o used frequently in Swedish, normally by
being added to truncated roots – of which, in contemporary language, -o
has the more negative and -is the more familiar, diminishing effect.
Examples from both standard language and vernacular are given in Table
1.3. The -o suffix clearly has its origin in Scandoromani, becoming
increasingly frequent towards the latter half of the 20th Century. The -is
suffix has a longer history in Swedish, going back to the 19th Century; it
is found as well in the secret language Månsing (see 1.2.2.).

Table 1.3. Examples of hypocoristic formations with -o and -is in Swedish

standard language and vernacular (sources: Kotsinas 1998, Ernby 2008, SAOL)
Form SAOL* Meaning Origin Meaning
miffo No retarded person missfoster monster
fyllo Yes drunkard fyllerist alcoholic
pundo No drug addict pundare drug addict
dagis Yes daycare center daghem daycare center
skådis Yes actor skådespelare actor
kompis Yes friend kompanjon friend
fegis Yes coward feg (adj.) coward
* SAOL 1998. All words are marked as vulgar or negative.
 32

1.3. Structure and position of Scandoromani

1.3.1. Mixture patterns

Scandoromani is normally taken to be a mixed language of a type

known as intertwined. It derives its grammatical morphemes from one
language: the grammaticiser language (here, Swedish/Norwegian); its
lexical roots from another: the lexifier language (here, Romani) (Bakker
2003, 109ff.). In this respect, Scandoromani is similar to a number of
other Romani dialects: Basque Romani, Caló, and Angloromani (Matras
2002, 243). Intertwined languages are generally similar in the way they
combine material from the grammaticiser and lexifier language (Bakker
2003, Matras 2003; 2009, 288f.): the grammaticiser language provides
the word order, grammatical morphology, TAM marking, infinitive
marking, and sentence syntax; while the lexifier language provides the
basic lexicon of verbs, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Variation in the
lexicon arises among the copulas, negation particles, demonstratives,
interrogatives, numerals, and adpositions (Bakker 1998, 2003, 111ff.;
Matras 2003).
In relation to the debate over the structure and origin of mixed
languages (see e.g., Muysken 2000), Bakker (2003, 125f.) assumes that
mixed languages are autonomous systems: i.e., able to develop structures
independent from both component languages. He takes several arguments
into consideration. First, he considers the ability of mixed languages – as
exemplified by Media Lengua – to preserve features from their
component languages: if the co-territorial language changes, the mixed
language need not; it may even develop in its own direction. Second, he
considers the ability of mixed languages – as exemplified by gender
assignments in Caló (Bakker 2003, 127-128) – to develop fully
autonomous structures only loosely based on structures from the
component languages.
The evidence from Scandoromani supports Bakker’s autonomous
model, revealing preservation of earlier structures from the co-territorial
language as well as various progressions of autonomy. One also finds
exceptions in the data to the expected patterns – raising questions about
any strictly mechanical model of language mixing. Phonological,
morphological, and syntactic structures are often intertwined in the truest
sense, weaving complex structural patterns out of various stages of
Romani and Scandinavian; even while the overall structure follows the
 33

model outlined in previous studies. A few examples, which will be

further treated in the following chapters, can be mentioned:
• The verbal inflectional language (Matras 2003, 154f.) is
always Scandinavian (Section 3.3), and the stress/pitch accent
patterns of verbal inflection always follow the Scandinavian
pattern (Section 3.3.4). An exception is the frozen expression
te avel, which corresponds to a Romani infinitive (‘to be’,
found in phrases like te avel barvalo: ‘to be rich’).
• The nominal inflectional language is essentially
Scandinavian (Section 3.2.2.1), and the stress/pitch accent
patterns in the inflection follow the Scandinavian pattern
(Section 3.2.2.3). An interesting exception is the -s plural,
most likely borrowed from Low German (Section 3.2.2.1).
• The lexicon of the open words classes (i.e., verbs, nouns, and
adjectives) is either derived from Romani or borrowed from
non-Scandinavian languages. Scandinavian loan words are
generally either camouflaged or manipulated (Section 3.2.3).
• The closed word classes (i.e., pronouns, noun adjuncts, verb
adjuncts, particles, conjunctions, copula, interjections, and
negations) show a high degree of code mixing that varies from
speaker to speaker depending on the speaker’s knowledge of
the language or on level of speech, as a pragmatic effect of
language use (see further chapter 4.5.).
The following chapers will delve into the phonology (Chapter 2),
morphology (Chapter 3), and syntax (Chapter 4) of Scandoromani. Here,
focus will be laid on various patterns of mixture as well as the origin of
the constituents in the patterns of the mixture.
The picture is modified when one looks at the data in greater detail.
Scandoromani reveals a number of strategies indicative of development
autonomous from the co-territorial language: Swedish or Norwegian.

1.3.2. Placing Scandoromani in the northwestern Romani

continuum

Scandoromani belongs to the northwestern sub-group of the northern

Romani continuum, which contains the Sinte-Manouche dialects in
Germany, France, Austria, and parts of northern Italy, the Kale dialect in
Finland, and the (extinct) Lajenge Romani dialect in Estonia: all of which
 34

share a joint prehistory in German-speaking territory (see Matras 2002,

10f). More distantly related are the Kååle dialect (or Welsh Romani;
Sampson 1926) and the Romnichel mixed language (or Angloromani;
Matras 2010) of Great Britain. Matras (2005; 2010, 82-94) has listed a
number of phonological and morphological dialectal features grouping
Scandoromani with all of these dialects. Previous subgroupings of
Romani (Bakker 1998, Matras 2002, 2005, 2010) have been based mainly
on the distribution of isoglosses, both derivational/ inflectional
morphological (e.g., -e-/-o- in 1Sg.Prs. of the copula) as well as lexical
(e.g., the distribution of variants for lexemes such as jaro/aro ‘egg’),
yielding a subdivision of mainly four dialectal areas: 1) Northern
(Northwestern/Northeastern), 2) Central, 3) Vlax, 4) Balkan, mainly
corresponding to major historical political divisions, in which the Romas
have been isolated extending over periods of time. These are 1) The
Ottoman Empire for Balkan dialects, 2) The Romanian principalities and
adjacent areas for Vlax dialects, 3) The Austro-Hungarian Empire for
Central dialects and, 4) the Holy Roman/German and Czarist Empire as
well as regions beyond them, such as the Iberian peninsula, the British
Isles, the Swedish-Norwegian Union.
An alternative method gives a similar but somewhat more detailed
subdivision. It uses computational cladistic analysis of a Swadesh 100-
list; see Figure 1.1. Together with results from more traditional areal
linguistic methods – e.g., distribution of isoglosses – this method gives
languages like Scandoromani, which has lost all its inflectional
morphology, better motivation for being a part of the cladistic tree. In
their basic vocabulary, Scandoromani and Angloromani are no different
from the inflectional dialects. The rectangles in Figure 1.1. represent
subdivisions of the cladistic tree, generated by the software. Overall, the
output it produces is quite striking. In particular, the dialects of the
traditional northwestern group – Sinte-Manuš, Kale, Angloromani, and
Scandoromani – are situated at a higher level in the cladistic tree;
whereas the dialects of the traditional northeastern, central, Balkan, and
Vlax groups are more deeply embedded, allowing a greater number of
intervening branches nodes from the presumed proto-language (see map
figure 1.2.)..
The geographical distribution pattern in the cladistic tree is similar to
patterns observed elsewhere, e.g. the Arawak language family of
Amazonia (Carling et al. 2013). High-level branches with fewer
branching nodes are situated in the geographical extremes of the language
 35

family area; more deeply embedded dialects with more branching nodes
are found in a central area of innovation: for Romani, central Europe and
the Balkans (see map figure 1.3.).

Figure 2.1. Computational cladistic tree of Romani dialects, based on a Swadesh-

100 list, divided into 8 subgroups. Data from ROMLEX and Vocabulary.
 36

Figure 1.2. Map, showing the distribution og the groups 1-8 in the cladistic tree
in figure 1.1.
 37

Figure 1.3. Map, showing the distribution of number of nodes in the cladistic tree
in figure 1.1.

Focusing on the non-basic vocabulary, and in particular the non-

Romani vocabulary, i.e., the vocabulary outside the around 1000 lexemes
that recur in all dialects (see Matras 2002) and which is mainly borrowed
 38

from adjacent languages, it is interesting to compare the distribution of

non-Romani vocabulary in Sinte and Kale to that of Scandoromani.
Scandoromani typically uses Low German loan words for such common
cultural terms as houseware (‘fork’, ‘cupboard’), tools (‘hammer’,
‘fishhook’), and occupations (‘smith’, ‘tailor’). Kale, on the other hand,
typically uses Swedish loan words; while Sinte often uses High German
loan words. Sometimes, a Low or High German loan word is found in all
three dialects, but Kale has extended it with a Swedish loan word. Table
1.4. overviews the origins of a randomly selection of words within the
topic areas of houseware, tools, and occupations, revealing clear
tendencies in the distribution.
The possible reasons for this are manifold. The overwhelming
majority of loans from Low or High German may have entered
Scandoromani later than the split from Kale and Sinte. Alternatively,
Kale may have been overwhelmed by lexical borrowings from Swedish,
pushing aside most of its Low German vocabulary. Or again, Swedish
loan words in Kale and Low German loan words in Scandoromani may
have entered those languages after they settled in Finland and
Norway/Sweden respectively: the need to keep their vocabulary distinct
from the co-territorial language may have forced them to borrow from
neighboring languages rather than the co-territorial language.

Table 1.4. The distribution of lexical origins for a selected vocabulary within
topic areas such as houseware, tools, and occupations. Scandoromani, Kale, and
Sinte (LG=Low German, HG=High German, Sw=Swedish, Ro=Romani,
Ru=Russian, Fi=Finnish). ‘Romani’ means that the lexemes occur in European
Romani; they may also be borrowings. Kale and Sinti sources: ROMLEX. For
origins, cf. References, section of Appendix I, Vocabulary.
Lexical item Scandoromani Kale Sinte
peasant buro (LG) buuros (LG) gadžo (Ro)
smith simpa smittos (LG) šmito (LG)
smitto (LG)
seffarle
tailor snajdare (HG) skrendaris (Sw) sipaskaro (Ro)
sivrare (Ro) šnajdari (HG)
cupboard schefflan, scheffan skoopi (Sw) šanka, šranka
(LG) (H/LG)
hammer dank hamros (H/LG) hamro (H/LG)
svejarist mertel
zinkel, zingel
bear bullo (H/LG) rič (Ro) rič (Ro)
starsman bero, beri (HG)
 39

cock kanno baxno pono (HG)

kokko (HG)
fork furka, furkla (LG) gafla (Sw) gabla (HG)
forka ʻhay fork’
gate porga puorta (Sw) Toara
schopa (LG)
hook, fishhook anglo (L/HG) anglo anglo
hakkos (Sw) hoko
kouka (Sw)
tent serga, sargan (Ro) telta (Sw) celta (HG)
shop spekkari (LG) huusa (Sw) lada, lade (HG)
(coffee) pot balldrik (LG) piiri (HG) kana (HG)
piri (Ro)
chin tjokkis (LG) čefta (Sw) paxoni, paxuno
pavunis (Ro) (Ro)
star beda (Ru) čeerna, xeerna sirna
astro (Sw) štarna, štarla,
glimmos (Sw) šterna (HG)
coffee morshta (Fi) kaali (Ro) kafea (HG)
meli
wall vanta (HG) vanta (HG) vanta (HG)
face listjo (Ru) ansixta (Sw) muj (Ro)
flattan (Sw) muoda
pleesa
gun puffra (HG) kardiini (Ro) karamaskeri
kardini (Ro) puxka banduk
puška
 40

2. The sounds of a mixed language

2.1. Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of the Swedish Romani sound

system. 14 We examine segmental features: vowel and consonant
inventories; as well as word-level prosody: lexical stress, the quantity
distinction, and lexical pitch accents. Since the core of the sound system
has been adapted from Swedish, a comparison with Swedish underlies the
synchronic description of the language in sections 2.3 – 2.6. We focus on
two segmental features for more detailed analysis: (i) an aspiration
feature in the voiceless stops /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ and in the voiced stop /ɡʰ/ that is
not present in Swedish: the aspirated voiceless stops go back to Romani,
whilst the /ɡʰ/ represents an innovation; (ii) a series of voiceless post-
alveolar fricatives: Swedish has a similar series, but it is simpler in
several respects. We pay special attention as well to a third feature of the
language: the conspicuous occurrence of variation in pronunciation at all
levels of phonology.
Although mainly adapted from Swedish, the sound system contains
traces of European Romani. In Section 2.8, we compare it to that of other
Romani dialects.
We make no attempt to present a complete description of the
Scandoromani sound system. In particular, we leave aside issues of
sentence-level prosody and syllable structure, partly due to insufficient
data. Meanwhile, phonetic and phonological analyses of Scandoromani
are complicated by factors specific to the language and its users: see the
discussion in sections 2.1.1 – 2.1.2.

2.1.1. Speakers and available recordings

The number of potential consultants for studies on Swedish Romani is

quite small, partly due to the small number of speakers and partly due to
the language’s traditionally secret status (Section 1.1.2). This makes the
number of available audio recordings small indeed. Although the lack of

14
It has only been possible to do recordings and deep interviews with
Swedish speakers, Lenny Lindell (LL) and Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (KTD);
see Section 2.1.1.
 41

recordings can, to some extent, be explained by technical circumstances,

a bigger problem that persists is the unwillingness of speakers to be
recorded. Earlier descriptions of the language (Section 1.2.2) have been
solely based on transcriptions, mostly performed by linguistically and
phonetically untrained persons. The description by Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) is based on interviews with two speakers,
with recordings made of one of them (Lenny Lindell, LL).

2.1.2. Allophonic variation, minimal pairs, and the phoneme

inventory

Swedish Romani exhibits a high degree of formal alternations,

concerning both morphology and – more importantly to the present
chapter – phonology. Often one or more speech sounds or lexical stress
patterns, or both, differ between forms. Many words containing one of
the voiceless post-alveolar 15 fricatives [ɕ ʂ ɧ χ] can exchange this
fricative with another fricative from the same group. Speakers are well
aware of such variations in pronunciation,16 evidenced by the deliberate
choice of our language consultants – the authors of Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) – to encode these variations into the writing
of their dictionary. The word bàscha ‘1. to bark, yell, argue, be difficult,
be stupid; 2. epithet’ can be pronounced with three different fricatives
and written as bàsha, bàscha, or bàcha.
Such sound alternations may signal either regional affiliation or
family membership: i.e., they go back both to different regional dialects
and different ‘familylects’ (Section 1.2.1.). Given that a speaker usually
is either a member of or has close contact with several families that can
be spread out over several regions, it is generally difficult – if not
impossible – to assign a word form to a specific dialect or familylect or
draw precise boundaries between variants. One will often obtain a
number of phonological variants from a single speaker; in many cases –

15
The term ‘post-alveolar’ refers in IPA to a specific place of articulation.
We use the term in a modified, broader way to refer to all places of articulation
posterior to the alveoli. In this way, we can refer to a series of fricatives
containing [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], [χ] that are not otherwise well covered by a single term:
e.g., dorsal fricatives does not work, since [ʂ] is not dorsal. Note that we wish to
include only lingual fricatives and not [h].
16
This is only true for segmental features and lexical stress patterns: speakers
do not seem to be aware of variation in pronunciation with respect to lexical
pitch accent.
 42

at least our consultants LL and KTD – the speaker regards several word
forms as possible within his idiolect. We cannot be certain that regional
affiliation and family membership are the only factors behind the rich
variation in pronunciation: one or another morphological or phonological
word form could be chosen on stylistic or pragmatic criteria.
For these reasons, we have not tried to label precisely which variety of
Swedish Romani we are investigating; we note only where our two
language consultants come from (LL from the county of Västergötland
and KTD from Halland). We treat the phonological variants obtained
from them as free allophonic variations within a single language variant,
even though some of them may indeed result from dialectal variations.
One finds a considerable degree of free allophonic variation in Swedish
Romani, as discussed at various points through this chapter. Speakers
perceive this rich variation as characteristic of their language. The
language’s phoneme inventory should therefore not be the only or even
main object of interest in describing its sound system. Rather, all aspects
of the sound system – but particularly the inventory of free allophones –
call for a detailed description.
A classical phonological analysis – using minimal pairs, resulting in a
phoneme inventory, is not only not terribly relevant in this case, but also
difficult, since there are hardly any minimal pairs available – probably
due to the relatively small vocabulary. Usage of Swedish Romani is
limited to certain contexts, and all speakers are bilingual: they are native
speakers of a Swedish dialect, too.
In this chapter, we present an enhanced inventory of those sounds that
can be described as distinctive phones. Many are potentially phonemic
(distinctive in a narrow sense); others occur as free allophonic variants
nevertheless recognized by speakers as distinct speech sounds whose
alternation fulfills communicative – though not phonemic – functions
(distinctive in a broader sense).
We are forced to make at least a qualified guess which of the
distinctive phones have phonemic status, in order to draw conclusions
about the complexity of the sound system and compare it to the Swedish
system. Where possible, we discuss the phonemic status of distinctive
phones, either by means of real or near-minimal pairs.
For the comparison with Swedish, we must consider distinctive
phones in Swedish that may lack phonemic status. That said, Swedish has
almost none of the free allophonic alternations of the kind found in
 43

Romani 17 – which means that the set of distinctive phones is roughly

equivalent to the phoneme inventory.

2.2 Methods and materials

This chapter presents a phonological/phonetic description of Swedish

Romani based on two analyses. The first study (Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-
Djerf 2008), based on transcriptions of the speech of LL and KTD, was
performed by Gerd Carling (GC), assisted by phonetician Per Lindblad
(PL). Only GC had contact with the language consultants, including
making the recordings with LL. 18 This meant that she had to work out an
indirect method for the phonetic transcription: first she learned the
Romani speech sounds from the consultants; then she discussed their
phonetic values with PL.
The second study sought to improve and extend the
phonological/phonetic analysis begun in Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf
(2008). Gilbert Ambrazaitis (GA) undertook more detailed phonetic
transcriptions and instrumental/phonetic analyses of parts of the material
recorded from LL. The recordings consist of (a) a word list containing
approximately the same words as listed in the dictionary part of Lindell
and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), (b) interviews testing for specific
grammatical or phonological problems, and (c) a number of narratives.
GA analyzed only the data from (a) and (b). All of the recordings – but
especially (a) and (b) – contain a degree of spontaneous meta-linguistic
conversation: e.g., LL’s production of words in (a) was frequently
interrupted by discussions between GC and LL over various aspects of
the words.

2.3 The vowel system

2.3.1 Swedish

The vowel phoneme inventory of Swedish is represented here by the

standard Central Swedish variant (Engstrand 2004). Table 2.1 lists the
Swedish vowels, using a broad phonetic transcription (for fine phonetic

17
Of course, one finds regional variation in pronunciation. However, it is
generally unproblematic to distinguish between dialects in Swedish: most
speakers speak only a single dialect. Consequently, it does not make sense to
describe cross-dialectal variation in pronunciation as free allophonic variation.
18
These were recorded over several interviews 2006-2008.
 44

detail, and allophonic 19 and dialectal variation, see e.g. Engstrand 2004,
Bruce & Engstrand 2006, Bruce 2010). The inventory is based on an
underlying nine-fold vowel quality contrast plus a quantity contrast. For
reasons that will become clear in the following discussion, this yields 17
– rather than 18 – distinct surface combinations of quality and quantity.

Table 2.1. The Swedish vowel system, according to Engstrand (2004). The short
/e/ – placed by Engstrand in parentheses to indicate that it has vanished from
most Swedish dialects, including standard Central Swedish – is omitted to make
the table more comparable to the table on Swedish Romani (Table 2.2).
iː ɪ yː ʏ ʉ̟ː uː ʊ
eː øː ɵ oː
ɛː ɛ œ ɔ
a ɑː

In nearly all of the quantity pairs in Swedish, the two vowels differ
also in quality, as Table 2.1 indicates: e.g., /iː/ vs. /ɪ/. This quantity-
dependent change in quality varies widely between vowel pairs (Elert
1964; Behne, Czigler & Sullivan 1997). In the case of /ɑː/ vs. /a/ it is
quite pronounced: the long /ɑː/ is near cardinal 5 [ɑ], while the short /a/
is much more fronted – though seldom reaching a cardinal 4 quality [a].
It is also highly salient in /eː/ vs. /ɛ/ and /ʉ̟ː/ vs. /ɵ/; in both pairs, the
short vowel is more open than the long one (see Table 2.1).
Transcriptions indicate the same difference in openness for /øː/ vs. /œ/
and /oː/ vs. /ɔ/, although /øː/ is often fairly open, near to [œː], while /ɔ/ is
rather close, near to [o̞] – resulting, for both pairs, in a less salient
difference in quality.
The same phonetic symbol is generally used for both the long and the
short version of /ɛ(ː)/, reflecting a negligible difference in quality. The
qualitative distinction between the long and short version is also rather
marginal in the front and back close vowels. The transcriptions /i ɪ/, /y ʏ/,
and /u ʊ/ used here are common in the Swedish tradition, even though
they tend to exaggerate the actual difference in vowel quality: the same
phonetic symbols are typically used for the corresponding German and
English vowels, where the qualitative difference between /i ɪ/, /y ʏ/, and
/u ʊ/ is much larger than in Swedish. From this perspective, the Swedish

19
The allophones we refer to here are complementary allophones; as noted in
Section 2.1.2, one finds almost no free allophonic variation in Swedish of the
kind found in Swedish Romani.
 45

short vowels /ɪ/, /ʏ/, and /ʊ/ would better be transcribed as /i/, /y/, and /u/;
but we elect here to follow common Swedish practice.
Engstrand’s (2004) vowel inventory contains a short /e/ – though set
in parentheses – beside the short /ɛ/. The historical contrast between short
/e/ and short /ɛ/ survives in writing in the letters <e> and <ä>: e.g., sett
(supine form of se, ‘to see’) vs. sätt ‘way’, ‘manner’. However, the
distinction between the short versions of /eː/ and /ɛː/ has disappeared
from most dialects, including the Central Swedish variant described by
Engstrand: the sound for both is now /ɛ/, while /e/ has vanished. We have
excluded short /e/ entirely from Table 2.1., to facilitate comparisons with
Table 2.2.

2.3.2 Swedish Romani

For Swedish Romani, we assume an inventory of 19 vowels: i.e., two

additional elements compared to the Swedish system, one of which
occurs as a free allophonic variant 20 only (Table 2.2). Otherwise, the
system basically corresponds to the Swedish one (Table 2.1), including
the typologically marked richness of close and close-mid front vowels.

Table 2.2. The Swedish Romani vowel system: potential vowel phonemes and
[e] – a free allophonic variant of /ɛ/.
iː ɪ yː ʏ ʉ̟ː uː ʊ
eː [e] øː ɵ oː
ɛː ɛ œ ɔ
aː a ɑː

As Table 2.2 shows, Swedish Romani contains an additional long

open front vowel /aː/. However, it occurs only in a few words: e.g., nấni
/naːnɪ/ ‘not, nothing’. Several other vowels in the table could be
characterized as marginal for the same reason: long /oː/ and /ɛː/, and the
typologically marked front-rounded vowels long /yː/, short /œ/, and long
/øː/. Long /øː/ occurs in a single word only: bö́ lo ‘bull’, borrowed from
dialectal Swedish böl.
We have opted to include short [e] in the table; it occurs as a free
allophonic variant beside short [ɛ]. The two vowels are never distinctive
in a phonemic sense in Swedish Romani – as they were in Swedish
historically, and still are in some Swedish dialects (remember the

20 Recall from Section 2.1.2 that we are discussing the ‘distinctive phones’
in a broad sense.
 46

example of sett vs. sätt). They occur only as free allophonic variants: e.g.,
beng [e] vs. bäng [ɛ] ‘devil, Satan’. Our main source for this [e] – [ɛ]
alternation is KTD. One finds only a few examples from the recordings
with LL; in a majority of words containing short <e/ä>, LL pronounces
the vowel [ɛ]. In a few cases, LL deliberately produces the two variants in
succession, yielding a marginal phonetic difference between two versions
of a word. LL does not produce clear examples of short [e], probably
because he does not use it actively. However, LL admits the existence of
the [e] – [ɛ] alternation in other speakers.
Several vowels other than [e] and [ɛ] can take part in free allophonic
alternations (for examples, see Section 2.6).
Apart from [e] / [ɛ] – all Swedish Romani vowels can occur in words
lacking any vowel alternations: i.e., they can occur as the only possible
option. In addition, all vowels can generally occur in all contexts,
resulting in a number of near-minimal pairs and even some real minimal
pairs such as chàla /ɑː/ ‘to hug’ vs. chèla /eː/ ‘to pet’ or gráshni /ɪ/ ‘mare’
vs. gráshno /ʊ/ ‘stallion’. Therefore, we would classify all vowel
contrasts (apart from [e] / [ɛ]) as potentially phonemic. We can draw the
tentative conclusion that Swedish Romani has 18 vowel phonemes: i.e.,
one more than Swedish; or 19 distinct vowels in a broad sense.

2.4 The consonant system

The consonant inventories of Swedish (Engstrand 2004) and Swedish

Romani are given in Tables 2.3 and 2.4. As with the vowel system, the
Swedish Romani consonant system comprises the entire Swedish system
with some additional consonants.

Table 2.3. The Swedish consonant system, adapted from Engstrand (2004); the
presentation is modified slightly to facilitate comparison with Table 2.4. It
comprises the consonant phonemes plus [ʂ], which may occur as a free (stylistic)
allophonic variant of /ɧ/.
p b t d k ɡ

f v s [ʂ] ɕ ɧ h
l j
r
m n ŋ

Table 2.4. The Swedish Romani consonant system, including potential consonant
phonemes and (set in []) apparent allophones.
 47

pʰ p b tʰ t d kʰ k ɡ ɡʰ
tɕ [kç]
f v s ʂ [ɕ] ɧ [χ] h
[w] l j
r
m n ŋ

2.4.1 The core system of equivalent Swedish consonants

A majority of Swedish Romani consonants – the plosives [p b t d k

ɡ], nasals [m n ŋ], and liquids [l], [j], [r], as well as the fricatives [f], [v],
[s], and [h] – seem phonetically and functionally equivalent to their
Swedish counterparts. All occur in contexts equivalent to their Swedish
counterparts, and none represent allophones in a complementary
distribution: 21 i.e., they have potential phonemic status. As with the
vowels, a number of near-minimal pairs exist and even some real
minimal pairs such as fàkka /f/ ‘to work’ vs. làkka /l/ ‘solder’ or dosch /d/
‘breast’ vs. mosch /m/ ‘1. man, fellow, 2. old man, bachelor (widower)’.
All of the consonants discussed here can occur in words lacking any
consonant alternations: i.e., they can occur as the only possible option.
Certain of them can take part in free allophonic alternations (see Section
2.6).

2.4.2 The bilabial approximant [w]

The bilabial approximant [w] (as in English ‘what’) occurs only as an

allophonic variant of the labio-dental fricative 22 /v/. This phone is absent
from standard Swedish and marginal in Swedish Romani: it seems to
occur only in swéschter, shwéster ‘sister’, borrowed from the German
Schwester. Note that, in German, <w> is pronounced [v] rather than [w].
Our main source for the pronunciation with [w] was KTD. The word
occurs a few times in the recordings with LL, where it is pronounced with
[w] in a single case and with [v] otherwise.

21
The classical case of [h] and [ŋ] – also found in English – is an exception.
These two are distributed complementarily: [h] occurs only in syllable-initial
position, [ŋ] always in syllable-final. They are typically treated as distinct
phonemes due to their phonetic dissimilarity.
22
This phoneme is often realized as an approximant, as in Swedish vem ‘who’ or
English ‘very’.
 48

2.4.3 Affricates

We identify two affricates in Swedish Romani: alveolo-palatal [tɕ]

and palatal [kç]. Palatal [kç] occurs only as an allophonic variant of [tɕ]
or [k] and only in a couple of words. Examples are listed in Table 2.5.
Alveolo-palatal [tɕ] alternates with [kç] as well as with post-alveolar
fricatives and some further consonants (see Table 2.5). Apart from this
allophonic usage, [tɕ] also occurs in words lacking consonant
alternations. A number of (real) minimal pairs exist, demonstrating its
phonemic status. Examples are tjòva /tɕ/ ‘to throw’ vs. tòva/tòvva /t/ ‘to
wash’ and tjáro /tɕ/ ‘plate, bowl, container’ vs. /ɧ/ʂ/ scháro/sháro ‘sabre,
scythe’.

Table 2.5. Examples of allophonic alternations of the affricates. For further

examples of alternations between [tɕ] and several post-alveolar fricatives, see
Table 2.6. (For some of these words, further pronunciation alternatives exist.)
[tɕ] ~ [kç] (~ [k]) [kç] ~ [k]
tjálo, kjálo ‘full, fed’ dä́ kkan, dä̀ kkja ‘sabre’
tjèrmo, kjèrmo, ‘worm’ fòssika, fòssikja 23 ‘pocket’
kérmo

[tɕ] ~ [t] [tɕ] ~ [k] (~ [ɕ] ~ [ɧ])

kórtja, kòrtja, kòrta ‘crofters holding, tjìngra, kìngra ‘to cut, fence’
cottage, homestead,
place (where you
live)’
nùtta, nùttja ‘sweater, cardigan’ tjírklo, kírklo, ‘bird’
círklo, schírklo

[tɕ] ~ [ɕ]
shö́ ldrano, ‘cold’
tjöldrano

The alternation of [kç] and [tɕ] with each other and with other
(simple) consonants, suggests that speakers treat them as two (distinct)
sound units. Therefore, we have decided to treat them as affricates and
not biphonemically (i.e., as combinations of /t/ + /ɕ/ and /k/ + /j/).

23
Although Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) report this word form, it is
not evidenced in the recordings with LL.
 49

2.4.4 The voiceless post-alveolar fricatives

We propose that four post-alveolar fricatives – [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] –
are distinguishable in Swedish Romani. These phones operate in a
complex manner:
1. They participate in free allophonic alternations: i.e., many words
containing a post-alveolar fricative allow pronunciation variants.
As many as three of the four can alternate with each other in the
same lexical item.
2. In addition to this free allophonic usage, they tend strongly toward
a complementary distribution in words for which no free
allophonic alternations have been attested:
a. Only [ʂ] tends to occur in word-medial position: i.e., after
a vowel.
b. Only [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] are found in word-initial position,
depending on the vowel context:
i. [ɕ] before [ɪ] (front and close articulation)
ii. [χ] before [ɑː] (back and open articulation)
iii. [ɧ] elsewhere.
3. These points aside, the evidence suggests a potential phonemic
contrast in word-initial position between /ʂ/ on the one hand and
[ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] on the other, which we represent with the
phoneme /ɧ/.

Before we analyze these conclusions in detail (sections 2.4.4.2-

2.4.4.5), we present briefly the case of Swedish, which has as a similar
set of post-alveolar fricatives.

2.4.4.1 Swedish /ɕ/, /ɧ/, and [ʂ] 24

Swedish has two post-alveolar fricatives with phoneme status: /ɕ/ and
/ɧ/. /ɕ/ is typically realized as the voiceless aveolo-palatal fricative [ɕ]
and is rather stable in its pronunciation, even across dialects (with the
exception of Finland Swedish). It occurs only initially, as in köra /ˈɕøːra/
‘to drive’ and tjock /ɕɔk/ ‘thick’, where it contrasts with /ɧ/ as in sköra
/ˈɧøːra/ ‘fragile’ and chock /ɧɔk/ ‘shock’.
Pronunciation of /ɧ/ varies considerably according to regional,
positional, and social/stylistic factors. Dialectal variation is mainly

24
This section is based on Elert (2000) and Bruce (2010).
 50

between a back [ɧ] and a front [ʂ]. In addition, the velar component of /ɧ/
can dominate other, simultaneous constrictions,25 resulting in a
realization near the plain velar fricative [x]. /ɧ/ can occur in initial
position: e.g., skör /ɧøːr/ ‘fragile’; in final position: e.g., dusch /dɵɧ/
‘shower’; or in medial position: e.g. duscha /ˈdɵɧa/ ‘to take a shower’.
Central Swedish has complementary allophones: A typical realization of
/ɧ/ in initial position is [ɧ] as in skör [ɧɶːr]; but it is pronounced [ʂ] in
medial or final position, as in dusch [dɵʂ].
Beyond these dialectal and positional variants, the literature describes
free allophonic alternation of front and back variants of /ɧ/ for Central
Swedish dialects. A front [ʂ] is said to be more common among the
higher educated, as well as being used more frequently by woman and the
older generation. Elert (2000) writes that front [ʂ] and back [ɧ] can
alternate within a single speaker depending on speech style, where front
[ʂ] tends to be used in stylistically marked – e.g., ceremonial – speech.
Since we are concerned with distinctive phones in a broad sense – as
phonemes plus free allophonic variants – we have included [ʂ] in Table
2.3.

2.4.4.2 Swedish Romani [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ]

For Swedish Romani, we recognise a series of post-alveolar fricatives

containing the same three qualities as in Swedish – [ɕ], [ɧ], and [ʂ] – with
the addition of a uvular fricative [χ]. Although one finds a striking
phonetic similarity between the inventories of post-alveolar fricatives in
Swedish and Swedish Romani, their patterning is different – and more
complex – in Swedish Romani (see the summary in Section 2.4.4 above).
As Table 2.6 shows, we have used six different labels for transcribing
post-alveolar fricatives: [ɕ ʃ ʂ ɧ x χ]. These labels must be regarded as no
more than a simple tool for capturing the phonetic variation we regard as
perceptually distinguishable (and representable by IPA symbols), even
though they sometimes reflect fine differences in pronunciation. Our task
was to determine which of the six labels ought to be regarded as
distinctive phones in a broad sense – possibly even as phonemes.

25
According to IPA, [ɧ] represents double-articulated [ʃ] and [x]. The
contribution of a post-alveolar component is disputed: the Swedish sound
transcribed [ɧ] has also been characterized as labio-velar (Bruce 2010).
 51

Table 2.6. Examples of allophonic alternations of post-aveolar fricatives

according to LL’s pronunciations; spelling alternatives according to Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Note that in some cases, there is no obvious
correspondence between spelling alternatives and pronunciations. Lexical pitch
accent (marked in orthography) is not transcribed.
Spelling alternatives Pronunciation
àsha, àscha, àcha [ˈaʃːa], [ˈaɕːa], [ˈaʂːa] ‘to be, go,
come’
áttjer, àtsher, àtscher [ˈatɕɛr], [ˈaʂːɛr] ‘of’
bàscha, bàcha, bàsha, [ˈbaxːa], [ˈbaχːa], [ˈbaʃːa] ‘1. to bark, yell,
argue, be
difficult, be
stupid, 2.
epithet’
basht, bashjt, bacht [baʂt], [baɕt], [baχt] ‘year’
bèscha, bèsha, bècha [ˈbɛxːa], [ˈbɛʃːa], [ˈbɛχːa] ‘1. to sit, 2. to
seat (oneself),
3. to put, 4.
doing time (in
prison)’
bèsha, bàscha 26 [ˈbɛʃːa], [ˈbaχːa], [ˈbɛxːa] ‘to play (a
musical
instrument)’
bìsha, bìscha [ˈbɪʃːa], [ˈbɪχːa] ‘to send’
bjùsha, bjùssa, bjùcha, [ˈbjɵɧːa], [ˈbɵtɕa], [ˈbɵɧːa] ‘to be called, be
bùttja named’
círklo, schírklo, tjírklo, [ˈɕɪrklʊ], [ˈxɪrklʊ], ‘bird’
kírklo [ˈtɕɪrklʊ]
dústus, dúshtus, dùstus [ˈdɵstɵs] [ˈdɵʃtɵs] ‘flour’
kach, kass [kaχː], [kaʃː] ‘1. hay, 2.
straw’
kòscha, kòsha [ˈkɔɧːa] [ˈkɔʂːa] ‘to curse,
swear’
krèsha [ˈkrɛʃːa], [ˈkrɛχːa] ‘cattle,
livestock’
láttjo, láscho, lácho [ˈlatɕʊ] [ˈlaɕːʊ] [ˈlaχːʊ] ‘1. good, nice,
fine, 2. good-
natured;
sufficient’
mosch, much, mush, mosh, [mʊɧː][mɵɧː] [mɵʃː][mɔxː] ‘1. man, fellow,
moch [mɵχː] [mʊχː] 2. old man,
bachelor
(widower)’
nàcha, nàsha [ˈnɑːχa], [ˈnɑːɕa] ‘1. to run, 2. to
escape, run
away’

26
Homophoneous with bàcha
 52

pùscha, pùcha, pùchka, [ˈpɵɧːa], [ˈpɵχːa], [ˈpɵkːa], ‘to ask’

pùsha, pùttja [ˈpɵʂːa] [ˈpɵtɕa], [ˈpʏʃːa]
scháro, sháro [ˈχɑːrʊ], [ˈʃɑːrʊ] ‘sabre, scythe’
schéro, chéro, shéro [ˈɧeːrʊ], [ˈʃeːrʊ] ‘head’
schònna, schỳnna, shỳnna, [ˈxʏnːa], [ˈʃʏnːa] ‘to hear, listen’
shùnna
shốppa, schốppa, shòpa, [ˈɧʊpːa], [ˈʂʊpːa] ‘gate’
schòpa
shúkklo, schúkklo [ˈɧɵkːlʊ], [ˈʃɵkːlʊ] ‘sour, bad’

2.4.4.3 Free allophonic variation

We consider [ʃ] and [x] to represent phonetic detail that should be

excluded from the inventory of distinctive speech sounds. We base this
on the following considerations:
1. If speakers can distinguish between n pronunciation variants
of a phoneme in a single word, there must be at least n free
allophones, and hence n distinctive phones in the broad sense.
This criterion enables us to determine a minimum number of distinct
(free allophonic) post-alveolar fricatives, simply by looking in the data
for the word with the highest number of allophones: e.g., the words
bàscha/bàcha/bàsha and basht/bashjt/bacht have three variants (Table
2.6). One finds only a few words with a larger number of variants; and in
these cases, factors beyond the choice of fricative come into play. So in
e.g. pùscha and mosch, both the fricative and the preceding vowel can
alternate, yielding six variants of each word (cf. pronunciation column in
Table 2.6). For each vowel context, however, one observes at most three
alternating post-alveolar fricatives in mosch. In pùscha, as many as five
allophonic variants of the medial consonant can be identified for a single
vowel context, but only three are post-alveolar fricatives – the other two
being the affricate [tɕ] and the plosive [k].
We thus assume a minimum of three distinct – and consciously
distinguished – post-alveolar fricatives. The members of this alternation
may be different in different words, as Table 2.6 shows: e.g., one
observes an alternation between [ʃ x χ] in bàscha/bàcha/bàsha, [ɕ ʂ χ] in
basht/bashjt/bacht and [ʂ ɧ χ] in pùscha/pùcha/pùsha. The question
naturally arises: does one need to assume six distinct post-alveolar
fricatives, or do some merely reflect fine phonetic variants not
 53

consciously distinguished by the speakers? To resolve this, we offer a

second criterion:
2. If two post-alveolar fricatives never alternate with each other
– i.e., never occur together in the list of pronunciation variants
of a word – they likely do not represent two distinct free
allophonic variants: i.e., consciously selected options; rather,
they are minor phonetic variants of the same distinctive
allophone. This conclusion is likelier the more similar the two
variants are phonetically.
One could argue that what we have transcribed as [x] reflects a
phonetic variant of [ɧ] or [χ]. [ɧ] and [χ] are clearly distinct perceptually
and articulatorily; while [x] represents a phonetic quality between the
two: its velar articulation is like [ɧ]; but it lacks any double articulations
and is often perceptually close to [χ].
The three phones [ɕ ʃ ʂ], being sibilants, are likewise perceptually
similar. While [ɕ] and [ʂ] are perceptually relatively distinct – [ɕ] sounds
sharp and light; [ʂ] sounds dull and dark – [ʃ] represents a phonetic
quality between the two. One could argue that what we have transcribed
as [ʃ] was intended as [ɕ] or [ʂ], depending on the word in question.
Our hypothesis – i.e., [ʃ] and [x] do not represent distinctive phones in
their own right – is largely confirmed by the data (Table 2.6). One cannot
find a single word in our corpus where the phones [ɧ], [x], and [χ] all
alternate: at most two participate in an alternation, as in
bàscha/bàcha/bàsha. We can conclude that these three phones represent a
phonetic continuum, divided by native speakers into two categories,
represented by the extremes of the velar/uvular fricative continuum [ɧ] 27
and [χ] in Table 2.4.
In similar fashion, one mostly finds words where at most two of the
three post-alveolar sibilants [ɕ ʃ ʂ] alternate, as e.g. in bash/bashjt/bacht.
We conclude it sufficient to assume two distinct post-alveolar sibilants [ɕ
ʂ], where [ʃ] is a minor phonetic variant of one or possibly both. The only
counterexample in our data is àsha/àscha/àcha, produced by LL as
[ˈaʃːa]/[ˈaɕːa]/[ˈaʂːa]. We believe this is an artifact of the recording
situation.

27
Another reason for choosing [ɧ] rather than [x] to represent the velar quality is
to reflect how the velar fricative of Swedish Romani often has the same phonetic
quality as the Swedish /ɧ/.
 54

In summary, our analysis yields a set of four distinct post-alveolar

fricatives [ɕ], [ɧ], [ʂ], and [χ], which can alternate in series of maximally
three free allophonic variants. A next step would be to determine whether
some of the four represent a potential phonemic contrast.

2.4.4.4 Complementary distribution

As with the affricate [tɕ], one finds words in our data for which no
allophonic alternation of the post-alveolar fricative is attested. Examples
are given in Table 2.7 for the word-medial and Table 2.8 for the word-
initial position.

Table 2.7. Examples of word-medial post-alveolar fricatives not participating in

allophonic alternations; pronunciation according to LL.
Spelling pronunciation
áshi, àshi [ˈaʂːɪ] ‘certainly’
bránshno, bráshno [ˈbranʃnʊ], [ˈbraʃnʊ] ‘skinny, meager’
brìshepa [ˈbrɪʃːepɑː] ‘rain’
bróchno [ˈbrɔʃnʊ], [ˈbrʊʃnʊ] ‘conceited,
pretentious’
búshni [ˈbɵʃnɪ], ‘goat’
dóchalo [ˈdɔʂːalo] ‘guilty, responsible’
lesht [lɛɕt] ‘last’
léshter, léster [ˈlɛʂtɛr] ‘him’

Table 2.8. Examples of word-initial post-alveolar fricatives not participating in

allophonic alternations; pronunciation according to LL.
Spelling pronunciation
chàla [ˈχɑːla] ‘to hug’
chèla [ˈɧe:la] ‘to pet’
chèkla [ˈɧɛk:la] ‘loose
(immoral), half
dressed,
shabbily
dressed’
cikk [ɕɪk:] ‘cheek’
címpi [ˈɕɪmpɪ] ‘Swedish
turnip’
chòcha, schoìschoi, schốscho, [ˈɧoɧ:a], [ˈɧoɧ:o], ‘hare’
schốschali [ˈɧʊɧ:alɪ]
schàla, shàlla [ˈχɑːla] ‘to kiss, butter
up, suck up to,
brown nose’
schốrnan, schòrnan [ˈɧuːrnan] ‘barn’
schùmba [ˈɧɵmban] ‘hill’
 55

schýnslo, schúnslo [ˈɧʏnslʊ] ‘ear’

shàddra [ˈɕadːra], [ˈtɕadːra] ‘1. to vomit,
throw up, 2. to
scratch, dig’
shàra [ˈɕɑːra] ‘to flatter,
praise, brag’
tjáro [ˈɕɑːrʊ] ‘plate, bowl,
container’
tjávo [ˈtɕɑːvʊ] ‘1. boy
(traveller), 2.
little child, kid ’
tjérri, tjéri [ˈɕɛrːɪ] ‘sky, heaven’
tjill, tjìlla [ˈɕɪlːa] ‘to be’
tjíno, tjínno [ˈɕɪnːʊ] ‘tired, faint,
worn (out)’
tjòmma, tjòmra, tjùmra [ˈɕɔmːa], [ˈɕɔmra] ‘to kiss’
tjồra, tjòra [ˈɕuːra] ‘to steal’
tjóro, tjórro [ˈɕoːrʊ] ‘poor’
tjúkkni [ˈɕɵkːni] ‘whip’
tjúro, tjúri [ˈɕʉ̟ːrɪ], [ˈɕʉ̟ːrʊ] ‘knife’
tjỳllri [ˈɕʏlːrɪ] ‘cold, chilly’

In the medial position, only [ʂ] (or [ʃ] 28) occurs in words that do not
allow free allophonic alternation of the post-alveolar fricative (Table 2.7).
One exception is lesht, which we have transcribed with [ɕ]; we address
this exception below.
The pattern revealed in Table 2.8 is diametrically opposed to the one
in Table 2.7: only [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] appear in initial position – never [ʂ].
The choice of fricative in initial position is generally sensitive to vowel
context: the front [ɕ] (spelled with <c> in Table 2.8) only occurs before
an [ɪ]; the back [χ] (spelled with <ch> or <sch>) only occurs before an
[ɑː]; [ɧ] (spelled with <ch> or <sch>) appears in all other vowel
contexts. Words spelled with an initial <sh> – which we have transcribed
[ɕ] – present an exception to this pattern. So do words spelled with an
initial <tj>, some of which LL has pronounced [tɕ], others [ɕ]. In all of
these words, [ɕ] can be followed by any vowel, as addressed below.
Leaving exceptions aside for the moment, for words with no
allophonic variation of the post-alveolar fricatives, Tables 2.7 and 2.8
together show that [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] occur in complementary

28
We do not believe that [ʃ] and [ʂ] are consciously distinguished
(Section 2.4.4.3).
 56

distribution: [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] before vowels (word-initial) and sensitive to
vowel context; [ʂ] after vowels (word-medial).
Although this distribution clearly is phonetically motivated, it is not
entirely out of the speaker’s control: as we have shown in Section 2.4.4.3,
the four post-alveolar fricatives can be used in free allophonic
alternations, occurring in largely the same positions. One observes a
similar phenomenon in Central Swedish (Section 2.4.4.1): on the one
hand, [ʂ] occurs in complementary distribution with [ɧ] ([ɧ] initial; [ʂ]
medial or final), on the other, it can alternate with [ɧ] in initial position.

2.4.4.5 Potential phonemic contrasts

The conclusions drawn in the previous two sub-sections suggest that

the fricatives [ʂ], [ɕ], [ɧ], and [χ] are allophones of a single phoneme: a
post-alveolar fricative. They alternate freely in some words, occurring in
complementary positions in others. Nevertheless, evidence exists for a
potential phonemic contrast in initial position between [ʂ] on the one
hand and [ɕ, ɧ, χ] on the other, when comparing words with or without
free allophonic alternation (see Table 2.9).

Table 2.9. Phonemic semi-contrasts: near-minimal word pairs without (left

column) vs. with (right column) free allophonic alteration of the post-alveolar
fricative. Pronunciation is based on LL’s recordings; hypothesized alternative
pronunciations are marked <?>.
Initial [χ] or [ɧ] (no alteration) Alternating initial consonant
chàla [ˈχɑːla] ‘to hug’ scháro, [ˈχɑːrʊ], ‘sabre,
sháro [ˈʂɑːrʊ] scythe’
tjálo [ˈtɕɑːlʊ], ‘full, fed’
[ˈɕɑːlʊ]?
tjáro [ˈɕɑːrʊ], ‘plate,
[ˈtɕɑːrʊ]? bowl,
container’
chèla [ˈɧe:la] ‘to pet’ schéro, [ˈɧeːrʊ], ‘head’
chéro, [ˈʂeːrʊ]
shéro
schồrnan, [ˈɧuːrnan] ‘barn’ tjồra, [ˈɕuːra], ‘to steal’
schòrnan tjòra [ˈtɕuːra]?

In the left column, the post-alveolar fricatives occur in complementary

positions: e.g., in chàla, the subsequent back-open vowel requires the
initial consonant to be [χ]. Compare this to the right column, where in
scháro/sháro, [χ] alternates with [ʂ]. What one observes here is a
 57

potential phonemic semi-contrast: potential, because there are no real

minimal pairs available 29. The significant thing is that [χ] and [ʂ] can
occur in equivalent, word-initial position in a stressed syllable, followed
by the same vowel. Such equivalence implies a phonemic quality such
that, in principle, there could be a word like *shàla [ˈʂɑːla], which would
form a perfect minimal pair with chàla; it just does not happen to exist.
It is a semi-contrast because it only applies to one of two – or more –
pronunciation alternatives of one of the involved words. However, if a
speaker has the option of two pronunciation variants – as in *shàla
[ˈʂɑːla]/ *schàla [ˈχɑːla] – where one happens to be a homophone of
another word (chàla), then she could choose the other, to distinguish the
words. This is all highly hypothetical; in practice, there are hardly any
minimal pairs and so hardly ever a need to choose the more distinctive
pronunciation. The important thing, again, is that [ʂ] and [χ] can occur in
the same position in different words, which means that e.g. chàla and
*shàla could be distinguished.
Table 2.9 suggests that a similar conclusion can be drawn for [ʂ] and
[ɧ]: consider chèla on the one hand and schéro/chéro/shéro on the other.
The evidence discussed so far suggests a potential phonemic contrast
between /ʂ/ and a palatal 30/velar/uvular fricative phoneme, which we
propose to represent by the velar fricative /ɧ/: [ɧ] represents the place of
articulation between [ɕ] and [χ] and occurs in most vowel contexts (see
Section 2.4.4.4). The phoneme /ɧ/ thus has the main allophones [ɧ], [ɕ],
and [χ].
However, the situation with [ɕ] is more complex. Tables 2.8 and 2.9
list a number of words spelled with initial <tj> that LL has pronounced
with initial [ɕ]; these words were mentioned as exceptions in Section
2.4.4.4. For many of them, Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) do
not list any pronunciation options – which could mean that e.g. [ɕ] in
tjáro and [χ] in chàla constitute a potential phonemic contrast. However,
while LL pronounces many of the <tj> words with the fricative [ɕ], he
pronounces many others according to the spelling: i.e., with the affricate
[tɕ]. One cannot observe any regular pattern in the choice of [tɕ] vs. [ɕ],
which suggests that one is dealing with a minor – probably unconscious –

29
Schàla/shàlla – found in the lexicon – does not constitute a minimal pair with
chàla, since chàla and schàla are homophones: [ˈχɑːla].
30
We can tentatively include [ɕ] in this phoneme, since we know that [ɕ] occurs
in a complementary distribution with [χ,ɧ]: see Section 2.4.4.4.
 58

form of phonetic variation.31 It is likely that near-minimal pairs like chàla

vs. tjáro [ɕ] and chàla vs. tjálo [tɕ] merely demonstrate the potential
phonemic status of the affricate /tɕ/ (see Section 2.4.3), rather than the
fricative [ɕ].
The situation with [ɕ] is further complicated by the words spelled with
initial <sh>, which were also mentioned as exceptions in Section 2.4.4.4.
Again, these words were transcribed with [ɕ], and no pronunciation
options are listed – which could suggest that the [ɕ] in shàra and [χ] in
chàla constitute a potential phonemic contrast. The data could be
interpreted as evidence for a three-fold phonemic contrast /ɕ/ vs. /ɧ,χ/ vs.
/ʂ/. Further support is provided by the near-minimal pair lesht [ɕ] vs.
leshter [ʂ] (Table 2.7); lesht was also mentioned as an exception above.
What speaks against the three-fold contrast is that [ɕ] and [ʂ] are
phonetically similar, both being sibilants, and spelled identically in the
words discussed here. This could indicate that speakers do not distinguish
between them in these words, so that they merely reflect a kind of
unconscious phonetic variation.
However, [ɕ] and [ʂ] do seem to be distinguished consciously in
certain circumstances: e.g., they are treated as pronunciation variants in
basht vs. bashjt. On the other hand, the two sounds are distinguished in
spelling in this case by the addition of a <j>, which could mean that our
language informants – the inventors of the spelling system – regard the
consonant found in bashjt as a sequence of /ʂ/ and /j/ that surfaces as [ɕ].
In summary, we lack conclusive evidence for assigning [ɕ] a
phonematic status, although several examples from our data suggest one.
Our tentative conclusions are that only /ɧ/ vs. /ʂ/ represents a potential
phonematic contrast; /ɧ/ has the main allophones [ɕ, ɧ, χ]; [ɕ] can occur
as an allophone of /ɧ/, /ʂ/, and /tɕ/.

2.4.5 Stops and aspiration

The Swedish Romani system of stops comprises the same three places
of articulation as the Swedish system: bilabial, dental, and velar. It
contains two peculiarities concerning aspiration. First, we postulate a
triplet of stops in Swedish Romani for each place of articulation: voiced
(e.g., /b/), voiceless (e.g., /p/ with main allophones [p] and [pʰ]), and

31
This conclusion is further supported by the word shàddra ‘to vomit’ which
LL likewise pronounces with either [ɕ] or [tɕ] (Table 2.8).
 59

voiceless aspirated (e.g., /pʰ/). Swedish has only a two-fold distinction:

voiced (e.g., /b/) and voiceless (e.g., /p/); see Section 2.4.5.1. Second,
one finds evidence for a voiced aspirated /ɡʰ/ (Section 2.4.5.2).

2.4.5.1 Voiceless unaspirated vs. voiceless aspirated

In languages such as Swedish and English, the so-called

voiced/voiceless distinction (e.g., /b/ vs. /p/) – also sometimes referred to
as lenis/fortis – is phonetically a matter of both voicing and aspiration.
The same holds for Swedish Romani. In all three languages, lenis stops
can be realized either voiced or voiceless (or, at least, partly de-voiced)
and are typically unaspirated; while fortis plosives typically can not be
voiced but may be either aspirated or unaspirated (tenuis). The main
allophones regularly occur in different positions. They are exemplified by
the bilabial plosives in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10: Main allophones of lenis /b/ and fortis /p/ in Swedish Romani,
Swedish, and – for comparison – English. The same positional allophone types
exist for /t,d / and /k,ɡ/. The table is not intended to be exhaustive regarding
possible positions.
Position Reali- Swedish Romani Swedish English
zation
Word-initial [pʰ] pèkkra ‘1. to park ‘park’ park
/p/ roast, fry, 2. to
bake’
/sp/-cluster [p] spèkkra ‘to play spark ‘kick’ spark
an instrument,
play cards’
Word-initial [b̥] bèkkra, bèkkna ‘to bark ‘bark bark
/b/ sell’ [tree]’
Inter-vocalic [b] gìbba, jìbba ‘to snöboll snowball
/b/ sing’ ‘snowball’

In their proposal for a Swedish Romani writing system, Lindell and

Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) distinguish the three types of stops
mentioned above: i.e., voiced <b, d, g>, voiceless unaspirated <p, t, k>,
and voiceless aspirated: <ph, th, kh>. For examples, see Table 2.11.

Table 2.11. Examples of <ph, th, kh>, including spelling alternatives according
to Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008).
<ph> <th>
prahl, pral, prahl ‘brother’ themm, temm ‘land, district,
 60

parts, region’
phúri, púri ‘(sweet) old thỳ̀ja, thùja, tỳa ‘to smoke’
woman’
phuv, puj ‘earth, ground,
floor’
phùva ‘to burry’

<kh>
kham ‘sun, sunshine’ khére, khère, ‘home, at
khèri home’
khéngari, khángari, ‘church’ ekh, jekh, jikk ‘one’
kángari
kher ‘farm; estate, òkto, òkhto, òhto ‘eight’
homestead’

The table shows that an aspirated stop often alternates with an

unaspirated one; while in several instances the aspirated spelling is the
only option. Therefore, we assume that the aspiration is potentially
phonemic. That said, the phonetic manifestation of /pʰ/, /tʰ/, and /kʰ/
require a closer look, since they almost only occur in initial position,
where the unaspirated /p/, /t/, and /k/ are phonetically aspirated – as
shown in Table 2.10. This raises the question how the aspirated stops
differ phonetically from the unaspirated ones. The phonetic distinction is,
indeed, marginal: we – as trained linguists and phoneticians – have
difficulty perceiving it in the recordings with LL (but see the discussion
below). Nonetheless, we believe the distinction is real: our language
consultants must have some reason for introducing it into the
orthography. Remember that the orthography of Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) is an invention, so the distinction made there
between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops cannot simply be a
relic of an earlier phonological distinction lost from spoken language. We
believe that speakers both produce and hear the distinction, even though
the distinction is a very fine one. To resolve the issue fully, one would
need to conduct controlled perception experiments, which would
typically involve a group of 10-20 listeners. Given the lack of available
consultants, this is presently impossible. In the meantime, a larger set of
recorded data would help.
Despite the limitations, we have attempted to pinpoint one possible
phonetic feature behind the aspirated/unaspirated distinction, using
instrumental-phonetic measurements. We focused strictly on the
voiceless velar stops, given the very few examples of /pʰ/ and /tʰ/ in the
recordings.
 61

For /k/ and /kʰ/, we measured the duration of aspiration – or, more
precisely, the voice onset time or VOT (Lisker & Abramson 1964). VOT
is often used to describe differences between types of stops (e.g., /b/ vs.
/p/), as well as between realizations of the same stop phoneme in
different languages. Acoustically, in a CV sequence, VOT is the interval
between the onset of vocal-fold vibration in the vowel (V) and the release
of the preceding stop (C). A negative VOT value implies that voicing sets
in during the stop, which is therefore (partly or fully) voiced. In unvoiced
stops, the VOT is a positive value representing the duration of the release
burst plus aspiration. Since we are only concerned here with clearly
aspirated stops – both /k/ in initial position and /kʰ/ are aspirated (see
Table 2.10) – we would expect positive VOT figures. The hypothesis is
that if /k/ and /kʰ/ differ phonetically and this difference is a matter of
aspiration, one would expect to find higher VOT values for /kʰ/ than /k/.
To keep the /kʰ/ word sample as similar as possible to the /k/ word
sample with respect to the segmental and prosodic context of the
consonant, we excluded certain tokens in the recordings from analysis; at
the same time, we tried not to be too restrictive. We applied the following
criteria. First, since most of the data consists of citation forms from LL’s
reading of the word list, we excluded candidates from sentence-context
readings. Second, since – at least in our data – /kʰ/ is always followed by
a vowel, we excluded all instances of /k/ followed by a sonorant
consonant. Third, since almost all instances of /kʰ/ in the data are word
initial, we included only word-initial tokens; we also counted the onset of
the second part of compound forms as word initial: e.g., beddoske-khér.
Finally, we only included tokens taken from primarily stressed syllables:
i.e., we excluded simplex words such as kammíssa and compound forms
such as ràno-kher. The resulting sample contains 16 tokens of /kʰ/ and
129 of /k/.

Table 2.12. VOT measurements for /k/ and /kʰ/. Mean VOT and standard
deviation are in milliseconds. Results from a Levene’s test (F-Test) suggest that
one can assume equal variances; results from an independent samples t-test
confirm that the /k/ and /kʰ/ samples represent distinct populations.
Mean Std. N F p t df p
VOT dev.
/k/ 62.3 13.9 129 1.218 .272 -4.71 143 <.001
/kʰ/ 79.3 11.2 16 (n.s.) (***)
 62

Table 2.12 shows the results of the measurements, along with a t-test
comparison of the /kʰ/ and /k/ samples. The /kʰ/ tokens have a longer
VOT than the /k/ tokens by on average 17 ms.; the difference is small but
statistically (highly) significant.
The results are astonishing, considering VOT values reported for other
languages. Eastern Armenian and Thai are two languages that likewise
distinguish three degrees of VOT. 32 For these languages, Lisker and
Abramson (1964) report VOT values for /k/ and /kʰ/ of around 25-30 ms.
and 100 ms. respectively. These languages exhibit only one degree of
aspiration, as VOT values less than around 30 ms. can be regarded as
inaudible for /k/; the languages thus contrast unaspirated (tenuis) /k/ with
aspirated /kʰ/. Cho and Ladefoged (1999) report similar differences in
Apache (31 vs. 80 ms.), Gaelic (28 vs. 73 ms.), Jalapa Mazatec (23 vs. 80
ms.), Khonoma Angami (20 vs. 91 ms.), and Tlingit (28 vs. 128 ms.).
Meanwhile, they report mildly vs. strongly aspirated velar stops of 44 vs.
84 ms. for Hupa and 45 vs. 154 ms. for Navajo. Lisker and Abramson
(1964) report mean VOTs for Korean of 19 ms. for /k/ (tenuis), 126 ms.
for /kʰ/ (strong aspiration), and 47 ms. for an intermediate category (mild
aspiration).
In Swedish Romani, initial-position /k/ and /kʰ/ are both clearly
aspirated, and their mean VOT values are markedly close (Table 2.12)
compared to the other languages just mentioned. The aspiration of
Swedish Romani /k/ is mild to moderate, the aspiration of /kʰ/
moderate.33 We are unaware of any language with a VOT distinction as
fine as the one found here for Swedish Romani: at least, not within the
impressionistic category of aspirated. 34
Cho and Ladefoged (1999) actually report a three-way VOT
distinction of 31 ms. vs. 60 ms. vs. 80 ms. in Apache, with two of the
values equivalent to the ones found here for Swedish Romani. However,
the 60 ms. value refers to a glottalized /k′/; for the /k′/ vs. /kʰ/ contrast,
VOT is not the only distinctive feature, if it is distinctive at all.
One must consider the possibility of phonetic features other than VOT
being implicated in the Swedish Romani aspirated/unaspirated contrast.

32
We have not included voiced stops in our measurements; these would have
negative VOT values.
33
Lisker and Abramson (1964) report a mean of 80 ms. for the VOT of word-
initial /k/ in English, which can be understood as moderately aspirated.
34
Languages (e.g., Korean) may exhibit quite fine VOT distinctions for tenuis
vs. mildly aspirated stops.
 63

Indeed, the alternative spelling of phral as prahl (Table 2.11) suggests

that the aspiration can move to another segment – possibly realized as a
variation in voice quality – in a manner similar to that observed for the
voiced aspirated stop (Section 2.4.5.2). In most of the recordings –
including those of phral/prahl – one has difficulty identifying deviant
voice qualities. Occasionally though, one can hear (and see) in the
acoustic signal a deviation from the modal voice towards a more breathy
one. This is probably clearest in the instance (Figure 2.1) where LL
contrasts two pronunciation variants.

puv phuv

70 ms 70 ms
5000
Frequency (Hz)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Time (seconds)
Figure 2.1. Wave form diagrams (upper panel) and spectrograms (lower panel)
of puv and its variant phuv, spoken contrastively by speaker LL. VOT is 70 ms.
in both cases; the dotted line marks the section of breathy voice during the vowel
in phuv.

In summary, acoustic and impressionistic study of the recordings

reveal traces of a phonetic distinction between the initially aspirated stops
/p,t,k/ and /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/. The distinction is a fine one and probably not fully
realized in all of the recorded instances. The aspiration is probably
realized by a phonetic feature bundle consisting of a longer VOT or a
 64

breathy voice quality (or both) following – not necessarily immediately –

the stop release.

2.4.5.2 Voiced aspirated [ɡʰ]

For the velar place of articulation only, Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-

Djerf (2008) include a further stop in their inventory of Swedish Romani
consonants: a voiced aspirated [ɡʰ], spelled <gh>. The stop is present
neither in Swedish nor Romani (Section 2.8). It occurs in only seven
items in their data: ghàna ‘people, humans, villagers (non-traveller)’,
ghav/gav ‘rural parts, parish, district’, ghíldo/shíldo ‘party’, two
compound forms involving ghàna, and two involving ghav.
Our data are not conclusive on the phonetic realization of <gh>. They
suggest that the aspiration is realized by a breathy voice quality following
the stop, most often towards the end of a word, even in disyllabic words.
Its degree of realization is highly variable, as we will show.
In the recordings with LL, we count approximately 35 16 tokens of
words, spoken in isolation, containing <gh>. In all but two cases, we
interpret his pronunciation of <gh> as a – de-voiced, being initial – [ɡ].
That is, we do not perceive any systematic differences between his
pronunciation of <gh> and <g>. In the remaining two cases, LL
deliberately contrasts a <gh> word with its <g> variant by means of a
breathy voice quality in the segmental material vowel following <gh>. In
ghav, LL clearly pronounces the vowel with a breathy voice: ghav [ɡɑ̤ːv]
vs. gav [ɡɑːv]; while in bùro-ghav, LL has moved the breathiness
towards the end of the word: [ˈbʉ̟ːrʊˌɡɑːvə̤].
We have recordings of four <gh> words in sentence-final contexts,
providing stronger evidence for the phonetic manifestation of <gh>. In
three cases, <gh> is realized by a breathy voice quality towards the end
of the word, as in the bùro-ghav example above: i.e., bùro-ghana
[ˈbʉ̟ːrʊˌɡɑːna̤], ghav [ɡɑːvə̤], and ghàv-dromm [ˈɡɑːvə̤drɔm]. In the
fourth case – ghíldo [ˈɡɪldʊ] – we observe no specific voice quality.
Given only the examples of the isolated bùro-ghav and the sentence-
final bùro-ghana and ghav, what we have transcribed as [ə̤] could be
merely an irregularity of voice quality resulting from the utterance-final
position: similar to utterance-final creak. However, at least three things

35
In a few cases, it is unclear whether LL intended to pronounce the <gh> or
<g> variant of the word.
 65

argue against this, and instead for treating the breathiness as an aspiration
feature of <gh>.
First, the breathiness found in isolated or sentence-final <gh> words is
relatively salient. We do not observe it in <g> words in corresponding
contexts: e.g., in sentence-final gávo [ˈɡɑːvʊ]. Second, in one of our
examples – ghàv-dromm – <gh> occurs in the first part of a compound
form; the breathiness is therefore not utterance final. Third, the breathy
quality can be realized directly following [ɡ], as in [ɡɑ̤ːv] (see above).
We conclude that the written <gh>/<g> distinction made by Lindell
and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) is phonetically based, even though the
aspiration is variable and possibly even optional. The question that
remains to be answered is whether [ɡʰ] has potential phonemic status.
The question is not a trivial one: there are no relevant minimal pairs; and,
in almost all words, <gh> alternates with <g> or <sh>. However, in one
word – ghàna – <gh> is given as the only possible pronunciation.
Following our earlier reasoning, this could suffice for claiming potential
phonemic status. However, while ghàna is produced with clear aspiration
in our sentence-context data (see bùro-ghana, above), it does not appear
in our isolated word recordings. One could speculate that we are dealing
with a potential phonemic feature which is often weakened phonetically:
Although <gh> occurs only in a few lexical items – the words for ‘rural
parts’, ‘people’, and ‘party’, plus compound forms made from them –
these items are probably quite common in everyday speech; in which
case, segmental reductions are not unexpected. Finally, as we have shown
in the case of voiceless aspirated stops, LL seems to make fine phonetic
distinctions that need not be easily perceivable by non-native speakers –
even trained linguistics. We cannot exclude the possibility that the
aspiration always or typically has some weaker phonetic substance that
we simply did not recognize. Therefore, we cannot safely reject the
possibility of a potential phonemic status for [ɡʰ] – which is why we have
not set it in square brackets in Table 2.4.

2.5 Word-level prosody

2.5.1 Lexical stress

As with Swedish, one syllable in every Swedish Romani simplex

word receives primary stress (cf. Bruce 2012, Zonneveld et al. 1999 for
data on west and north Germanic languages). Stress in Swedish is a
 66

distinctive feature: i.e., one finds (a small number of) minimal pairs that
differ phonologically only in placement of stress. A typical example is
formel /ˈfɔrmɛl/ ‘formula’ vs. formell /fɔrˈmɛlː/ ‘formal’. No such
minimal pairs seem to exist in Swedish Romani. Some words have
pronunciation variants that differ in stress placement: e.g., manusch
‘people (humans), people (ethnicity)’ can be pronounced either
[ˈmɑːnʊɧ] or [maˈnʊɧː], among other possibilities.36 Nevertheless, lexical
stress is by no means free: indeed, conceptually it is the same as in
Swedish. LL can easily determine the stressed syllable of a word and
when a given stress pattern is inadequate, as well as distinguish between
stress variants like [ˈmɑːnʊɧ] and [maˈnʊɧ]. 37 Despite the lack of
minimal pairs, one concludes that lexical stress is as phonemically
important in Swedish Romani as in Swedish.
By default, stress in di- or trisyllabic words typically falls on the first
syllable, which is also the default placement in Swedish – at least for
disyllabic words. 38 See Table 2.13, which lists examples of di- and
trisyllabic nouns and verbs in Swedish Romani.

Table 2.13. Stress placement in di- and trisyllabic words of Swedish Romani.
(For several of these words, further pronunciation alternatives exist.)
Nouns (two syllables) Verbs (two syllables)
ástro ‘star’ mòlla ‘to cost, be
worth’
khére, khère, khèri ‘home, at home’ pàcha, pàscha ‘to lay, lie,
put, hang’
kerál, kèral ‘cheese’ te avél 39 ‘to be,
become’
manúsch, mànusch ‘people (humans), fursté ‘to
people (ethnicity)’ understand’
maskán, màska ‘cat’
Nouns (three syllables) Verbs (three or more syllables)
bánnika ‘pancake’ ànnera ‘to get, fetch’
khéngari, khángari, ‘church’ molvariséra ‘to tin’
kángari
molvína ‘tin’ förmóllvra ‘to tin’
kastrílja ‘saucepan’ ràgusta, ragústa ‘to do magic,
tell fortunes’

36
For further pronunciation variants of this word, see Table 2.16.
37
Such variants are found in some, but by no means all, words.
38
Exceptions are common, sometimes resulting in stress minimal pairs as noted
above.
39
Frozen form, cf. Section 2.8.
 67

The table contains a number of important exceptions to the usual rule.

Stress can fall on the second syllable: e.g., in disyllabic nouns such as
kerál, manúsch, or maskán – note that these words have variants with
initial stress – and trisyllabic nouns such as molvína. Verbs with a
Swedish prefix are often stressed, like the comparable Swedish words, on
the second syllable, as in förmóllvra and fursté. Certain verbs with no
prefix can also be stressed on the second syllable: e.g., LL’s production
of ragústa – note that the stress in this word varies. Finally, verbs ending
in –era can be stressed on the penultima.
Compound forms 40 in Swedish Romani as in Swedish typically have
one primary and one secondary stress. The two stresses fall in the same
syllables as in the corresponding simplex words. In Swedish, the first
element of the compound form usually receives the primary stress: e.g.,
ˈläroˌbok ‘textbook’, baˈnanˌkaka ‘banana cake’, or biblioˈteksˌkort
‘library card’; among the rare exceptions where primary stress falls on
the second element is ˌglasmästeˈri ‘glass factory’. The same pattern is
common in Swedish Romani but not as dominant: i.e., primary stress
frequently falls on the second element. In particular, many compound
forms allow alternatives, where morphological alternation is
accompanied by alternative placement of the primary stress: e.g., bàro-
beddo/baroske-béddo ‘gentleman, master, nobleman, person of high
station’; rùbb-kambana/ ruppeske-kambána ‘silver watch’; schèro-
dukk/scheroske-dúkk ‘headache’.
We have not studied the phonetic correlates of stress in Swedish
Romani systematically. We think it unlikely that the phenomenon differs
in any important ways from the Swedish one, which is roughly
comparable to the one in English. In both Swedish and English, lexical
stress is, on the one hand, an abstract feature independent of any phonetic
manifestation: Speakers know which syllable is the stressed one, even if
the word is not uttered. That said, stress is typically assumed to have
phonetic correlates such as an increased duration and heightened
intensity, as well as certain spectral characteristics. The possible
contribution of distinctive pitch has given rise to some conceptual
confusions. Our own conception of lexical stress is identical to the one
offered in such contemporary text books on prosodic phonology as
Gussenhoven (2004) or Ladd (2008). We can summarize it as follows.

40
We are only concerned here with compound forms composed of two elements.
 68

The stressed syllable functions as an anchor for pitch accents:

whenever a word is accented, a salient pitch excursion is produced and
aligned with the stressed syllable. Pitch plays a key role in the perceived
salience of the accented stressed syllable in a way it does not in
unaccented stressed syllables. Therefore, pitch is typically considered a
relevant phonetic feature of accent, not of stress.
Such an account is primarily aimed at languages such as English and
German, but also valid for Swedish and Swedish Romani, where pitch
accents play a somewhat different role. Although all Germanic languages
have sentence accents: i.e., pitch accents at the utterance level; 41 Swedish
and Swedish Romani also have lexical pitch accents , such that a primary
stressed syllable is generally associated with a certain pitch accent
(Section 2.5.3). De-accentuation also occurs.
Stress is typically audible in unaccented as in accented words, due to
the phonetic features mentioned above (duration, intensity, spectral
parameters). In particular, longer duration of stressed syllables relates to
the phenomenon of quantity.

2.5.2 Quantity

Swedish has a complementary quantity distinction related to lexical

stress (Elert 1964; Bruce 2012) that is also present in Swedish Romani. A
stressed syllable is always heavy. It contains either a long vowel plus an
optional short consonant or cluster: V:(C); or a short vowel plus a long
consonant or cluster: VC:(C). In both Swedish and Swedish Romani, the
primary phonetic correlate of the phonological quantity distinction is the
relation between vowel and consonant duration. A difference in vowel
quality between short and long vowels can typically be observed, too (see
Section 2.3 and tables 2.1, 2.2). One crucial difference between Swedish
and Swedish Romani: in Swedish Romani, quantity is not bound
exclusively to lexical stress, meaning that non-stressed syllables can also
be heavy – notably, words ending in the suffix -epa. LL and KTD
pronounce these words differently, but both do so such that a non-
stressed vowel – either the first or the second vowel in –epa – is
pronounced long. For example, LL pronounces bèkknepa ‘trade, selling,
merchandise, market, fair’ [ˈbɛkːnepɑː], KTD [ˈbɛkːneːpa].

41
We will not offer any treatment of these in this book.
 69

2.5.3 Lexical pitch accents

Swedish Romani has adopted the Swedish binary lexical pitch-accent

contrast. In Swedish, each prosodic word – essentially, a content word
with adjacent function words – is assigned a tonal pattern: either Accent I
or Accent II (Section 2.5.3.1). The acoustic difference between Accent I
and Accent II is a matter of fundamental frequency (F0). Figure 2.2
displays F0 tracks for a Swedish Romani near-minimal pair, spoken by
LL: lánglo 42 ‘lame, limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’. A
phonological description of the word-accent distinction is offered briefly
in Section 2.5.3.2.

Figure 2.2. Semitone F0 tracks aligned with corresponding speech signals for an
Accent I/II Swedish Romani near-minimal pair spoken by LL: lánglo ‘lame,
limping, slow, sad’ and làngla ‘to limp’. The words are time-aligned at the
stressed-vowel onset (dashed vertical line); two solid vertical lines mark the
stressed-vowel offset.

2.5.3.1 Assignment of pitch accents

Lexical pitch accent is a distinctive feature in Swedish phonology. It

can e.g. distinguish between such words as Accent I regel ‘rule’ and
Accent II regel ‘bolt’. That said, distinctiveness is not the primary
function of pitch accent. Swedish has only about 350 minimal pairs (Elert
1972). In many cases, one member of the pair is relatively unusual. In
many more cases, pitch accent is only distinctive in inflected forms such

42
Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) mark Accent I with an acute
accent on the vowel of the stressed syllable, Accent II with a grave accent. We
adopt the same convention.
 70

as anden (Accent I definite singular of and: ‘the duck’) vs. anden (Accent
II definite singular of ande: ‘the spirit’).
Swedish lexical pitch accent is largely determined by the
morphological and phonological structure of a word. One finds a
comprehensive description of the rules for pitch-accent assignment in
Swedish in Gårding (1977), summarized in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3. Rules of pitch-accent assignment in Swedish (from Gårding

1977).

As the figure implies, the primary function of lexical pitch accent in

Swedish relates to morphology. Several researchers (e.g., Malmberg
1959; Elert 1970) have proposed that Accent II has a primarily
connective function that aids the listener in processing morphological
structure: in particular, an Accent II pattern on the stressed syllable
indicates that at least one further syllable will follow within the same
word. This hypothesis has received support from a recent neurolinguistic
study (Roll et al. 2010) on the interaction in disyllabic words between
pitch pattern in the stressed syllable and a suffix.
 71

To a great extent, Scandoromani follows the Scandinavian pattern,

even though the origins of its derivational morphemes are completely
different (cf. Swedish: Figure 2.3). 43
• Monosyllabic words always are Accent I: e.g., kasht ‘wood,
firewood, tree’. This includes the definite singular form: káshten.
• Words ending in -a, -an, -are, -ing, -i(g) are Accent II, including
definite singular form.
• Words ending in -o, -i, -li, -us, -um, -alo, -ano, -aro can be either
Accent I or Accent II, depending on form and speaker.
• Plurals ending in -ar, -or normally are Accent II. They are
sometimes Accent I when they occur together with Accent I
words in singular form.
• Plurals ending in -er are normally Accent I. They occur together
with words ending in -i, which normally are Accent I.
• All verb forms are normally Accent II, with the exception of
verbs beginning with för-, which have the stress on the second
syllable through all conjugations: e.g., förmóllvra; and a few
other verbs like molvariséra ‘to tin’ and mòstula ‘must, have to’.
• Compound forms normally are Accent II and place the principal
stress on the first element, secondary stress on the second,
independent of the stress patterns of the individual elements: e.g.,
bèddo-kher ‘mansion, manor’, formed from béddo ‘gentleman,
master, nobleman, man of high stature, person in authority;
person from the authorities’ and kher ‘farm, estate, homestead’.

These very general rules have numerous exceptions, not all of which can
be explained as simple dialectal/familylectal variation: e.g., the near-
minimal pair hèrta ‘stove’ and hérma ‘grey’.

2.5.3.2 Phonological description of lexical pitch accent

According to the Lund Model of Swedish prosody (Bruce 1977; Bruce

& Gårding 1978), the lexical pitch accent is generally realized as a tonal
fall, represented in the model as HL: i.e., a combination of a H(igh) and
L(ow) tone. The distinction between accents I and II is a matter of timing
or the alignment of tonal gesture with segmental string. HL is aligned
early in Accent I and late in Accent II. This relative contrast holds for all

43
The following overview is based on Iversen (1944) and Johansson (1977).
 72

tonal dialects of Swedish spoken in Sweden, 44 even though the absolute

timing differs between dialects. The HL gesture often appears as a fall in
F0, as is clearly visible in Figure 2.2: early F0 fall in Accent I, late F0 fall
in Accent II.
Gårding (1977) proposed a typology of dialects comprising five
prosodic Swedish dialect types. Pitch accent is typically realized as
shown in Figure 2.4, which shows stylized pitch contours for a number of
disyllabic words.

Figure 2.4. Stylized pitch contours for disyllabic words in the five prosodic
Swedish dialect types; Akut = Accent I; Grav = Accent II (from Bruce 2010;
after Gårding and Lindblad 1973, based on data from Meyer 1937).

Our informant LL comes from near Lidköping in west Sweden –

where, according to Gårding’s typology, dialect Type 2B is spoken.
Comparison with Figure 2.2 suggests that LL realizes his pitch accents in
Swedish Romani as he would in his Swedish dialect, even though this
might not be obvious at first sight. 45 Dialect 2B seems to distinguish
accents I from II in terms of a low (Accent I) vs. high (Accent II) stressed
syllable, not in terms an early vs. late fall (Figure 2.4). The schematic
course in Figure 2.4 corresponds well with the course of the perceived

44
Finland Swedish has lost the lexical pitch accent distinction.
45
According to Segerup (personal communication), the F0 course shown in
Figure 2.2 is very close to the expected F0 course for a corresponding word in
the Gothenburg dialect of Swedish: also Type 2B; see e.g. Segerup (2005).
 73

pitch in LL’s speech: i.e., the initial Accent I fall in F0 (Figure 2.2) is not
perceived as such. According to the Lund Model, the H in this dialect
falls on the stressed syllable in Accent II; while the L falls on the stressed
syllable in Accent I – where the H is realized before the stress, and hence
missing in the citation form in Figure 2.2.

2.6 Patterns of allophonic variation

The abundance of internal variation is typical of Scandoromani. Often

(see also Section 2.1.2) the register of one speaker includes knowledge of
several variants – familylects or dialects – depending on family and
geography. The most typical feature of all – often mentioned by speakers
as important for distinguishing the familylectal and dialectal origin of
other speakers – is allophonic variation within the series of fricatives and
affricates (Section 2.4.4).
In considering word variants, one quickly notices a phonetic variation
that includes both vowels and consonants and is connected to variation in
derivational morphology. Tables 2.14 and 2.15 offer some examples.
Together, the tables show that – although the overall picture is complex –
free allophonic variation follows certain rules; at least, it seems to divide
into recognizable series. In most of the examples shown, this variation
affects either a vowel or a consonant (or cluster of consonants). In a few
cases though, the two types of variation co-occur.

Table 2.14. Examples of vocalic alteration. Pronunciation variations are

represented by spelling according to Table i.
Variation Example in Scandoromani
a~o gaja, goja ʻwoman’
o~u dòmra, dùmra ʻto sleep’; dosch, dusch ʻbreast’, hònka,
hùnka ʻto be’
y~o~u dy, do, duj ʻtwo’
i~e jìkkum, jèkkum ʻone’
y~u jýkklo, júkklo ʻ(male) dog’
e~ä~i kerál, kärál, királ ʻcheese’
e~a mèkksta, màkksa ʻto cost; raj, rej ʻgentleman, distinguished
gentleman’
y~i mỳnscha, mìnsha ʻvulva, cunnus’
y~ö tjýllrano, tjö́ ldrano ʻcold’
o~ö romano-bókko, -bö́ kko ʻwhip’
 74

y~u schýnslo, schúnslo ʻear’; tỳa, thùja ʻto smoke’; ùshli, ỳshli
ʻowing s.b., in debt’
ö~a mö́ rkli, màrkli ʻcookies, rusks’
e ~ ea léddik, léaddik ʻbox’
o~ô schòrnan, schồrnan ʻbarn’
e~ē sénslo, sēnslo ʻthen, late, later’
oi ~ o schoìschoi, chòcha ʻhare’

Table 2.15. Examples of consonantal alteration: individual phonemes or groups.

Pronunciation variations are represented by spelling according to table i. For
examples of alteration with fricatives and affricates, see tables 2.5 and 2.6.
Variation Examples in Scandoromani
zero ~ j, l gùrma, gùrmja ʻbarn, cow-shed’; ràmsa, ràmsla ʻdress’;
rìnta, rìntla ʻchest’
r~l rèkkra, rèkkla ʻhold, reach out/give [a hand], keep’,
pàrkra, pàrkla ʻ1. to thank, 2. bow’
k~g krúmmik, grúmmik ʻcow’
fj ~ fl gròffla, gròffja ʻ(boiling) pot’
stj ~ sht lístjo, líshto ʻface’
ntl ~ nt ~ ttr slìntla, slìnta, slìttra ʻsled, sleigh, sledge’
lt ~ nt smèltana, smìltana, smä̀ ntjana ʻ1. cream, 2. soured cream’
chv ~ rf góchvalo, gòrfalo ʻintelligent’
ch ~ chk pùcha, pùchka ʻto ask’
gh ~ sh ghíldo, shíldo ʻparty’

geminated ~ pèrnissa, pèrnisa ʻpillow, cushion’; préde, prédde

simple ʻthrough, between’; schàla, shàlla ʻto kiss, butter up, suck
up to, brown nose’
metathesis níjal, nílja ʻsummer’; nìtja, nèjta ʻ1. field, tilled field, 2.
grounds, 3. meadow’; snàdjare, snàjdare ʻtailor’

In addition, prosodic alternation – both involving lexical stress

(Section 2.5.1) and lexical pitch accent (Section 2.5.3) – can co-occur
with segmental alternation. Table 2.16 shows an example of such a
complex case.

Table 2.16. Co-occurrence of vocalic, consonantal, and prosodic alternation: the

seven alternatives produced by LL of mànusch/manúsch/manísh/mànuch/mànish
‘people (humans), people (ethnicity)’. * marks pronunciations not offered as a
spelling alternative in Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008). Lexical pitch
accent (not transcribed) varies as a secondary feature: initial-stress
pronunciations are Accent II, final-stress Accent I.
Initial stress Final stress
/ʊ/ [ˈmɑːnʊʂ]* [ˈmɑːnʊɧ] [ˈmɑːnʊχ] [maˈnʊʂː]* [maˈnʊɧː]
/ɪ/ [ˈmɑːnɪʂ] [maˈnɪʂː]
 75

2.7 Phonological complexity

We believe that the Swedish Romani system is somewhat more
phonologically complex than the Swedish one. By ‘phonological
complexity’, we intend first and foremost the number of phonemes (cf.
Bakker 2009; Klein 2009). Syllable structure may also be relevant, but
we have not considered it here.
In Section 2.1.2, we argued that the distinctive phones in Swedish
Romani, including the free allophones, should be the focus of attention,
not the phoneme inventory. In this section, however, we focus mainly on
phonemes, on the grounds that statements of phonological complexity are
typically based strictly on phonemes (see e.g. Maddieson 1984, 2008a,
2008b; Bakker 2009; Klein 2009).
Our claim about phonological complexity is clearly supported by the
data on Swedish Romani vowels, consonants, and word-prosodic
characteristics presented so far in this chapter (sections 2.3-2.5). Based on
these sections, Table 2.17 lists numbers of vowel and consonant
phonemes for Swedish and Swedish Romani. For Swedish Romani, we
include all distinctive phones with potential phonemic status, as discussed
earlier.

Table 2.17. Phonological complexity in Swedish and Swedish Romani by

number of vowels, consonants, and total phonemes. Labels are according to
Maddieson (1984, 2008a, 2008b). We count only potential phonemes and
exclude free allophones. *Alternative count excluding sparsely occurring
phonemes (see text for details).
Language Vowel Consonant inventory Phoneme inventory
inventory
Swedish 17 (large) 18 (moderately (17+18=) (typical)
small) 35
Swedish 18 (large) 23 (average) (18+23=) (complex)
Romani 41
Swedish 13 (large) 23 (average) (13+23=) (typical)
* *
Romani 36*

Maddieson distinguishes three degrees of complexity with respect to

number of vowels (2008b): small (<5), average (5-6), and large (>7);
five with respect to number of consonants (2008a): small (6-14),
moderately small (15-18), average (19-25), moderately large (26-33),
 76

and large (>33); and three with respect to total number of phonemes
(1984): simple (< 20 phonemes), typical (20-37), and complex (> 37). On
this scale, both Swedish and Swedish Romani have large vowel
inventories; the consonant inventory of Swedish is moderately small, that
of Swedish Romani average; the overall phoneme inventory of Swedish
is ‘typical’, that of Swedish Romani ‘complex’.
One could argue for a more cautious estimation of Swedish Romani
phonological complexity, given that a couple of phonemes occur only
sparsely. An extreme example is /øː/, found in only one word in Lindell
and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008): bö́ lo ‘bull’, borrowed from dialectal
Swedish böl. Lindell and Thorbjörnsson-Djerf mark four further vowels
of Swedish Romani – five in total – as marginal. Should these sounds be
included when calculating phonological complexity? Should they be
included in a phonological – or allophonic – description of Swedish
Romani at all? In a study of several Pidgins, Bakker (2009) includes
marginal speech sounds in his presentation of phoneme inventories but
excludes them when calculating phonological complexity.
Table 2.17 includes a more cautious alternative count for Swedish
Romani that disregards marginal phonemes, per Bakker. It counts only 13
vowel phonemes, not 18. 46
The table shows that, even when counting only 13 vowels for Swedish
Romani, its vowel system still qualifies as ‘large’. Its overall phoneme
count now qualifies as ‘typical’ – in line with Swedish – rather than
‘complex’. More importantly, it still has a higher overall phoneme count
than Swedish, due to its large consonant inventory. We tentatively
conclude that Swedish Romani has a more complex phoneme inventory
than Swedish when considering either both vowels and consonants or
consonants alone.
In addition, the Swedish Romani prosodic system seems slightly more
complex than the Swedish one. The two languages share basically the
same word-prosodic features: lexical stress, quantity, and lexical pitch
accent. However, phonologically long sounds are restricted to stressed
syllables in Swedish; while, in Swedish Romani, a long vowel can – in
exceptional cases – occur in an unstressed syllable (see Section 2.5.2).

46
It is difficult to determine which phonemes should count as marginal: some
occur sparsely in the data, but this may be due to the small size of the lexicon.
Here, we simply exclude those five vowels marked by Lindell and
Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008) as marginal.
 77

Finally, the conspicuous occurrence of free allophonic variation at all

levels of phonology (see Section 2.6) is a striking feature of Swedish
Romani: one that is regarded as important by its speakers and clearly
increases the complexity of the overall sound system. This allows us to
broaden our preliminary conclusion above: both the (narrower) phoneme
inventory and the (broader) inventory of distinctive phones are more
complex in Swedish Romani than in Swedish.

2.8. Historical background

The phonetic system underlying Scandoromani is most likely
reflective of Sinte Romani. Sinte Romani distinguishes vowel length:
probably an influence from German (see Table 2.18).

Table 2.18. Vowels in Sinte (derived from Matras 2002, 62).

i i: u u:
e e: ɘ o o:
a a:

As the table reveals, Swedish Romani is richer in phonemes. The

question remaining to be answered is, in what respect does this system
represent an innovation in Romani and not just an allophonic adaption of
Romani to the Swedish system? This could be achieved by checking the
etymologies of individual lexemes containing vowels not occurring in
Romani proper, but since the variation in Romani proper is very large at
lexical level, this is a very complicated task. However, a few things can
be noticed.
The /ɛː/ and /ɛ/ phonemes are essentially allophonic: most lexemes
involving /ɛː/ or /ɛ/ have a variant with /eː/ or [e]. That variant is
generally dialectal/familylectal: e.g., beng/bäng ‘devil, Satan’, bä́ ro/béro
‘boat’. Other examples represent loan words – either from
German/Rotwelsch: e.g., bäffa s.: ‘vulva’, from Rotwelsch Beff ‘vulva’
←German Befze ‘lip’; or from Scandinavian: e.g., bä̀ te ‘piece, song’,
from Sw.Dial. bete, bite ‘piece’. Note that the source lexemes do not
necessarily involve /ɛː/ or /ɛ/.
The /œ/ phoneme is likewise essentially allophonic, being a
dialectal/familylectal variant of /ɔ/: e.g., roj, röj ‘spoon’, Romani řoj; /ʊ/:
e.g., suj, soj, söj ‘needle, sewing needle’, Romani suv; or /ʏ/: e.g., býskri,
bö́ skri ‘Jewess’, etymology uncertain. In some forms, no variant seems to
occur: e.g., pö̀ rdat ‘tubercolosis’; derived from Romani phurdel ‘to
 78

blow’; or bökk, bökkt ‘money’, probably from Romani baxt ‘happiness,

luck’, though note the lexeme bákko ‘luck, good fortune; vessel,
spittoon’.

Table 2.19. The Sinte Romani consonantal system (derived from Matras 2002,
57).
p t k c č
ph th kh
b d g dž
m n
f x s š h
v z ž ʀ
l
(r)
j

As in most Romani dialects, the Swedish Romani consonantal system

is more complex than its vowel system. This complexity is further
increased by the addition of Swedish phonemes. One finds rich
allophonic variation within the Scandoromani system – mostly within
particular groups of allophones, which correspond to phonemes of
Romani proper (Table 2.19). The implication is that Romani phonemes
can have different expressions in Swedish Romani, a situation that is
further complicated by the rich allophonic variation. In particular, the
fricatives and affricates are extremely complex (see Table 2.10).

Table 2.20. The main correspondences between Romani/Scandoromani

consonants and attested internal Scandoromani variation. Scandoromani
phonemes and allophones are represented by IPA according to Table 2.4.
Romani Variation in Example in Scandoromani [Romani]
Scandoromani

š [ɕ] [ɧ] [ʂ] [χ] bàscha, bàcha, bàsha ‘1. to bark, yell, argue,
be difficult, be stupid; 2. epithet’ [bašel]
[tɕ] tjéllano ‘cold’ [šilelo]
č [ɕ] [ɧ] [ʂ] [χ] [tɕ] pùscha, pùcha, pùsha, pùttja ʻto ask’
[phučel]
círklo, schírklo ʻbird’ [čirklo]
x [ɧ] [ʂ] [χ] lóchano, lóshano, láchano, láschano,
láshano ‘glad, happy, also: in love’ [loxano:
Kaale]
s [s] [ɧ] krasch ʻgrass’ [šleifkras ʻknotgrass’]
c [tɕ] faláttjer ʻmittens, gloves’ [forlocin]
č [tɕ] tjòra ʻto steal’ [čorel]
 79

čh [tɕ] tjúri ʻknife’ [čuri, čhuri]

k [k] [tɕ] kíndo, tjíndo ʻwet’ [kindo]
t [t] [tɕ] mútter, múttjer ʻurine’ [mutar]
dž [j] júkklo, jýkklo ʻ(male) dog’ [džuklo]

Swedish Romani preserves the three aspirated stops /pʰ/, /tʰ/, and /kʰ/
from Romani (cf. the Sinte data in Table 2.19). They are found in high-
frequency words and normally have a non-aspirated variant. As shown
above, the distinction between the non-aspirated and the aspirated stops
is, phonetically, a very fine one (Section 2.4.5.1). Examples include
phúri, phúria, púri ‘(sweet) old woman’, Romani phuro ‘old’; phuv, puj
‘earth, ground, floor’, Romani phuv; themm, temm ‘land, district, parts,
region’, Romani them ‘country’, ‘area’; thỳja, tỳa ‘to smoke’, Romani
thuv ‘smoke’/ thuvarel ‘to smoke’; kham ‘sun, sunshine’, Romani kham
‘sun’; kher ‘estate, homestead’, Romani kher; and mákhi ‘fly’, Romani
makh. Sometimes the aspiration is moving: e.g., phral, pral, prahl
‘brother’, Romani phral, see also Figure 2.1.
The aspirated voiced stop /ɡʰ/ is an innovation on Romani. It is only
found in a few words of Swedish Romani, which derive from several
alternatives in Romani: e.g., a non-aspirated, voiced stop /ɡ/ in the case
of ghav ‘village’, Romani gav; an affricate in the case of ghàna ‘people,
humans, villagers (non-traveller)’, Romani džene.
Table 2.20 clearly shows that the phonemic/allophonic variation
among fricatives and affricates described in detail in sections 2.4.3 and
2.4.4 has no direct historical explanation. It is almost completely
secondary, re-structured according to the intertwining described in
Chapter 1.
The Scandoromani system of lexical stress and pitch accent raises
interesting issues. As we have shown in Section 2.5.1, lexical stress is
adapted – as is quantity – to the Scandinavian system of initial stress but
with exceptions. These exceptions are of several types:
1) Frozen forms: e.g., the frozen infinitive te avél ‘to be’.
2) Culture-specific terms: e.g., maskán ‘cat’, manísh ‘people
(humans), people (ethnicity)’. These have variants with initial
stress: màska, mànusch.
3) Derivational morphemes: e.g., -al, -eal as in uschál ‘shadow’,
kerál ‘cheese’.
4) Secondary adaptations from Scandinavian. Some words are
adapted secondarily to Swedish or Norwegian formations or to
individual words with non-initial stress (i.e., loanwords): e.g.,
 80

verbs with initial fur- (Swedish för-, Norwegian for- as in fursté

‘understand’, förmóllvra ‘to tin’) or words like kastrílja
‘saucepan’, Swedish kastrúll.

Stress patterns 1-3 are remnants of Early Romani, still preserved in a

few archaic dialects (Matras 2002, 62f.).
The origin of the Scandoromani pitch accent system is a highly
complex issue. The Scandinavian pitch accents have their origin in pre-
North Germanic structures and in the effects of syncope and epenthesis;
for various theories, see Gårding (1977), Bruce (2012), Riad (1992). No
such historical explanation can be given for Scandoromani. As noted, the
adaptation of the pitch accent system is completely secondary and
understood to relate to structural similarities between the languages.
Most parts of the Scandoromani pitch accent system relate clearly to
phonemic structure: in particular to derivational morphology. A given
structure or derivational morpheme automatically follows a certain pitch
accent (see Section 2.5.3). Within this basic system, however, one finds
considerable dialectal/familylectal variation that is generally consistent:
i.e., speakers tend to use the same pitch accents with the same morpheme,
with a few exceptions such that, for some derivational morphemes, one
speaker has one set of patterns, another speaker another set of patterns.
Based on the interviews with LL and KTD, we conclude that alternative
pitch accent patterns for a word – a frequent phenomenon – may not be
part of a speaker’s conscious register in the way that allophonic or
phonemic variation forms, as well as varying lexical stress patterns, are.
Chapters 3 provides an overview of the pitch accent patterns of
various verbal, adjectival, and nominal morphemes.
 81

3. The interdependence of adaptation,

derivation, and inflection in a mixed
morphology 47

3.1. General remarks

The morphology of a mixed language like Scandoromani presents a great
challenge: the formation of new words, the adaptation and camouflaging
of loan words, and the adaptation of the lexicon to Scandinavian
inflectional morphology and prosody prove intricate and unpredictable.
Nevertheless, patterns can be discerned; the issue becomes the extent
to which the patterns reflect one or the other component language,
previous contact languages, or the co-territorial language’s dialects.
The influence from Low German is prominent in the morphology, as
in the lexicon. A few elements are inherited from Romani proper, though
their usage has changed. The system is fully adapted to contemporary
Scandinavian, at the same time it bears traces of past (e.g., archaic forms
of Scandinavian) and dialectal influences.
The inflectional, derivational, and adaptational morphology systems
are highly interrelated, with layers of adaptation, borrowing, and
autonomous development (see Section 3.4).
The underlying structure is roughly equivalent to other inflected
European dialects such as Sinte or Romungro. Though they are not
labeled ‘mixed’, these latter dialects show similar patterns of
morphological and grammatical borrowing (see Elšik 2007 for Hungarian
Romungro). Their verbs and their nouns systematically distinguish
inherited from borrowed in the inflection (Matras 2002, 72f., 117f.).
By contrast, in keeping with the general Scandinavian pattern,
Scandoromani makes no distinction in inflection between inherited and
borrowed. Instead, it relies on Scandinavian inflection. Because the
Scandinavian languages themselves also retain remnants of an older

47
The primary sources on morphology, stress, and pitch accent for this chapter
are Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (2008), Iversen (1944), and Johansson
(1977), see Appendix I, Vocabulary. Unless otherwise noted, the source for
European Romani is the ROMLEX database.
 82

inflectional system – best preserved in dialects – the outcome of

inflectional system is particularly intricate.
Although Scandoromani inflectional morphology generally follows
the Scandinavian model, one finds exceptions (see Sections 3.2.-3.3.). In
general, its inflection is adapted to local dialects rather than the standard
language. Normally, our informants (LL, KTD) offer two variants: one
following the dialectal form, the other the standard language (see
Appendix I, Vocabulary). The adaptation of the Scandinavian inflectional
morphemes to the derivational morphemes of Romani and the adaptation
to Scandinavian prosodic patterns – such as stress and pitch accent – are
particularly intriguing. Selection of inflectional morpheme appears to be
connected to the shape of the derivational morpheme, corresponding to,
but not copying, Scandinavian (standard and dialectal) patterns.

3.2. Nominal morphology

3.2.1. Basic principles

A number of noun categories from inflected Romani factor into

Scandoramani derivation and inflection: i.e., gender
(masculine/feminine), animacy (animate/inanimate), and thematic status
(thematic/athematic) (Matras 2002, 72f.).
The masculine/feminine distinction has survived, with the addition of
a neuter category from Scandinavian (Section 3.2.1.1). The animacy
distinction has not, at least in the form it takes in Romani, where
inanimate nouns have identical forms in nominative and oblique. That
said, it has played a role in the formation of the new neuter category by
re-interpreting – not merely copying – the Scandinavian category. Its
retention might also be seen in the use of adjectives (Section 3.2.1.2).
Thematic status continues to play a role as well, but it has been adapted to
the Scandinavian system (Section 3.2.1.3).

3.2.1.1. Gender

The gender system is a mix between Romani and Scandinavian. Per

Scandinavian, non-neuter is distinguished from neuter; per Romani,
masculine is distinguished from feminine. Scando-romani therefore has a
system in which it is relevant to distinguish four genders, non-neuter,
neuter, and masculine/feminine.
 83

The masculine/feminine distinction is valid in Scandoromani only for

sexus: beings with male or female gender. In the Scandinavian languages,
this is normally indicated lexically: e.g., man (‘man’) vs. kvinna
(‘woman’) (Homes & Hincliffe 2008, 7). Scandoromani retains Romani
lexical derivation along with lexemes borrowed later than the split from
Romani: e.g., byskro (‘male jew’) byskri (‘female jew’) (see 3.2.2.1. for
gender distincion). Many lexemes are inherited as masculines and
feminines directly from Romani: e.g., gurmni (‘cow’), compare Sinte
Romani grumni.
Gender is sometimes – though not very systematically and also with a
limited number of adjectives, according to our informants (see also
Johansson 1977, 21) – reflected in adjectives in attributive position: e.g.,
romano tjavo (‘Roma boy’) vs. romani tjej (‘Roma girl’).
As in Romani, many feminine nouns end in -i (Matras 2002, 82-3):
e.g., bushni (‘goat’), dakkri (‘mother’). Most of these are inherited
directly from Romani.
Scandoromani has another feminine form ending in -a, based on
earlier (Romani) -i forms. It is reflected in a number of frequently used
words: e.g., gaja, gadja (‘woman’, Romani gadži ‘peasant woman’), deja
(‘mother’, Romani dai), juvlia (‘woman’, Romani džuwli), rashia
(‘female priest’, feminine alternative to Romani rašaj ‘priest’), sabōria
(‘princess’, origin unknown), trakksa (‘midwife’, origin unknown). The -
a form originates in a merger between the European Romani -a form,
used for loan words (Matras 2002, 83), and the Scandinavian -a feminine
(reflecting earlier *-ōn-stems , see Wessén 1955, 81f.). Inflection of the
Scandoromani feminine forms ending in -a is different from the
Scandinavian languages, where they use a plural ending -or not found in
Scandoromani (see 3.2.2.1.).
As said, the neuter category 48 is an innovation adapted from
Scandinavian. Systematic comparison between Swedish Romani (based
on data from Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008) and Swedish (see
Appendix I, Vocabulary) shows that use of neuter vs. non-neuter
vacillates. Clearly, the choice of neuter vs. non-neuter is not a word-by-
word calque from Swedish, even though, sometimes, this is apparently
the case: e.g., rukk, -et/-anet (‘tree’, Swedish träd, -et). In many other
cases, the Scandoromani lexeme has two or more translations: one neuter

48
The neuter only appears in the inflection: definite singular: -t and zero plural.
The indefinite article has only one form: jekh (Swedish en, ett, Norwegian en,
ei/en, et).
 84

in Swedish, the other(s) not: e.g., littran, -et (Swedish skjul, -et ‘shed’,
bod, -en ‘storehouse’, or säng, -en ‘bed’). Other times, the corresponding
Swedish word is non-neuter.
Looking at the Scandoromani words that are inflected as neuter
reveals a number of tendencies. Some have equivalents in Swedish,
others not.
• Nouns ending in -epā (cf. Romani -ipe(n)). According to our
Swedish sources (see Appendix I, Vocabulary), nearly all of
these words are neuter. Exceptions include merepā (‘slaughter’)
(LDj, Joh), and grekkepā (‘sin’ (LDj, Joh). Note that, according
to Iversen (1944), they are all non-neuter. The -epā morpheme
creates abstract nouns (see below). It corresponds to the
Swedish morpheme -ande/-ende, which creates present
participles and abstract nouns and is neuter (Holmes &
Hincliffe. 2008, 6 f.).
• Foods, and other substances: e.g., jaro, -t (‘egg’, Swedish
ägg, -et), kill, -et (‘butter’, Swedish smör, -et), jiven, jivanet
(‘snow’, Swedish snö, -n). Many – but not all – of the
corresponding Swedish terms are also neuter.
• Body parts: e.g., babb, -et (‘beard’, Swedish skägg, -et) or
mol-boris (‘hoof’, Swedish hov, -en). Many – but not all – of
the corresponding Swedish terms are also neuter.
• Other neuters. Several neuter forms cannot be explained in
any of the above ways. The corresponding Swedish terms are
non-neuter. Examples include uschal, -et (‘shadow’, Swedish
skugga, -n) or tjokkla, -net (‘skirt’, Swedish kjol, -en).

3.2.1.3. Animacy

Animacy has several implications for inflected Romani. Most obvious

is the inflection of nouns. Animate nouns use the oblique case marking
for direct objects; inanimate nouns use the unmarked nominative. The
two categories differ in pronominal reference: animate nouns require
pronouns, while demonstratives are used for inanimate nouns (Matras
2002, 72-73). The limits of animacy vary between dialects and are often
unclear (for descriptions, see Holzinger 1993, Matras 2002). Kin terms
are most likely to be marked animate, followed by non-kin or non-Roma
humans, domestic animals, and lower animals such as fish or worms.
 85

Based on our informants, Swedish Romani only marks animacy with

the choice of adjectives for ‘small’: tikkno (animate) vs. kutti (inanimate).
As in Sinte (Holzinger 1993, 30-31), the animate/inanimate boundary is
vague, with a large grey area for which usage vacillates (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1. Choice of adjective for ‘small’ in predicative position in Swedish

Romani (Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008, 28).
tikkno [animate] tikkno or kutti kutti [inanimate]
mosch (‘man’) tjermo (‘worm’) barr (‘stone’)
dadeske (‘dad’, ‘grandfather’) sapp (‘snake’) drom (‘road’)
tjej (‘girl’) mattjo (‘fish’)
nukko (‘kid’) morokka (‘frog’)
graj (‘horse’) vasht (‘hand’)
jukklo (‘dog’)
bakkro (‘sheep’)

3.2.1.4. Thematic status

Two inflectional systems can be distinguished in inflected Romani:

thematic (pre-European) vs. athematic (European). As Table 3.2 shows,
these vary both in final vowel or consonant and in inflection (nominative
vs. oblique). This corresponds to the Layer I paradigm, which forms the
basis for the Layer II affixes (Table 3.4).
The athematic (European) system, which is retained in Kale – e.g.,
foros ~ fori (‘town’), posta ~ posti (‘pocket’) – has merged in Sinte
Romani with the thematic system (Holzinger 1993, 24ff.). Romani
lexemes of the European type in -is, -us, or -os end, in Sinte Romani,
with -i, -u, or -o (Table 3.3). By contrast, the endings -os and -is – (but
not -us) – are very productive in Kale, occuring frequently with loan
words from Swedish: e.g., bekkos (‘river’, ←Swedish bäck), bittos
(‘piece’, ←Swedish bit), abboris (‘perch’, ←Swedish abborre).
Meanwhile in Scandoromani, -os is unproductive: e.g., krestos (‘cross’)
and klistos (‘cossack’), which are uniflected; -is occurs with only a
handful of loan words: e.g., saffis (‘soap’) – or inherited European words:
e.g., krajlis (‘queen’), and -us likewise occurs only with a few borrowed
words: e.g., dustus (‘beggar’), krekkus (‘worm’).
The development of the Romani athematic feminine form ending in -a
(Table 3.2) is particularly interesting. In Sinte Romani, it is used for
German loan words of neuter or feminine gender (Holzinger 1993, 29);
while in Scandoromani, it has taken over a number of genuine Romani
feminines, besides adding a couple of new formations (Section 3.2.1.1.).
 86

Class Example Nom.sg. Obl.sg. Nom.pl. Obl.pl.

Thematic
Masc. in kher (‘house’) - -es -a -en
consonant
Masc. in -ipen čačipen (‘truth’) - -as -a -en
Masc. in -o šero (‘head’) -o -es -e -en
Masc. in -i pani (‘hand’) -i -jes -ja -jen
Fem. in džuv (‘louse’) - -a -a -en
consonant
Fem. in -i piri (‘pot’) -i -ja -ja -jen

Table 3.2. Early Romani declension classes (Matras 2002).

Athematic
Masc in -i(s) sapunis ‘soap’ -is -is -ja -en
Masc. in -u(s) papus ‘grandfather’ -us -us -i -en
Masc. in -o(s) foros ‘town’ -os -os -i -en
Fem. in -a cipa ‘skin’ -a -a ? -en

Table 3.3. Sinte Romani declension classes (Holzinger 1993, Matras 2002).
Class Example Nom.sg. Obl.sg. Nom.pl. Obl.pl.
Masc. in rom (‘man’) rom rom-es rom-a rom-en
consonant
Masc. in -ipen tarnepen tarnepen tarnep-as tarnep-a tarnep-en
(‘child’)
Masc. in -o čavo (‘boy’) čavo čav-es čav-e čav-en
Masc. in -i grai (‘horse’) grai grai-a grai-a
Fem. in brol (‘pear’) brol brol brol-ia brol-ien
consonant
Fem. in -i xali (‘non- xali xali-a xali-a xali-en
Gypsy’)
Fem. in -a sona (‘sun’) sona sona son-e son-en

Table 3.4. Layer II affixes in Sinte, Kale Romani (Matras 2010, Holzinger 1993,
Thesleff 1901).
Early Romani Sinte Kale
Genitive -k(er)-/-g(er)- -ko
Dative -ke/-ge -ke -ke
Locative -te/-de -te -te
Instrumental -sa/(-ha)/-ca -ha -ha
Ablative -tar/-dar -ter -ta

Table 3.5. Sample athematic (European) Romani words in Sinte, Kale, and
Scandoromani.
Romani Sinte Kale Scandoromani
foros ( ‘city’) foro fooros foro
papus (‘grandfather’) papu - -
sapunis (‘soap’) sapuni sapunis sapunja
 87

Even if the Romani inflectional system is completely lost in

Scandoromani, traces remain in the new inflectional system of both the
gender and thematic systems (Section 3.2.2). The new system – even
though it uses Scandanavian endings – does not rely strictly on
Scandanavian rules: Romani structures still play a role.

3.2.2. Nominal inflection 49

3.2.2.1. Inflection of nouns

Scandoromani inflection follows Scandinavian, which means that

nouns occur in four forms: indefinite singular, definite singular, indefinite
plural, and definite plural. The definite article is post-positioned and
distinguished by gender and number: e.g., Swedish ett träd (‘a tree’),
träd-et (‘the tree’). The gender of nouns is distinguished by several
distinctive qualities (Section 3.2.1.2.).
Two qualities are of primary importance to the definite singular form:
what the gender is, and whether the lexical root has a vocalic or
consonantal ending.

• Masculine forms, feminine forms, and non-neuter forms are

inflected with def.sg. -n, as in standard Swedish or Norwegian.
• Neuter forms are inflected with def.sg. -t, as in standard Swedish
or Norwegian.
• Feminine forms and non-neuter forms ending in -i are inflected
either with def.sg. -n or -a: e.g., rakkli (‘girl’), rakkli-a (‘the
girl’). The ending -a occurs in Swedish dialectal feminines: e.g.,
Halland ko (‘cow’), ko-a (‘the cow’), sol (‘sun’), sol-a (‘the sun’)
(Pamp 1978, 44f.); as well as in Norwegian: both Bokmål and
Nynorsk (Strandskogen & Strandskogen 1986, 81f.; Faarlund, Lie
& Vannebo 1997, 160). No Scandinavian feminine forms end
with -i.

The Swedish Romani system for plural forms can be summarized as

follows:

49
Information about inflection is taken from (Lindell & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf
2008), (Johansson 1977) and Iversen (1944, 238-239). Note that Iversen’s
treatment is very brief.
 88

• Masculine, non-neuter, and neuter root nouns, along with

masculine or non-neuter forms ending in -o, are inflected in
plural with -a(r) or -s.
• Feminine forms ending in -i or -a – (the -a is lost before the
ending) are inflected in plural with the ending -er.
• Words ending in -are or -an have no plural ending.

Overall, the declension of the various endings can be summarized as

follows (see also Table 3.5):
• Ending in -a (non-neuter):

o -a, -a(n), -er, -erna: e.g., furkla, -an, furkler, -na (‘fork’)
o -a, -a(n), -r, -rna: e.g., schopa, -(n), -r, -r(n)a (‘gate’)

• Ending in -i (non-neuter, feminine):

o -i, -in/-ia, -er, -erna,

o -i, -in/-ia, -ier, -ierna, e.g., rakkli, -an, -er, -erna (‘girl
(non-Traveller)’)

• Ending in -o (mostly non-neuter):

o -o, -on, -oar, -oarna: e.g., buro, -n, -ar, -arna (‘peasant’,
‘non-Roma’)
o -o, -on, -os, -os: e.g., bullo, -n, -s, -s (‘bear’)

• Ending in -epā (neuter):

o -epā, - epāt, - epā(n), -epāna, e.g., dukkepa, -t, -, -na

(‘sickness’)

• Ending in -an (mostly neuter):

o -an, -anet, -an, -an(en)a: e.g., littran, -et, -, -an(ern)a

(‘shed’)
o -an, -an, -an, -(en)a
o -an, -anen, -ans, -ans: only starsman, -en, -s, -s (‘bear’)

• Ending in -ik (mostly non-neuter)

o -ik, -iken, -ikar/-iker, -ikarna/-ikerna

• Ending in -is (mostly non-neuter)

 89

o -is, -isen, -isar/-iser, -isar(n)a/-iser(n)a

• Ending in -ing (mostly non-neuter)

o -ing, -ingen, -ingar, -ingarna

• Ending in -os

o Mostly uninflected; very few instances: e.g., krestos, -

(‘cross’)

Table 3.6. Declension variants, plural, Swedish Romani.

Indef.pl. Def.pl. Types Other information
-a(r) -a(r)na root nouns masculine forms, neuter forms,
-o (with variants) non-neuter forms
-us
-is
-ing
-ik
-i
-ert

-er -er(n)a/- root nouns feminine forms, non-neuter

e(r)na -i forms
-a (→Ø before
ending)
-is
-ing 50
-ik
-r -rna/-ra -a few examples; mixed gender
-epā
-o
-Ø -a/-na/-ena- -are neuter forms, masculine forms
/ana root nouns ending in –are
-an
-er
-epā 51
-s -s -o masculine forms, non-neuter
-i

Very little information is available for Norwegian Romani (see Table

3.7).

50
Variant with plural ending -ar: kàlsing (‘shoe’).
51
Variant with plural ending -n.
 90

Table 3.7. Declension variants, Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944, 239).

Indef.sg. Def.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl.
Masc. bakro bakro-(e)n bakro-ar bakro-ane
Masc. kålliva kålliva-(e)n kålliva-r kålliva-ne
Fem. busjni busjni-a busjni-ar busjni-ane
Fem. gaja gaja gaj-er gaj-ane
Neutr. bærsj bærsj-e bærsj bærsj-a
Neutr. kjurodine kjurodine kjurodin-er kjurodin-a
The question is: how does the Scandoromani system relate to Romani
proper and to Scandinavian? Might one find remnants of influences from
other languages, such as Low or High German? Consider the inflectional
systems of Standard Swedish and Bokmål/Nynorsk (see tables 3.8, 3.9).

Table 3.8. Nominal inflectional types in Swedish (Holmes & Hincliffe 1994,
12ff.)
Plural Types Declension
ending Indef.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl.
-or nouns ending in -a flicka flickor flickorna
(non- nouns ending in - toffel tofflor tofflorna
neuter) el,-er
monosyllabic, ros rosor rosorna
ending in
consonant
-ar monosyllabic, hund hundar hundarna
ending in
consonant
(non- monosyllabic, sjö sjöar sjöarna
neuter) ending in vowel
nouns ending in - pojke pojkar pojkarna
e, -el, -en, -er, - dotter döttrar döttrarna
dom, -ing, -lek, -is
-er monosyllabic, park parker parkerna
(neuter ending in and änder änder
consonant
and non- loan words with geni genier genierna
neuter) second-syllable
stress
-r monosyllabic, ko kor korna
ending in vowel
(non- nouns ending in -e, bastu bastur basturna
neuter) -u, -o
-n nouns ending in hjärta hjärtan hjärtana
vowel
(neuter) nouns in –ande meddelande meddelanden meddelandena
zero monosyllabic barn barn barn-en/-a
(neuter)
zero nouns in –are jägare jägare jägarna
(non- nouns in –um faktum faktum faktumen
neuters)
 91

-s recent English loan reporter reporters/

words reportrar

Table 3.9. Nominal inflectional types in Bokmål and Nynorsk (Faarlund, Lie &
Vannebo 1997, 160).
Bokmål
Indef.sg. Def.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl.
Masc. dag dag-en dag-er dag-ene
Fem. dør dør-a/-en dør-er dør-ene
Neutr. år år-et år år-a/-ene
brev brev-et brev/-er brev-a/-ene

Nynorsk
Indef.sg. Def.sg. Indef.pl. Def.pl.
Masc. dag dag-en dag-ar dag-ane
Fem. dør dør-a dør-er dør-ene
Neutr. år år-et år år-a

Most Swedish and Norwegian (singular and plural) endings occur in

Scandoromani, with the exception of the Swedish plural -or: the
historically feminine ending. Given the tables above, and considering
both older and dialectal forms of Scandoromani, the Scandoromani
declension system appears an interesting mixture:
• The tendency to inflect masculine forms with the plural ending -
ar and feminine forms with plural ending -er has no
correspondence in standard Swedish or standard Norwegian
(Bokmål) but is found in Nynorsk (Table 3.9).
• The definite singular ending for feminine forms -a (rakklia)
corresponds to the feminine definite singular in some Swedish
dialects (see 3.2.1.2), as well as Nynorsk and Bokmål (besides the
ending -en).
• The zero inflection for the indefinite plural of neuter forms
corresponds to the zero inflection of neuter forms in Swedish and
Norwegian.
• Words ending in -are and -ing behave as Swedish and Norwegian
words ending in -are and -ing, even though the origins of the
morphemes differ.

The Scandoromani plural ending -s, found with masculine and non-
neuter forms, most likely does not derive from the Swedish plural ending
-s, used with very recent English loan words (along with the -ar ending).
More likely, its origin is to be found with the Low German plural forms
 92

ending in -s: e.g., de Broor ~ der Bröörs (‘brother’), dat Fenster ~ de

Fensters (‘window’) (Lindow et al. 1998, 150).

3.2.2.2. Inflection of adjectives

The inflection of adjectives mainly follows the Scandinavian pattern

in making a three-fold distinction: non-neuter / neuter / plural. A few
adjectives ending in -o are also inflected for masculine ~ feminine. The
informants, KTD and LL, both stress that the masculine ~ feminine
inflection is maintained. That said, both rarely use the feminine form in
speech and mainly with words such as gaja (‘woman’). Iversen (1945,
241) calls the usage ‘entirely [a] fossil’.

Table 3.10. Adjective inflectional types in Swedish Romani (Lindell &

Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008).
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Example
-o -i -(o)t -(o)a romani, romani, romanot, romanoa
(‘good’)
-i(g) - -i(g)t -i(g)a bengi, bengit, bengia (‘devilish’)
-C - -Ct -Ca lakk, lakkt, lakka (‘angry’)
-a - -t -zero herma, hermat, herma (‘grey’)

A number of adjectives are uninflected: e.g., sốlo (‘alone’), bàbbi

(‘bearded’).
In both Swedish and Norwegian, adjectives behave differently
depending if they are indefinite or definite, in attributive position or in
predicative position (Holmes & Hincliffe 2003, 58ff.; Strandskogen &
Strandskogen 1986, 70ff.). The typical Swedish pattern is shown in Table
3.11. It is more or less copied in Scandoromani.

Table 3.11. Adjective inflectional types in Swedish Romani (Lindell &

Thorbjörnsson-Djerf 2008).
Indefinite Definite
Sg. non-neuter en ung flicka den ung-a flickan
(ʽa young girl’) (ʽthe young girl’)
Pl. non-neuter ung-a flickor de ung-a flickorna
(ʽyoung girls’) (ʽthe young girls’)
Sg. neuter ett stort barn det stor-a barnet
(ʽa big child’) (ʽthe big child’)
Pl. neuter stor-a barn de stor-a barnen
(ʽbig children’) (ʽthe big children’)
 93

Exceptions exist: basically, simplifications from Scandinavian. First,

Scandinavian adjectives are expected also to be inflected in predicative
position: e.g., ett stort barn (‘a big child’), barnet är stort (‘the child is
big’). This rule is often disregarded in Scandoromani and the default form
used instead. The default form also is often used in inflection of definite
forms: e.g., dova kalo tjirklon (‘the black bird’).

3.2.3. Derivational and loan word adaptational morphology

3.2.3.1. Introduction

The Scandoromani morphology of derivations and loan-word

adaptatations is among the most intriguing aspects of the language. The
derivational morphology for the Romani part of the vocabulary is quite
straightforward, differing but little from such other inflected dialects as
Kale or Sinte. The adaptation to Scandinavian inflectional morphology is
of more interest (see the previous chapter). Meanwhile, the morphology
for loan word adaptations is highly complex; it can best be described in
terms of chronological layers, depending on the source of the borrowing.
One can trace the change from an ‘ordinary’ to a mixed language, with
introduction of mechanisms for adapting old and creating new lexical
material (Section 3.2.4).
The morphology of derivations and loan-word adaptations plays a
further role in the adaptation of Romani to the Scandinavian system of
stress and pitch accent. Even though one finds individual as well as
dialectal and familylectal variation in the distribution of stress and pitch
accent, the relationship between stress and pitch accent on the one hand
and derivational morphology on the other is relatively straightforward. In
the next section, we offer an overview of individual derivational and
adaptational morphemes with respect to origins, usage, and stress and
pitch accent patterns. 52

3.2.3.2. Derivational and adaptational morphemes, nouns

-o. This is the most common morpheme, derived from the -o

masculine forms in Romani (Matras 2003, 83) and the Old Indo-Aryan -a
stems. As in Romani, words ending in -o are mostly masculine, though

52
Our sources for stress and pitch accent are (Iversen 1944 = Iv), (Johansson
1977 = Joh), Lenny Lindell (LL), and Kenth Thorbjörnsson-Djerf (KTD).
 94

they can be non-neuter or neuter as well (see Section 3.2.1.2.). Affiliated

morphemes also ending in -o include -(a)lo and -(a)no; their function is
usually to form adjectives from nouns or to adapt adjective loans (see
Section 3.2.3.3.). A few related nouns could be interpreted as
nominalized adjectives. This morpheme can be derivational; but most
words ending in -o have correspondences in other Romani dialects and so
are not Scandoromani innovations. One finds several examples of -o in
adaptation of loan words: e.g., anglo (‘[fish]-hook’ German Angel
‘hook’; for the formation, see Section 3.4.3) or bölo (‘bull’ Sw.Dial. böl
‘bull’).
The pronunciation of words ending in -o varies. Iversen (1944, 235)
gives most of them Accent I, with a handful of exceptions marked by
Accent II; Johansson (1977, 25) comes to the opposite conclusion. LL
and KTD show a marked difference in usage: LL is inclined towards a
more Accent I pronunciation, while KTD’s usage is relatively evenly
distributed between Accents I and II. Apparently, as with words ending in
-epā, one has a variation that is dependent on dialect or familylect.
-a. Words ending in -a include variations ending in -ja: e.g., nutta,
nuttja (‘sweater’); and -la: e.g., furka, furkla (‘fork’). For the most part,
the morpheme originates in the adaptation of feminine loan words
(Matras 2003, 83). Most are recent loan words from Middle Low
German, High German, or dialectal Swedish, with a few older loan words
(e.g., teijsa, tajsa ‘tomorrow, morning’ Greek tachiá). These words are
more common in Swedish than Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944,244).
Most are non-neuter, with a few exceptions that are neuter: e.g., serga,
serga-t (‘tent’). One finds also a few pre-European feminines forms,
which have carried over into Scandoromani.
For the most part, pronunciation is Accent II (Iv, LL, KTD): e.g.,
rèkkla (‘coat’). Sometimes, variant forms with Accent I are possible (LL,
KTD): e.g., néjta, nèjta.
-an. This morpheme, found in just a few words such as poxtan (ʽfine
linen’), is not very productive outside Scandoromani (Iversen 1944, 245).
It is probably a variant of -a, noting that several lexemes ending in -an
have a variant ending in -a. Most examples are recent borrowings: e.g.,
shefflan (‘cupboard’ Middle Low German scheffer ‘organiser’ or
schornan ‘barn’ Middle Low German schūne ‘barn’) or maskán (‘cat’
Romani mačka Serbo-Croatian mačka).
Once again, pronunciation is mostly Accent II. Maskán (‘cat’) is an
exception: it preserves the final-syllable stress from Romani.
 95

-are/-arle/-ar/-ari/-ri. This morpheme forms agent nouns (nomina

agentis): e.g., bemblare (‘five-coin’, from the secret language Månsing
bembel ‘five’), tjorare (‘thief’ ←tjora ‘steal’). It is a remnant of Romani
-ar-, itself originally borrowed from Rumanian or Slavic -ar-, which
served the same function. It is used on both inherited words and loan
words and can form nomina agentis from verbs as well as nouns (Matras
2002, 76). In Scandoromani, it has merged in function, inflection, and
stress/pitch accent with the corresponding Swedish morpheme -are,
Norwegian -er. In Swedish Romani, it takes the form -are or -arle; in
Norwegian Romani -ar (Iversen 1944, 246). In a few cases, it takes the
form -ari or -ri: e.g., spékkari, spékkri (‘store’, ‘shop’ Middle Low
German spiker ‘warehouse’).
Pronunciation and inflection follow the Scandinavian pattern of accent
II: e.g., bèmblare.
-epā/-pā (Swedish)/ -ipa (Norwegian). This morpheme forms abstract
nouns. It is inherited from Romani -ipen/-iben, itself a very productive
inherited morpheme (Skt. -itavya-). As in Romani proper, it can be
derived from both verbs: e.g., bollepā (‘christening’ bolla ‘to christen’);
as well as adjectives: dukkepā (‘disease’ dukk ‘sick’).
Pronounciation differs between all sources. Both LL and KTD use
Accent II, but their pronunciation differs e.g. between the second and
third syllable of bòllepa: bòllē'pa vs. bòllepā'. Iversen (1944) reports
Accent I: e.g., rákklipa (‘talk’); Johansson (1977) Accent II: e.g., kùrepa'
(‘fight’). All available sources are internally consistent and allow no
variants.
-i, -li. This morpheme is used for feminine forms, most of which
derive from Romani proper. It originates with the genuine feminine
ending in Romani (Matras 2002, 83). With few exceptions,
pronounciation is Accent I in all sources.
-ik, -ika, -ikla, -rik, -rika. This morpheme, together with several
related variants, is more productive in Swedish than Norwegian Romani
(Iversen 1944, 250). It is used mostly for adaptation of loan words: e.g.,
balldrik (‘boiling pot, coffeepot’ ←Middle Low German balge, ballige
‘bowl for milk’), blummrika (‘flower’ ←German Blume ‘flower’). It
occurs in other Romani dialects such as Kale and Romungro, but it is not
very productive there. Although it is mostly used with loan words, one
finds exceptions: e.g. Romani hanik, xaning (‘well’, ‘spring’ Sanskrit
khani- ‘mine’, ‘cave’. It may be a variant of the -in morpheme.
Pronunciation is consistently Accent I.
 96

-in. This morpheme occurs only in a few words, most of which are
inherited from Romani: e.g., kurmin (‘porridge’), skamin (‘chair’). It
originates in the Greek-derived Romani morpheme -in, which occurs with
loan words and as a substitute for other inherited endings: e.g., patrin
(‘leaf’ Skt. pattra- ‘wing of a bird’, ‘feather’: Matras 2002, 76).
Pronunciation is consistently Accent I.
-ing/-bing/-ving. The morpheme -ing and its variants has no
counterpart in Romani proper: it is a Scandoromani innovation with
multiple origins:
• Words ending in -in in Romani: e.g., voddring (‘wagon’,
‘caravan’ Sinte Romani vordin).
• Derivations of words employing other morphemes in Romani:
e.g., kabing, kaben (‘food’ Sinte Romani xaben).
• Recent borrowings: e.g., bissling (‘tooth’, either from German
beissen ‘bite’ or dialectal Swedish bisse ‘small tooth’).

Iversen writes (1944, 250) that the morpheme is “hall-marked by the

Ro. speakers as a foreign word-element which belongs only to Rotw. and
Månsing”. This is not completely true; at least, not for the Swedish
variant, where several inherited Romani words have the -ing ending.
Pronunciation is precisely per the corresponding Swedish and
Norwegian forms, with Accent II: e.g., bìssling.
-is, -ish, -es. This morpheme is not very frequent. It is mostly found
with recent loan words: e.g., montis (‘moon’, ‘month’ ←German Montag
‘monday’), tjokkis (‘chin’ ←English cheek); though it also occurs with
earlier loan words: e.g., guris, gurish (‘small coin’ ←Romani guršo
←Check groš). It has no counterpart in Romani. Its origins are uncertain.
Pronunciation is Accent I: e.g., gúris.
-us. This morpheme is likewise infrequent and mostly used with
recent loan words: e.g. bankus (‘bench’ ←German Bank). It has no
counterpart in Romani proper. Unlike -is, pronunciation can be either
accents I or II: e.g., dùstus (‘loafer’), bánkus.
-um, -om, -nom, -onum, -onom. The very few examples are all recent
loan words: e.g., arknum, akronum (‘letter’, most likely from Swedish
ark ‘sheet of paper’), alonum (‘alone’ English alone).
-ra. Again, the very few examples are all recent loan words: e.g.,
plattra (‘newspaper’ German Blatt), schinra (‘sun’ Middle High German
schīn ‘light’). Pronunciation is Accent II.
 97

-si. Only one example exists: páttjasi, pàttersi (‘altar’ pattja ‘to
believe’).
-vani, -vina. This occurs in two recent loan words: sellváni (‘herring’
Swedish sill), tjellváni (‘basement’ Swedish källare). Stress is with
Accent I on the second syllable.
-rinja, -rinla, -ringla. Only one example exists: kastrínja, kàstrinla,
kàstringla (‘cooking vessel’ Swedish kastrull).
-ert. Only a few examples exist: e.g., slíngert (‘snake’ Swedish slingra
‘to wind’, ‘to twine’), snàjdert (‘tailor’ snajdare).
-skiro, -prasko. The few examples reflect the genitive-derived
morphemes in Romani: e.g., rateskero (‘leech’ rati ‘blood’: Matras 2002,
77). They derive from both verbs and nouns: e.g., dummaskíro
(‘waistcoat’ dummo ‘back’). Some are also found in other dialects: e.g.,
boscheprásko (‘musician’).
-er. This morpheme reflects a Swedish plural ending that has been
made singular: e.g., liller (‘letter’), molder (‘tin’).

3.3. Verb morphology

3.3.1. Background

The verb morphology of inflected Romani is highly complex, with

markings for different persons and a complicated system of tense, mood,
and aspect that varies between dialects (Matras 2002, 117ff.). All of this
is lost in Scandoromani. That said, parts of the derivational and loan-
word-adapting morphology have survived into Scandoromani.
Scandoromani has developed a morphology of its own for adopting loan
words, which serves to camouflage them.

3.3.2. Inflectional morphology

Scandoromani has only one type of verbal inflection, corresponding to

the so-called ‘weak’ inflection of Swedish and Norwegian. It is slightly
different in Swedish vs. Norwegian Romani, arising from differences in
the co-territorial languages (tables 3.12 and 3.13). Swedish Romani
speakers, at least, tend to use two forms with inflection type I: one for
fluent speech that is same in all forms except (the highly unusual) present
participle and one “standardized form” for writing. Iversen (1944) notes
only the spoken form. This holds only for type bescha (Table 3.12). Type
 98

sa (Table 3.12) mostly used for one-syllable verbs and verbs with final
stress: e.g., fursté (‘to understand’) – makes no such distinction; in this
case, Iversen (1944) notes all the various forms.

Table 3.12. Verb inflection in Swedish Romani.

In- Present Past Supine Prs.ptc. Imper-
finitive ative
bescha bescha(r) bescha(de) bescha(t) beschande bescha (‘to sit’)
sa sa(r) sadde satt saande sa (‘to laugh’)

Table 3.13. Verbal inflection in Norwegian Romani (Iversen 1944).

Infinitive Present Past Supine Prs.ptc. Imper-
ative
asja asjar asja asja asjanes asja (‘to be’)
ka kar kadde kadd kaanes ka (‘to eat’)

Swedish Romani verb inflection is both simple and straightforward:

one finds very few exceptions. 53
• A remnant of the Romani 3rd singular present ending -el – also
used for marking infinitives – remains, in the form of te avel (‘to
be’), used only in fixed formulas: e.g., te avel barvalo (‘to be
rich’).
• Traces of person concord are found in the verb rakkra/rakkla:
 1st 2nd singular: mander/diro rakkrar.
 3rd Singular plural: lo/li/lester rakklar.

3.3.3. Derivational morphology

As with the nominal derivational morphology, verb derivational
morphology can be described in terms of layers. Some morphemes are
used to derive verbs from nouns; others are used to adapt or camouflage
loan words. The list of verb derivational morphemes is shorter than the
corresponding list for nouns.
-a, (-la, -ra, -ja). This morpheme corresponds to the Swedish
infinitive ending and is used to derive all verb forms. The base is either a
Romani verb root: e.g., kamm-a (‘to want’ Romani kam-el); or a Romani
noun: e.g., kangl-a (‘to comb’ Romani kangl-i ‘comb’). Very often the -a
is preceded by an -l, -r or -j or allows variants with one or both.

53
Information from LL.
 99

-ra, -ddra. This is used to derive verbs from both verbs and nouns and
to adapt or camouflage loan words: e.g., hilpra (‘to help’ Middle Low
German helpen: 3rd-person singular hilpet; or bjuddra ‘to invite’ Swedish
bjuda).
-fara, -ula. This is used to camouflage very recent loan words: 54 e.g.,
hellsfara (‘to greet’ Swedish hälsa; or hilpfara ‘to help’ Middle Low
German helpen: 3rd-person singular hilpet), mostula (‘must’ Swedish
måste).
As with the nominal morphology, one finds differences in word
formation depending on the loan word. We discuss this in more detail in
Section 3.4.

3.4. The emergence of a mixed morphology

3.4.1. Development of a new morphology: Innovation and
structural memory

Inflectional and derivational morphology is central to reconstructing

the process of transformation from an inflectional to a mixed language
(Section 1.3.1). The process is certainly not just a mechanical one
whereby the inflectional morphosyntax is derived from the
grammaticizing language and the lexicon and derivational morphology
from the lexicalizing language. This is part of it, of course; but the final
product is intertwined in the truest sense, with both component languages
constantly playing a role.
Consider the basic, inherently lexical qualities of animacy and gender
(Section 3.2.1). It seems that the European Romani distinction between
animate and inanimate, masculine and feminine is retained, in
significantly altered form, in Scandoromani. In some ways, the new
system is structurally more complex than either Romani or Scandinavian;
it shows autonomy even as it preserves archaic and dialectal patterns of
Scandinavian. The categories animacy and gender are not preserved in
the form they have in Romani. They can best be understood as playing a
background role in the autonomous formation of the new system in
Scandoromani.

54
For examples from Scandinavian and Middle Low German, see 3.4.3.2.
 100

Thematic status of inflectional Romani (Section 3.2.1.4) carries over

into the new system, organizing the inflection according to word finals:
vocalic, consonantal, etc. (see Table 3.6.).
The masculine/feminine distinction of Romani carries over in various
ways, using a Scandinavian system as a matrix. One has the
dialectal/archaic feminine form for words ending in -i, which are mostly
– though not exclusively – feminine in inflectional Romani. Then, one
has the creation of a feminine ending -a taken from Scandinavian and
attached to archaic Romani feminine lexemes (Section 3.2.1.2).
The animacy/inanimacy distinction carries over to the new neuter
form, which exercises a certain autonomy from both component
languages.
One might postulate something like a structural memory from
inflectional Romani, which could explain the survival and adaptation of
gender, animacy, and thematic status (see Figure 3.1.).
Next, consider the secondary adaptation in form, inflection, and
stress/pitch accent of lexemes with derivational morphemes – originating
in Romani but with a clear resemblance to such Scandinavian morphemes
as -ing and -are (Section 3.2.3.2.), showing how Scandinavian
derivational morphology has played its role in the formation of the new
system.

Figure 3.1.. The mixing process in Scandoromani morphology.

 101

3.4.2. Strategies for adaptation of loan words

Adaptation of loan words is important in all Romani dialects. It

generally serves two functions: adapting the borrowed word to the
inflectional system at the same time as camouflaging the borrowed
lexeme. The first of these no longer plays any role in Scandoromani,
which has abandoned the inflectional system of Romani. However, the
second is highly active: recent borrowings are shaped by all manner of
morphological creativity (Section 3.4.3). By investigating the vocabulary
that goes beyond the core shared by all Romani dialects – i.e., that which
has been borrowed after the split from the Romani continuum (see the
discussion in Section 1.3.2.) – one discerns a number of significant
tendencies. One finds a greater amount of camouflaging and other lexical
manipulation in loan words from Low German, Swedish, and Norwegian
– including both standard language and dialects – than from Finnish,
Russian, or High German (Table 3.14. and Section 3.4.3). The highest
level of morphological creativity occurs among the Scandinavian
borrowings (Section 3.4.3.4).

Table 3.14. Loan words from Russian, Finnish, and High German, with no
camouflaging or other lexical manipulation.
Lexeme Meaning Source
bèda star Russian zvezdá ‘star’
bélka squirrel Russian bélka ‘squirrel’
skríppika, skrī́ pka violin Russian skrípka ‘violin’
lístjo,líshto face Russian litsó ‘face, persons’
mórshta,mòshta coffee Finnish musta ‘black’
nùtta sweater Finnish nuttu ‘cardigan’
vant, vànta wall German Wand ‘wall’
pùffra gun German Puffer ‘gun, rifle’

The most plausible explanation is that the Russian, Finnish, and High
German borrowings are earlier and reflect a pre-mixed-language state,
not differing significantly from other Romani dialects. This is further
supported by those morphemes occurring only in borrowings from
Scandinavian and Low German (see the lists in sections 3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.3,
and 3.3.3), which are sometimes themselves borrowings: e.g., -fara. This
change in strategy presumably reflects the transformation into a mixed
language, in which lexical manipulation and morphological creativity
become more active, though not as active as in in-group lexicons, as
discussed in Section 1.2.2..
 102

3.4.3. Attributes of a mixed morphology: Lexical manipulation,

heavy morphology, and the anti-zipfian effect

As the earlier discussion suggests, one finds clear indication of a

change in strategy for loan-word adaptation, depending on source
language. Recent loan words from Low German and, in particular,
Scandinavian are often camouflaged or otherwise manipulated to a higher
degree. In the following sub-sections, we discuss the creative processes
involved. Section 3.4.3.4 discusses lexical manipulation, Section 3.4.3.5.
compounding, Section 3.4.3.6 iconicity, and 3.4.3.8 a distinctive feature
of Scandoromani morphology: the anti-zipfian effect.
Creative morphological processes are rare in language. They are
normally restricted to in-group lexicons, slang or the like (Baldi & Dawar
2000, cf. Section 1.2.2.). Though some of these word formations in
Scandoromani are viewed as rodi ‘bad Romani’ most are not: words like
stársman (‘bear’) are understood as belonging to the core vocabulary of
the language. The requirements of derivational and adaptational
morphology in a mixed language as Scandoromani are different from a
non-mixed’ language, serving the purpose of creating a distinction from
the co-territorial language.

3.4.3.1. Structure of the base

The section addresses the borrowed lexical root before the attachment
of the camouflaging/adaptational morpheme. Three variants occur,
depending partly on the number of syllables (one, two, three, or more) in
the borrowed root. These are preservation of the original form, clipping,
and syncope.

a. Preservation of the original form

Preservation of the lexical root’s original form occurs in several
otherwise manipulated formations, though it is less common than
clipping or syncope. Several reasons suggest themselves for keeping the
original root form. Probably the most common is that the original root is
monosyllabic: easily kept and extended with either a morpheme (Section
3.4.3.2) or another root (Section 3.4.3.4: Compounding). One finds
several examples, both from Low German and Scandinavian: e.g.,
bánk|us (‘bench’ German Bank), gròsh|an (‘grass’ German Gras),
kòrb|a (‘basket’ German Korb), dỳsht|a, dỳst|a (‘mite’, ‘anything’
dialectal Swedish dust ‘mite’, ‘crumb’), árk|nom (‘letter’ Swedish ark
 103

‘sheet of paper’), bṑ|farm|a (‘shop’, ‘store’ Swedish bo ‘live’ + English

farm).
Disyllabic roots may also be kept, though often they are manipulated
lexically, either by infixation, sporadic phonetic change, prosodic change,
or ordinary morphological extension: e.g., kammóra, kammóro, kàmmora
(‘chamber’ German Kammer), làffja, làffa (‘barn’ Old Swedish or
Elfdalian dialectal Swedish laþa ‘barn’; Swedish lada).

b. Clipping
Clipping of the borrowed root is by far the most common variant. It
transforms a disyllabic or multisyllabic lexeme into a monosyllabic base
to then be extended by an adapting morpheme: e.g., báll|drik (‘boiling
pot’, ‘coffee pot’ Middle Low German balge, ballige ‘container [for
milk]’), blúmm|rika (‘flower’ German Blume), shèff|lan (‘cupboard’
Middle Low German scheffer ‘fixer’, ‘provider’; Swedish skafferi
‘larder’, from the same source), lédd|ik, léadd|ik (‘box’ Middle Low
German lade ‘box’, ‘chest’), mónt|is (‘Monday’, ‘month’ German
Montag ‘Monday’, Monat ‘month’), tjel|váni, tjèl|vina (‘basement’
Swedish källare).

c. Syncope
Syncope works similarly to clipping: it transforms a disyllabic lexical
root into a monosyllabic base, which is then extended by an adapting or
camouflaging morpheme. As with clipping, most examples come from
German or Scandinavian: e.g., lìttr|an (‘shed’, ‘shop’; ‘bed’ Swedish
lider ‘shed’), tàffl|a, tàffl|an (‘table’ Middle Low German tafele).

3.4.3.2. Types of morphemes used

Morphemes of two types are used in creative formations. Either they

occur in Romani proper where they are used for the same purpose:
adapting loan words; or they are Scandoromani innovations, in which
case, their origins are, in most cases, obscure. Morphemes in the first set
include -os, -is, -us, -es, and -a (Matras 2002, 82f.). Two morphemes that
occur only sporadically in Romani dialects are -ik and -in. Note that the
derivational morphemes -o, -lo, -i, -li, and -are may also be used for
creative adaptation of loan words. The remaining morphemes can be
distinguished into two sub-types: unconventional morphemes and full-
word morphemes.
 104

a. Unconventional morphemes
We include here long, complex morphemes (Baldi & Dawar 2000,
967f.) and those with no counterpart in Romani. These morphemes are
either extended variants of older morphemes: e.g., -nom, -onum, -onom
(from -um), -ika, -ikla, -rik, -rika (from -ik), -ing, -bing, -ving (from -in),
-an (from -a); or they are true Scandoromani innovations: e.g., -vani, -
vina, -ert, -ula (used for verbs). All have uncertain origins.

b. Full-word morphemes
One finds only one obvious full-word morpheme: the verb-adapting
morpheme -fara, borrowed from Swedish fara (‘to go’).

3.4.3.4. Lexical manipulation

To the creative formations mentioned above, a few other formations

can be added (see also Section 1.2.2.) – though they are less common.

a. Prosodic manipulation
Here, the prosodic structure of a borrowed lexeme or compound is
changed to make it incomprehensible: e.g., stársman, stàrman (‘bear’
←dialectal Swedish starsk man ‘strong man’; one finds also the
metaphorical expression bulloske dad ‘the father of the bear’ = ‘strong
man’).

b. Sporadic phonetic substitution

These are cases in which a sporadic change is made in the phonetic
value of a loan-word phoneme, to camouflage the lexeme’s origin. In
some cases, alternative explanations – e.g., dialectal/familylectal
variation of the lexeme – are possible. The difference is not always clear.
Several clear examples are available, however: e.g., pùnt|a (‘purse’
Swedish pung ‘purse’, ‘bag’), pòrg|a (‘gate’ Swedish port), rèkk|la
(‘coat’ Swedish rock, Middle Low German rok), tjókk|is (‘jaw’, ‘chin’
Swedish käke ‘jaw’, Middle Low German kake, keke ‘chin’), middacken
(‘dinner’ Swedish middag-en ‘the dinner’).

c. Sporadic consonant insertion

Sporadic consonant insertion occurs in Scandoromani: e.g., sèn|-j-la
(‘horse collar’, ‘harness’, ‘reins’ Middle Low German sēne ‘sinew of a
bow’).
 105

3.4.3.5. Compounding

Compounding is highly productive in Scandoromani. The principles

for it have been adapted from Scandinavian compounding including
patterns of stress/pitch accent. A great number of compound words exist
in Scandoromani, many of them loan translations of Scandinavian
compounds: e.g., dromeske-patrín (‘road sign’ Swedish vägskylt). Others
are innovations – often metaphorical interpretations: e.g., sàster-tjirklo
(‘airplane’; literally, ‘iron bird’). A few compounds have one borrowed
and one non-borrowed member: e.g., kill-gås (‘sandwich’ Swedish
smörgås, Swedish smör ‘butter’ substituted by Romani kill ‘butter’, plus
Swedish gås ‘goose’).
If the first member of a compound is derived from a verb, it might be
1) the infinitive form: e.g., dràbbra-hispa (‘missionary house’); 2) the
inflected present, which is never used in speech: e.g., dràbbrar-hispa
(also ‘missionary house’); or 3) the old Romani genitive morpheme -
eske: e.g., drabbreske-hìspa. 55 If the first member is derived from an
adjective, the default or masculine form is used: e.g., dùkkalo-voddro
(‘ambulance’; literally, ‘sick-car’). If the first member is derived from a
noun, it might be that 1) the default form is used: e.g., gùllo-tjaro (‘sugar
bowl’); 2) the Romani genitive ending -eske is used: e.g., grejeske-bál
(‘horsehair’); or 3) the word final is changed as in -a > -e: e.g., fòssike-
minka (‘pocket watch’ fòssikja ‘pocket’) or -an > -a: e.g., gròsa-kakklare
(‘lawnmower’ gròsan ‘grass’).
These compounds are mostly synchronically transparent: i.e., the
meaning of the members is clear, without manipulation or other
adaptation. Of course, one finds a few exceptions, often loans, mostly
from Scandinavian. In more complicated cases, parts might be inherited,
others adapted; prosodic manipulation can be involved: e.g., ìllusman
(‘blackguard’, ‘scoundrel’ ìllus- dialectal Swedish ill- ‘evil’, ‘angry’ +
adapting morpheme -us + Swedish man ‘man’), ìlsmatig, ìlsmarig
(‘deceitful’, ‘devilish’ dialectal Swedish illmarig ‘deceitful’ with
sporadic insertion of -s-), mā̀ r-pina (‘halter’; ‘[facial] knife scar’ dialectal
Swedish marr ‘mare’ + Swedish pinne ‘stick’, transformed to Swedish
pina ‘pain’, ‘torment’).

55
Note that the stress is on the second member of the compound.
 106

3.4.3.6. Iconicity

Iconicity implies for language a motivated connection between form

and function. 56 Two implications of the term concern us here:
onomatopoeia and sound symbolism on the one hand, folk etymology on
the other.
Apparently Romani is iconic to a much lesser degree than e.g. any of
the Germanic languages, especially when it comes to onomatopoeia and
sound symbolism. Though much of the lexical material might sound
iconic to the ears of a Scandinavian speaker, most lexemes have an
etymological explanation tracing back to Indo-Aryan, or else they are
borrowings from Iranian, Armenian, or Greek. Few words are either
onomatopoetic or sound symbolic. Folk etymological change is more
common, especially for words with creative morphology.

a. Onomatopoeia and sound symbolism

As noted, onomatopoeia and sound symbolism are not common in
Scandoromani. Onomatopoeia is normally found with bird names and
other animals with a distinct call. Most of these lexemes in Scandoromani
derive from Romani proper and should not be regarded as renewed iconic
forms: e.g., kakkaráska (‘bird’, ‘eagle’, ‘magpie’ Romani kakaráška
‘magpie’, borrowed from Greek karakáxa), kàkkni (‘hen’ Romani kaxni
‘hen’, ‘cock’, borrowed from Iranian or Indian; see Wolf 1987, 110).
All of the Germanic languages, including Swedish, English, German,
Icelandic, etc., are highly productive in expanding sound-symbolic
clusters. This is not the case in Scandoromani. Only a few cases of clear
sound symbolism can be found in the vocabulary (Appendix I): e.g.,
gnarka (‘play’), glinter (‘glass’). One would normally expect iconicity to
be more common where lexical manipulation – e.g., an in-group lexicon
– is found (Mous 2003, 222; see also below).

b. Folk etymology
De Cuypere (2008, 210) defines folk etymology such that it ‘crucially
involves the replacement of an allegedly opaque form by means of a
more transparent form-meaning pair and is thus motivated by language
internal iconicity’. Folk etymology in a mixed language like

56
For a summary, see (De Cuypere 2008, 91ff.).
 107

Scandoromani is particularly intricate and expresses itself through a

number of variants.
1. An inherited Romani lexeme changes form via a folk
etymological connection to a Scandinavian lexeme: e.g.,
smeltàna, smèltana, smä̀ ltare (‘cream’ Romani šmentana
Rumanian, in accordance with Swedish smälta ‘to melt’).
2. An inherited Romani lexeme changes meaning via a folk
etymological connection to a Scandinavian lexeme: e.g., mátto
(‘tired’, ‘drunk’ ←Romani mato ‘drunk’, in accordance with
Swedish matt ‘faint’, ‘weak’).
3. A borrowed lexeme adapts its form in accordance with another –
possibly borrowed – lexeme of similar but not identical meaning:
e.g., kastrínja (‘box’, ‘chest’ Middle Low German kast
‘container’, ‘box’; in accordance with kastrílja ‘cooking vessel’,
‘cauldron’ Swedish kastrúll).
4. A borrowed lexeme adapts its form in accordance with a
Scandinavian lexeme of similar but not identical meaning: e.g.,
bálldrik (‘cooking vessel’, ‘coffee pot’ Middle Low German
balge, ballige ‘container [for milk]’, in accordance with Swedish
tàllrik [some dialects tállrik] ‘plate’).

3.4.3.7. Mixing of principles

It is frequently relatively easy to detect the linguistic source of a

borrowing, whether from German, Scandinavian, English, or elsewhere.
Often, though, one finds no perfect match, making it difficult to conclude
whether the source is an unattested dialectal form or a Scandoromani
manipulation. In several cases, the creative morphological principles we
have discussed cooperate on a single lexical root, producing a mixture of
e.g. clipping, sporadic insertion, and morpheme adaptation: schò-r-n|an
(‘barn’ Middle Low German schūne).

3.4.3.9. Anti-Zipfian effect

The so-called Zipfian effect provides a well-established, well-

motivated correlation between linguistic quantity and meaning, according
to which the most frequent words in a language tend to be particularly
short. In Scandoromani, one generally finds a reverse effect for several
but not all of these words (Tables 3.14, 3.15): frequently used lexemes
that are short in Swedish or Norwegian, or European Romani, are
 108

disyllabic and complex in Scandoromani. The effect is particularly

noticeable for pronouns and verbs (Table 3.15). Since Scandoromani
generally follows Scandinavian syntax (Chapter 4.), one would normally
expect a pattern similar to Swedish and Norwegian.
The anti-Zipfian effect naturally affects sentence prosody, 57 since
common words must be pronounced and articulated. The problem in
speech that this creates is normally solved by deletion of the copula or
obligatory place-holder subject, as discussed in Chapter 4.

Table 3.14. Most frequent Swedish word forms in printed text, with their
corresponding Scandoromani forms (Allén 1970).
Swedish Scandoromani
och ta (‘and’)
i an/ dre/ drio (‘in’)
att te (‘to’)
en jekh (‘one’)
som somtis/ tjakkes (‘if’)
det dolle (‘it’)
är ashar/ honkar (‘is’)
av aftis/ afters/ atscher (‘of’)
den dolle/ kava (‘it’)
på pre/ prej (‘on’)
för angla(l)/ anglad (‘for’)
med ninna (‘with’)

Table 4.15. Personal pronouns + copula in Romani and Swedish.

Romani Swedish Scando-romani
(Kelderaš)
me sim jag är mander honkar/ashar (‘I am’)
tu san du är diro honkar/ashar (‘you are’)
vov si han är lo/lester honkar/ashar (‘he is’)
voj si hon är li/listkri(s) honkar/ashar (’she is’)
den är kava/dova honkar/ashar (‘it is’)
ame sam vi är vorsnos honkar/ashar (‘we are’)
tume san ni är ersnus honkar/ashar (‘you are’)
von si de är dolle honkar/ashar (‘they are’)

57
We have not addressed Scandoromani sentence prosody here; generally,
though, it follows the Scandinavian pattern.
 109

4. Outline of a syntax
Broadly speaking, Scandoromani syntax patterns follow Scandinavian
patterns. One finds speech – fully comprehensible and grammatically
correct Scandoromani – in which word order, constructions, syntactic
patterns, etc., are fully equivalent to the matrix language: word by word
and beyond, to the level of verbal and nominal compounding. See
Example (4a) for a sentence in Scandoromani and corresponding sentence
in Swedish, illustrating the basic principles of syntax in Scandoromani.

(4a)
Penn-a to dillo-n te lo av-ar andre
Säg till stackar-n att han gå-r in
say-IMP to wretch-DEF that he go-PRS in
(‘Tell the poor guy to come in.’)

The nature of the interview environment creates an unavoidable

difficulty. When a native speaker of Scandoromani – who is, naturally,
fluent in Swedish – is asked, in Swedish: ‘what is the corresponding
construction in Scandoromani?’, the first construction he produces (LL,
KTD) is normally completely corresponding to Swedish syntax. The
same pattern occurs frequently – though not consistently! – in writing. On
the other hand, when a speaker is asked 58 e.g. to refer to a situation or
describe what is happening in pictures (see further 4.5.), he will
frequently deviate from Swedish syntax. Chapter 4.1. - 4.3. will examine
a few of these deviations. Chapter 4.4. will examine patterns of code-
mixing.

4.1. Use of unmarked verbal infinitive form

When transcribing or otherwise listening to Scandoromani recordings,
one of the most striking features of the language is its use of the
unmarked infinitive on nearly all occasions. As we discussed earlier
(Section 3.3.), Scandoromani has primarily one inflection type for verbs,
corresponding to the Scandinavian weak conjugation Type I (Holmes &
Hincliffe 2003, 216f.). This is typically produced in Scandoromani as
infinitive -a, present tense -(a)r, preterit -(a)de, supine -(a)t, past
participle -(a)d, present participle -ande. These forms, which are readily

58
We base this on our experience mainly with LL.
 110

produced in interviews discussing verb inflection, are almost never used

in everyday speech or writing. 59 The supine and past participle forms are
infrequent: main clause constructions with straight word order and
constructions without auxiliaries and subordinate clasues are normally
preferred. The unmarked infinitive, ending in -a, is applied in nearly all
circumstances. Context determines interpretation of the form as infinitive,
present tense, or preterite. Throughout this volume, we have glossed the
unmarked form as INF, referring to the formal marking; but we have
normally translated it either as present tense or preterit (see e.g. Example
4b).

4.2. Subject place-holder omission

The most important deviation from Swedish syntax lies in the
possibility to omit the place-holder subject, obligatory in Swedish 60 a rule
connected to the Swedish fixed word order (Hultman 2003, 299f.;
Holmes & Hincliffe 2003, 436f.). Its primary application in
Scandoromani is to 3rd person singular and plural, though it applies as
well to the 1st singular form 61 of the personal/demonstrative pronoun
(Table 4.1.) and to such impersonal constructions as Swedish det,
Scandoromani dolle. Along with verb place-holder deletion (Section
4.3.), this phenomenon is likely connected to the anti-Zipfian effect
described in Section 3.4.3.8.. The combination of a two-syllable pronoun:
e.g., mander (‘I’) or dolle (‘it’); with a two-syllable copula or an
auxiliary: e.g., honkar (‘is’) or kammar (‘has’); results in, with a sentence
prosody pattern similar to Swedish, difficulties with the pronounciation in
rapid speech. Consequently, the place-holder subject or the copula – but
never the place-holder auxiliary – is deleted. The phenomenon happens
more frequently with intransitive than transitive verbs. With zero-
transitive verbs (see Example 4c), it is almost obligatory.

(4b) Frog story

Pre tejsa-n ja lo oppri
at morning-DEF go-INF he up

å jykklo-n vesh-ar pre leshter-s

and dog-DEF sit-PRS at he-GEN

59
The monosyllabic verbs are an exception; see Section 3.3.
60
As well as the object.
61
Second-person usage seems to be rare.
 111

dumo ta jur-a pre jikh tjar

back and look-INF at one bowl
(“at morning he rises and the dog sits at his back and looks at a bowl”)

(4c)
brish-a avri
rain-INF outside
(‘it rains outside’)

Whenever a placeholder can be omitted, nothing prevents it from

being present. Again, a complete correspondence to Swedish is always
grammatical.

Table 4.1. The Swedish Romani pronominal system.

Personal pronoun
Singular Plural
Person Subject Object Genitive Subject Object Genitive
(r./n.)
1. mànde mànde míro/míros vórsnos vórsnos vórsnos
mànder míro mànders vórsnus vórsnos vórsnos
màndrom màndroms vòrsnus vórsnos vórsnos
2. díro díro díro/díros érsnos érsnos érsnos
érsnus érsnus érsnus
3sg.m. lo léster lésters/los léngro léngro léngros
3sg.f. li líster lísters/lis léngro léngro léngros
lìstkri lìstkris
lìstkris
3sg.n. dòlle dòlle dòlles dòlle dòlle dòlles
Demonstrative pronoun (”here”)-deixis
3sg.m./f./n. kàva kàva kavas kàva kàva kàvas
kàvva kàvva kàvvas kàvva kàvva kàvvas
Demonstrative pronoun (“there”)-deixis
3sg.m./f./n. dòva dòva dòvas dòva dòva dòvas

4.3. Verbal place-holder omission

As the previous chapter described, the place-holder copula – likewise
obligatory in Swedish – can, in Scandoromani, be omitted. The result is
copula-less verb phrases. Our recordings with LL, consisting of narratives
as well as descriptions of pictures, picture series and events, contain
several examples of this. The Swedish copula är, pronounced [e:],
corresponds to Scandoromani ashar or honkar: e.g., Example (4e).

(4e) Frog story

 112

Motjilla! penn-a tjavo-n to jykklo-n

Be silent! say-INF boy-DEF to dog-DEF

de honk-a nått preal dova rukk

it be-INF something behind this tree
(“Silent! says the boy to the dog. There is something behind this tree.”)

(4f) Frog story

Dova jikh tjirklo å nukko-n
that one bird and child-DEF

bliddr-ar trasch å per-a tili fann rukk-anet

become-PRS afraid and fall-INF down from tree-DEF
(“They, a bird and the child, become afraid and fall down from the tree.”)

4.4. Relative pronoun deletion

The same rules of omission are valid for relative pronouns. They do
not apply to subordinating or co-ordinating conjunctions: e.g., ta (‘to’), so
(‘so’), palla (‘if’); for which the constructions are normally similar to
Swedish. 62
The relative pronoun is uninflected and takes the form tjakke, tjakkes,
or tjakkesa. It generally corresponds to Swedish som, e.g., Example (4g).

(4g) Frog story

Jykklo-n kamm-ar li-tt mala tjakkes
dog-DEF have-PRS take-SUP friend who

bliddr-ar butt lakk-a pre geting-ar-na,

become-PRS very angry-PL with wasp-PL-DEF

så han nasch-ar an vesch-en.

so he run-PRS to forest-DEF
(“the dog gets a friend who becomes very angry with the wasps, so he runs to the
forest”)

In several cases, the relative pronoun is omitted; see Example (4h).

(4h)

62
For examples, see (Lindell & Djerf 2008, 42ff.).
 113

dikk palla belka pracht-ar siggro

look at squirrel run-PRS quick

oppre to schumba
upwards to hill
(“look at the squirrel (who) runs quickly up the hill”)

4.5 Patterns of code-mixing in free, narrative and

written speech

As mentioned before (1.3.1.) Scandoromani follows the expected

mixture pattern of a bilingual mixed language: the grammaticiser matrix
language provides word order, grammatical morphology, TAM and
infinitive marking and sentence syntax, the lexifier language provides the
basic lexicon of verbs, nouns, adjectives and pronouns.
In the recordings made available to us, code-switching/mixing is of
several types and occurs on both content and system morphemes (Myers-
Scotton 2002).
Code-switching in Scandoromani takes the abstract frame of
Scandoromani as the composite Matrix language (Myers-Scotton 2002,
247) and code-switches by means of inserting Swedish lexemes. There
are various scenarios in which code-switching occurs:
1. When the speaker does not recall the Scandoromani lexeme
(cf 4i). Sometimes, the Swedish word is repeated in
Scandoromani.
2. In quicker (basically free) speech, mainly in subjunctions and
conjunctions, demonstratives and personal pronouns (4j). Also
here, repeating the lexeme with the Scandoromani form is
frequent. In the speech of LL, the phrase å… ta ‘and’ (first in
Swedish, then in Scandoromani) is frequently used. However,
the opposite also occurs (4k).
There is a clear tendency to produce more code-switched forms under
stress (e.g. talking about sensitive topics), uncertainty of how to interpret
the interview situation (don’t understand elicitations) or having
difficulties in finding Scandoromani lexemes.

(4i) Frog story

Å jykklo-n ste-r glann pre
 114

And dog-DEF stand-PRS before at

rukk-en ta basch-a pre geting-ar-na.

tree-DEF and bark-INF at wasp-PL.DEF
(‘and the dog stands below the tree and barks at the wasps’)

(4j) Story about a fight, LL

rakkli-a … garia tjakke bascha pre miro… mander
woman-DEF woman who yield-INF at me I

te att Lenny fysh-er tji

that that Lenny ought to-PRS not

dabb-as an me drabbe-kher-en
fight-PASS at with school-DEF
 115

4.6. Samples of speech

4.6.1. Frog Story

(narrative after picture series by Lenny Lindell, recorded 2007)

Å nukko…tjavo-n … rakklo-n … basch-ar avri

and kid boy-DEF boy-DEF yield-PRS out

savi-t to saro-a. Jykklo-n per-ar preal

something-ADV to all-PL. dog-DEF fall-PRS through

varing-en tili pre pu-anet. Tjavo-n ja-r

window-DEF down to ground-DEF. boy-DEF go-PRS

tili after … glan-eske jykklo-n å le-r

down after before-POSS dog-DEF and take-PRS

an sero-s vasjt-ar. Sennslo ja-r an

in REFL-GEN hand-PL. Then go-PRS in

to vesch-en å basch-ar avri pre

to forest-DEF and yield-PRS out at

tjirrklo-an-a, jukklo ta tjavo-n.

bird-PL-DEF dog and boy-DEF.

Sennslo ja-r tjavo-n tili pre tjang-er-na

Then go-PRS boy-DEF down on knee-PL-DEF.

å basch-ar tili pre pu-anet. Jykklo-n

and cry-PRS down into ground-DEF. Dog-DEF

ste-r å dikk-a oppre pre jikk

stand-PRS and look-INF up to one

rukk pre bi-n-a. Sennslo ja-r opp

tree on bee-PL-DEF. Then go-PRS up
 116

jikk kresjtus å dikk-a på tjavo-n

one creatureand look-INF at boy-DEF

å tjakke bliddr-a trasch. Å jykklo-n

and who become-INF afraid. And dog-DEF

ste-r glann pre rukk-en ta basch-a

stand-PRS before at tree-DEF and bark-INF

pre geting-ar-na. Geting-ar-na bliddr-ar lakk-a

at wasp-PL.DEF wasp-PL.DEF become-PRS angry-PL

å nukko-n kamm-ar ja-tt oppri pre

and kid-DEF have-PRS go-SUP up to

rukk-an å dikk-ar pre li an

tree-DEF and look-PRS at he/she in

rukk-anet. Dova jikk tjirrklo å nukko-n

tree-DEF. There one bird and kid-DEF

bliddr-ar trasch å per-a tili fann

become-PRS afraid and fall-INF down from

rukk-anet. Jykklo-n kamm-ar li-tt mala

tree-DEF. Dog-DEF have-PRS take-SUP friend

tjakkes bliddr-ar butt lakka pre geting-ar-na,

who become-PRS very angry at wasp-PL-DEF,

så han nasch-ar an vesch-en.

so he run-PRS to forest-DEF.

And the kid…boy yields out something to everyone. The dog falls
through the window down to the ground. The boy goes down after, before
the dog and takes in his hand. Then he goes in to the forest and yields out
at the birds, the dog and the boy. Then the boy goes down on his knees
and cries down to the ground. The dog stands and looks up at one tree on
 117

the bees. Then a creature comes up and looks at the boy, who becomes
afraid. And the dog stands before the tree and barks at the wasps. The
wasps become angry and the kid has went up to a tree and looks at
him/her in the tree. There a bird and the kid become afraid and fall down
from the tree. The dog has become a friend who becomes very angry at
the wasps, so he runs to the forest.
 118

4.6.2. Story about a fight

(free speech, recorded with Lenny Lindell, 2008)

An dives a mander khere ta rakkr-a to

on day PART I home and say to

miro deja palla jikh tjakk tjakke honk-a an

my mother about one thing that be-INF at

drabbeske-kher-en karna buro-rakklo-ar kar-a mander

school-DEF when buro-boy-PL call-INF I

gla tattare ta basch-a kerj-a la

for tattare and yield-INF be naughty-INF PART

to mander gla mander bliddr-a butt lakk.

to I about I be-INF very angry.

Honka jiddro å jidder palla dova rakklo-ar-na tjakke

be fight and quarrel when DEM boy-PL-DEF who

basch-a pre mander. Dova honk-a tji lattjo-t.

yield-INF at me DEM be not fun-ADV

Bliddr-a dabbepa. Fysh-te ja andri to

be-INF fight have to-PST go.INF away to

rakkli-a … garia tjakke bascha pre miro… mander

woman-DEF woman who yield-INF at me I

te att Lenny fysh-er tji

that that Lenny ought to-PRS not

dabb-as an me drabbe-kher-en
fight-PASS at with school-DEF

tav-a miro deja å basch-a

phone-INF my mother and yield-INF
 119

å kerr-a se to.
and do-INF REFL to

One day I (came) home and I told my mother about something that was at
school when the buro-boys called med tattare and yielded and were
naughty with me and I was very angry. (There) was a fight and quarrel
when these boys yielded at me and it was not funny. (There) was a fight.
(They) had to go to the woman … woman who yielded at me … I that
Lenny is not allowed to fight at school (and they) called my mother and
yielded and made themselves to (=ridiculed themselves).
 120

5. Conclusion: support for an

autonomous model
The main focus of the current study has been phonology, lexical
stress/pitch accent and derivational/adaptional morphology. Other areas
of interest have been gender, animacy, thematic status, allophonic
variation and patters and variation of code-mixing and syntax.
Several patterns of Scandoromani, both in phonology, morphology
and syntax indicate a great deal of autonomy from the matrix language, in
which all speakers are native speakers. In one respect Scandoromani is
different from some other mixed languages: of the two component
languages, Scandinavian and Romani, only Scandinavian (the
matrix/grammaticising language) is fully known to the speakers. Inflected
Romani is not known to most of the speakers.
Accordingly, we have a bilingual situation among the Scandoromani,
today as well as historically, with Scandinavian (including various
dialects) and the autonomous Scandoromani language. Remnants of
Romani proper, e.g. in the phonology (see 2.4. – 2.5.) and the
morphology (see 3.2., 3.4.1) are highly likely to features that have
emerged during the process of creation of the language and which have
then been preserved in the language over the centuries.
The current study has several implications for the study on emergence of
mixed languages, also in general. Contra Thomason and Kaufman (1988)
and Thomasson (1995), Bakker (2003, 136ff.) argues that language
intertwining is not a continuous process of code-switching/code-mixing
nor a process of extreme lexical/ grammatical borrowing or re-
lexification (see also Muysken 2000, 266f.). On his model, intertwined
languages come about within a short period of time – which does not,
however, prevent further linguistic interaction with the co-territorial
language.
Early data from Scandoromani (Section 1.2.2) 63, indicate an early switch
towards a Scandinavian-adapted inflectional system, making it likely that
the general structure of the language and the basic patterns of mixing did,
indeed, come about within a limited period of time. What is highly
questionable is whether the language’s autonomous development – the
63
Like early data from Angloromani (cf. Bakker 2003).
 121

phonological innovations, the innovation and restructuring in the nominal

and verbal morphological system, and the development of independent
syntactic patterns – emerged within any similarly short period, then left
the language unchanged for several hundred years. A variety of evidence
speaks against this:
• The abundant variation between dialects and familylects
found within the morphology, the phonological stress/pitch
accent patterns (cf. Chapter 2), and the syntax (cf. Chapter
4).
• The re-structuring and subsequent extension of Romani-like
patterns found both in the phonology: e.g., breakdown of
the fricative/affricate series and secondary re-establishment,
invention of the /ɡh/ phoneme; and in the morphology: e.g.,
secondary re-establishment of the animacy criterion in the
gender system (cf. Chapter 3).
• The complex adaptations in the Scandinavian stress/pitch
accent system (cf. Chapter 2).
An open question is how and why Romani-like patterns have survived
outside the lexicon and what this indicates. Did knowledge of ‘proper’
Romani disappear within one generation, or was knowledge partly
retained within certain groups? Did Romani and Scandoromani exist side
by side with each other and the co-territorial Scandinavian languages,
influencing each other and so creating complex patterns of intertwining?
Or are all remnants of ‘proper’ Romani the result of the birth of
Scandoromani over one or two generations, reminiscent of a creolization?
The previous chapers have delved into Scandoromani’s phonology
(Chapter 2), derivational and inflectional morphology (Chapter 3), and
syntax (Chapter 4). I wish to summarize a few key features here,
indicative of an autonomous development:
• In the phonological system, the preservation of Romani
phonemes such as the aspirated stops /ph/ /th/ /kh/ and the
creation of a non-Romani aspirated stop /ɡh/ (2.4.5.).
• The occurrence of the phoneme /aː/ (2.3.), not present in
Swedish or Norwegian (2.3.), and with no basis in Romani
phonology.
• The secondary re-establishment of phonemic variation within
the series of fricatives and affricates (2.4.3.-2.4.4.).
 122

• The creation of a noun inflectional system taking into account

such factors as gender, animacy, and thematic status, as a
complex mixture of Romani and Scandinavian (Section 3.2).
• The preservation of dialectal and archaic forms and structures
of the matrix language; co-occurrence of dialectal and
standard forms of the matrix language (3.2.).
• The stress/pitch accent system, which bears traces of Romani
stress as well as showing complex adaptation to Scandinavian
patterns, with a high degree of innovation in using pitch
accent to distinguish dialectal variants (2.5.).
• The occurrence, from a Scandinavian perspective, of such
non-grammatical syntactic patterns as copula deletion and
place-holder subject deletion (4.2.-4.3.).
Taken together, these structures clearly point in the direction of a high
degree of autonomy of the language in relation to the matrix language,
from which Scandoromani has taken over most of its grammar.
 123

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 130

Appendix I, Vocabulary
This appendix brings together the lexical sources of Scandoromani
(Swedish and Norwegian), which can be regarded as reliable: they have
been collected by native speakers accompanied by a scholar (see list
below). However, there are a number of discrepancies in ortography
between the sources, as well as a huge variation in form and meaning for
individual lexical items. Furthermore, the sources differ as to how much
additional information (inflection, usage, stress, pitch accent) that they
give for lexical entries. For this reason, it has been an almost impossible
task to harmonize and create consistency in the vocabulary. The policy
has been as follows: the ortography of the sources has been kept at all
occasions. For items that occur in several sources, only LDj is given in
the head, followed by information about occurencies in other sources (see
abbreviation of sources below). If there is a slight variation in
form/meaning (e.g. slight allophonic variation, minor semantic
differentiation), this variation is listed towards the end of the entry
(before the etymological proposals).
Accordingly, items are organized as follows: 1) lexeme, with variation
and inflection (LDj), 2) sources, 3) information about word class, 4)
translation (first in Swedish/Norwegian exactly as in sources, then in
English), 5) examples (if available), most taken from LDj, 6) variants in
other sources, and 7) etymologies. All these subparts, as well as
Swedish/Norwegian and English translations, are separated by a
semicolon (;). Not all words have etymologies: as for variants and
derived forms, there is a reference to the entry with etymology. In other
cases, no etymology is given: this indicates that no satisfactory
etymology has been found.

Sources (abbreviations)
Etz = Etzler, Allan 1944. Zigenarna och deras avkomlingar i Sverige.
Historia och språk. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.
Iv = Iversen, Ragwald 1944. The Romany Language in Norway. Oslo:
Jacob Dybwad.
Joh = Johansson, Roger 1977. Svensk Rommani. Med etymologiska och
grammatiska kommentarer av Gösta Bergman och Erik Ljungberg
 131

samt förord av Adam Heymowski. Uppsala: Gustav Adolfs

Akademien.
KIH = Unpublished material on Norwegian Romani, compiled by Kåre-
Ivan Holm and Knut Kristiansen 1992-1995. Published with the
permission of Universitetet i Oslo, Historisk-filosofisk fakultet.
LDj = Lindell, Lenny & Thorbjörnsson-Djerf, Kenth 2008. Ordbok över
svensk romani. Resandefolkets språk och sånger. Stockholm: Podium.
Rib = Ribsskog, Øyvin 1945. Rommani I and II in: Hemmelige språk og
tegn : taterspråk, tivolifolkenes språk, forbryterspråk, gateguttspråk,
bankespråk, tegn, vinkel- og punktskrift. Oslo: Tanum.

Primary sources for Romani forms and etymologies

Boretzky, Norbert & Birgit Igla 1994. Wörterbuch Romani-Deutsch-
English für den südosteuropeischen Raum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Kluge, Friedrich 1960. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen
Sprache. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Lübben, August 1888. Mittelniederdeutsches Handwörterbuch. Leipzig:
Diedrich Soltau.
Rietz, Johan Ernst 1962. Svenskt Dialektlexikon. Ordbok öfver svenska
allmogespråket. Lund: Gleerups.
ROMLEX. http://romani.uni-graz.at/romlex/
Turner, Ralph Lilley 1962. A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan
Languages. London: Oxford University Press.
Vassmer, Max 1953. Russisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch.
Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
Wolf, Siegmund 1987. Grosses Wörterbuch der Zigeunersprache.
Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
Wolf, Siegmund 1985. Deutsche Gaunersprache. Wörterbuch des
Rotwelschen. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
 132

A
ábbo, àbbo; LDj; conj; men; but;
ábri, àbri; àvri; LDj; adv; bort, borta; away;
adöý; Iv; adv; der, dit; there, dither;
afføye; Rib; s; låve; barn;
áftis, áfters; LDj, Etz; prep; av; of, off; honkar aftis horta romano narta
(he) is of genuine Traveller blood;
agno; KIH; adj; ondt, slemt; evil, bad;
àgra -(de), -t; LDj; v; börja; start, begin; agra kaj! börja här!; Romani
agor beginning, end, from Skt. agra- tip;
agrus; KIH; s; jord; earth, field;
agsi; KIH; num; åtte, 8; eight;
agta; KIH; num; en, 1; one;
akeì; Rib, Iv; adv; her, hit; here, hither; Iv akeí, akaí, kei;
ákkter; LDj; prep/adv; efter, bakom; after, behind; cf. akno; Romani
akate, akatar from here, this way;
ákno; LDj; adv; medan, samtidigt; while, at the same time,
simultaneously; ava akno tjakkes mander (he) arrived at the same time
I did; Romani akana now; from a + Skt. kṣana- moment;
ákrus; Iv; s, m; åker; field;
áli, àli, vàli, -t/-(n), -na, -na; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; fönster (glas), flaske;
window, windowpane, bottle; Rib ali, -an, glass; glass, -et, flaske,
vindu; bottle, window; Romani valin glass, bottle, window glass,
mirror, from Greek gualí glass;
ali-blavert; KIH, Iv; s; gardin; curtain; Iv blávert;
àli-dikkar; Iv; s, m; lit. glass-seer; speil; lit. glass-seer; mirror;
aliske-hìspa, -n; LDj; s, r; glashus, växthus; glasshouse, greenhouse;
aliske-jàkker, àli-jakker, vàli-jakkar, -na; LDj, Iv; s, pl; glasögon;
glasses, spectacles; Iv àli-jakkar, aliar, dikkar-aliar, dikkar-
jakkar, dikkerar;
aliske-tàfflan, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; glasbord; glass table;
alliantum; KIH; s; guld; gold;
allmessa; Etz; s; allmosa; alms, donation
alṓnum, alònum uninfl; LDj, Iv, Etz; adj; ensam, allena; alone; ste tji doj
alonum, ava! Don’t stand there by yourself, come!; Iv alṓnum (adv)
aleine, bare; alone, only from English alone alone;
 133

alte-sárot; Iv; pron; alt sammen, det hele; all (of it), the whole thing; Rib
altisàros, altsàrarot, altsàros, altsàrus, altsàrarus; altsammen; all
of it, everything, altsàrhos; alt sånt, likedan; all such, the same; KIH
alltsåsarot alltsammen; all of it, everything; manipulation of Swedish
alltsamman, Norwegian altsamman all of it, and Scandoromani saro
whole;
an; LDj; prep; i; in; an miro hispa i mitt hus; Romani ande in, within,
during;
andré, ándre, àndre, àndri; adv; in, inne; in, into, inside; ja tji andre!
gå inte in! bescha andre kabenet dre bova. take out the food in the
oven; Romani andre into, inside;
andreál; LDj; adv/adj; invändigt/inåtvänd, avig; internal, inward, turned
inside out; nuttan honkar andreal the sweater is inside out; Romani
andral from inside, inside;
àndri-gad; Iv; s, m; underskjorte, egl. inner-skjorte; undershirt, lit. inner
shirt;
andri-klissa; Rib; adj; inne-låst, inne-stengt; locked in, shut in;
àndri-pagripa; Iv, Rib, KIH; s; inbrott, lit. inbryting; burglary, lit.
breaking in; Rib andri-paggri;
àndri-påsitta; Iv, Rib, KIH; s, m; innerlomme; inner pocket;
anglál, àngla, ànglad; LDj; prep/adv; för, före, först, framför; for,
before, first, in front of; ja angla mande to boforma, tjavoarna honkar
doj nikklosch ta tjinnar butt attjer dinglarn! Go to the store before me,
the boys are down there buying lots from the shopkeeper!; Romani
anglal in front of, before, from Skt. agrataḥ;
ángleske; uninfl; adj/adv; först, första; first, the first;
ánglo, ànglo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; metkrok; fish hook; Romani
anglo fishing rod, (fish hook), from Gm. Angel(haken) fishing rod,
(fish hook);
ànner, ànnera, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hämta; get, fetch; Romani anel fetch,
bring, bring sth. about, from Skt. ā-naya- fetch, bring;
anom, anong; Rib; s; år; year;
Ànte; Iv; proper name; Andreas, Anders; Andrew;
ànten; LDj; adv; antingen; either; from Dan./Norw. anten, enten either;
ánumen, -a; Etz; s; tidningen; the newspaper;
apri; Rib; prep; opp, oppe, oppå; up (direction), up (location), on top of;
arkelaus; KIH; adj; poor, wretched; poor, wretched; Iv; adj; 1. røpelig,
ussel, 2. fattig; 1. weak, frail; miserable, 2. poor; Rib arkelus;
 134

árknom, akrṓnum, àrkonom, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, r; brev; letter; from

Sw., MLG ark sheet of paper;
arnum; Etz; s; år; year;
aro, -ar; Etz; s; ägg; egg; cf. jaro;
arro; KIH; s; mel; flour;
àsha, àscha, àcha -(de), -t; LDj, KIH, Rib; v; vara, gå, komma; be, go,
come; asha attjer horta romani narta vara utav djup romanisläkt,
ashar dova savrige tjakk, tjakke diro kamma? Are those the same
wares, that you had? ashade diros nav Sonny? Was your name
sonny?; KIH atjar, atja ojemend rocksto; være ond; be evil; Rib asja
være, gå, komme; be, go, come; Romani ačhel dwell, live, be;
áshi, àshi; LDj; interj; javisst; certainly;
àshter, asjter; Etz; adv; efter, av; after, of; Romani akatar from here, this
way, Skt. átra here, there;
ástro, àstro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; stjärna; star; from Greek ástron
star;
àtcher; áttjer;
atri; Rib; etter; after;
àtsher; àttjer;
attis; Etz; subj; att; to, that;
áttjer, àtsher, àtscher; LDj; prep/adv; av, utav; of; attjer horta romani
narta of genuine Traveller blood;
attri-piro; Rib; s; bak-bein; hind leg;
attri-pri; Rib; adv; etter-på; after, behind;
attro-pri; Rib; adv; attpå, ekstra; in addition, extra;
attrus; Rib; adv; bak, etter; behind, after;
aúr, àu, àur; LDj; conj; och; and;
ava; Rib; v; gå; go, walk;
àva, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; komma; come; ava kaj! kom hit! karna avar
diro khere? när kommer du hem? nii avar diro khere karna dolle
bliddrar tamlot! Now you come home when it gets dark!; KIH hava
komme; hava kej kom hit; come here; Romani avel come, become,
from Skt. āpaya- achieve, get;
avàver; Rib; num; andre; second;
ave; Rib; num; en; one;
avon; Rib; adj; missunnelig; grudging, envious;
avri; Rib; adv; ut; out;
avri; Rib; adv; oppå; on top of;
 135

àvri, àvre; LDj, Etz; adv/prep; ut, ute, utanför, utav; out, outside, outside
of, out of, by; ashar kej avre, dikkar diro tji mander? (I) am out here,
don’t you see me?; Romani avrín out, outside;
avriál, andreál; LDj; adv/adj; utvändigt, utåtvänd; external, outward,
out-turned; Romani avrí out, outside;
àvri-dikkad; àvriske-dikkad;
àvri-gad; Iv; s, m; overskjorte; egl. ytterskjorte; over shirt; pull over
sports jacket;
àvri-isar; Iv; s, pl; frakk, kåpe egl. ytterklær; tails; dress coat lit. outer
clothes;
àvri-jackar, -na; LDj; s, pl; glasögon; glasses, spectacles;
àvri-ledd; LDj; adj; uttagen; picked out;
avri-mula; Rib; adj; ut-dødd; extinct;
avri-råva; Rib; adj; forgrått; has been crying their eyes out (lit. out-
cried);
avriske-dàbbad, àvri-dabbad; LDj; adj; utslagen; knocked out;
avriske-dìkkad, àvri-dikkad; LDj; adj; uttittad; stared at, ogled;
avriske-thémm, àvri-themm, -a/-en; LDj; s, r; utlandet; abroad, foreign
countries;
avriske-thèmmare, àvri-themmare, -n, -, def-themmarna; LDj; s, m;
utlänning; foreigner;
avvæstra; KIH; v; kle av; undress;
åckra; Etz; v; åka; go (somewhere, in or on something);
åcktis; Etz; conj; och; and;
åli; Etz; adj; gammal; old;
åmstro, åmters, åmtis; Etz; prep; om; if;
ångfara; Etz; v; ångra; regret;
åtri; Etz; prep; åt; to, at;
änsjnus, änters, äntis; Etz; adv; än; yet;

B
babb, pabb; Iv; s, m; potet; potato;
babb, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Rib; s, n; skägg; beard;
babbe; from Romanian barbă beard;
bàbberske-bal; Iv; s, n; skjegghår; (hair from the) whisker(s);
bàbberske-rakkar; Iv; s, m; barber. egl. skjegg-steller; hairdresser. lit.
beard-trimmer;
bàbbi uninfl; LDj; adj; skäggig; bearded;
 136

babbis; Rib; s; bly, tinn; lead, tin;

bàbbra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; raka; shave;
babbreske-tjúro, bàrrvar-tjuro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; rakkniv;
razor;;
bækning; KIH; s; salg; sale, selling;
bænga; KIH; v; banne, sverge; curse, swear;
bagg LDj; uninfl; adj; motspänstig, bångstyrig (om häst); insubordinate,
unruly or disobediant (about a horse); tjinna nani dova grashno, lo
ashar bagg don’t buy that stallion, he is too disobediant!; from Gm.
Bock bad horse, bocken refuse to move of horse;
bàhi uninfl; LDj; s r; lycka; good fortune, happiness; butt bahi miro dad!
good fortune, my father!; Romani bacht luck, good fortune, from
Persian baxt happiness;
bakalo; KIH; adj; varm, het; warm, hot;
bákko, bàkko, -n; LDj; Etz; s, r; tur, lycka; kärl, spottkopp; luck, good
fortune; vessel, spittoon; savo bakko diro kammar an dives, miro mala
what luck you have today, my friend; Romani bacht luck, good
fortune, from Persian baxt happiness;
bákkro, -n/-t, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH, Iv; s, r/n; får, geiter; sheep, goat;
KIH backroar får, geiter; sheep, goat; Iv békron, bækron; Romani
bakri sheep, from Skt., Hindi bakrī goat;
bakkus; Rib; s; bakke; tray;
bakǻmtis; Etz; adv; bakom; behind;
bal, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; hår; hair; so schukkranoa jakker ta bal diro
kammar what beautiful eyes and hair you have, kakkla balet pre
mander, deja klipp cut my hair, mother; Romani bal hair, from Skt.
vāla- hair;
bálgo, -n; LDj; s, r; mage; stomach; kammar dukk dre miro balgo my
stomach hurts;
balie; Rib; adv; tilbake; back;
baljen; Etz; s, def; magen, buken; belly, stomach;
bálldrik, -en; LDj; s, r; kittel, kaffepanna; boiling pot, coffeepot; from
MLG balge, ballige bowl (for milk);
ballert; Rib; s; kjel; boiling-pot, kettle;
bállvas, ballvás, -et; LDj, Rib; s, n; fläsk, fett; pork, fat; Iv bàlibas,
bàlovas; Romani balovas bacon, from Romani balo pig, boar and
*vas from Skt. vasā- marrow, fat, grease;
bálo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gris; pig; Romani balo pig, boar, from Skt.
bāla- young, stupid;
 137

balo-akti; Rib; adj; grisete; pig-like;

bàlo-låddipa; Iv; s, m; grisehus; piggery;
bàlo-moj; baloske-mój;
bàlo-piro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; grisfot; pig’s foot;
balo-schéro; bàloske-schero;
baloske-mój, bàlo-moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gristryne; pig snout;
baloske-schèro, bàlo-schero, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj; s, r;
grishuvud; pig’s head;
bandra; KIH; v; binde; bind;
bane; KIH; s; kake; bisquit;
banglo; Rib; s; fange, slave; prisoner, slave;
bangno; Etz; adj; halt; lame;
bángro; Iv; s, m; pinne, stikke; peg, stick;
bángro, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj; s, m; fånge; prisoner; Romani phandel
bind, bond, enchain, lock, lock someone up, from Skt. bandh- bind,
bond;
bánko, bánkos, bankus; Iv; s, m; benk, stol; chair; KIH banko, bankos;
bánkus, bànkus, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; soffa; sofa, couch; bescha tji
ersnos dre bankusen, doj fysher tjavoarna suta an ratti! don’t sit on
the sofa, the boys are sleeping there tonight!; from Gm. Bank bench;
bánnek, bánnik, bánnika; Iv; s, f; kake; cake;
bannia; Rib; s; hår; hair;
bannik; Rib; s; brød; bread;
bánnika, bánneka, bànnika, bànneka, bànnikla, -(n), pl bànniker, -
er(n)a; LDj; s, r; pannkaka; pancake;
bánnik-pikkari; Iv; s, n; bakeri, egl. kake-steikeri; baker’s shop, lit.
cake-grillroom;
bànsa, -(n), pl banser, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; ladugård; barn; bescha voddron
dre bansan preall rattia park the car in the barn over night; from Gm.
Banse barn;
bar, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gärdesgård, staket; hurdle, fence;
Romani bar garden, fence, hurdle, hurdling, from Skt. vāṭa- fence;
barn; Rib; s; gjerde (egtl. steingjerde); fence (stone wall);
baro, -ar; Etz; s; stor sedel, sedel på 100 el. 1000 kronor; large note, 100
or 1000 Kronor bill;
báro, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; 1. stor, hög, 2. svaer, brei; 1. big, large,
tall, high, 2. heavy, wide; so baro diros jykklo honkar! your dog is so
big! vorsnos kammar jekh baro stedo we have a large cottage; Romani
baro big, large, from Skt. vaḍra- big, large;
 138

bàro-beddo; Iv; s, m; biskop; bishop;

bàro-beddo, baroske-béddo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; fin karl,
herreman, högt uppsatt person; gentleman, master, nobleman, person
of high station;
bàro-bero; Iv; s, m; dampbåt, egl. storbåt; steamer, lit. large boat;
baro-drummen; KIH; s; kongeveien; the king’s road;
bàro-fåron; Iv; s, place name; Oslo, lit. Stor-byen; Oslo, lit. the big
town;
baro-gaja; KIH; s; dronningen; (the) queen;
bàro-kaare, baroske-kàare, -n, -, def pl -kaarna; LDj; s, m; storätare;
glutton;
baro-kalsingar; Rib; s, pl; sjøstøvler; sea boots;
baro-kàr; Rib; s; stor-eter; glutton;
bàro-kårko; Iv; s, m; jul, egl. stor-helg; Christmas, lit. great holiday;
baro-ker; Etz; s; herrgård; mansion; manor;
bàro-kokkare, baroske-kòkkare, -n, -, def pl -kokkarna; LDj; s, m;
storljugare; arrant liar;
bàro-korrko; baro-kúrrko;
baro-kúrrko, baroske-kúrrko, bàro-korrko, -n, -a, -ana; LDj; s, r;
helgdag; holy day; holiday; butt laschanopa an dives pre baro-
kurrkoske dives great joy on this Easter holiday;
bàro-lil; Iv; s, m; hundredeseddel, eg, stor-seddel; hundred kroner bill,
lit. great-bill;
bàro-lill, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj; s, r; tusenlapp; thousand-
kronor bill;
baro-merist; KIH; s; offiser; officer, non-commissioned officer;
Bàro-pani; Iv; name; Glomma, lit. Stor-elv(a); proper name Glomma, lit.
(the) great river;
baro-quantinge; KIH; s; kongen; (the) king;
baro-quanting-gaja; KIH; s; frue; madame;
bàro-rakklare, -n, -, -rakklarna; LDj; s, m; storpratare; big talker;
bàro-rasjo; Iv; s, m; prost, biskop; dean, bishop;
baro-rej; Etz; s; storman, hög, fin herre; great man, man of high stature;
baros-kräon; Etz; s, def; kungen; the king;
barot barot; KIH; adv, expr; uvanlig stort; unusually big;
bàro-tjorare, -n, -, pl -tjorarna; LDj, Etz; s, m; stortjuv; big thief;
masterthief; Etz barotjårare;
barr; Iv; s, m; ort; elevenpence;
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barr, bar, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; sten, ber; rock, stone, mountain;
tjyvvra tji barr tjavo don’t throw rock, boy!; Romani bar rock, wall;
barreske-hìspa, bàrr-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; stenhus;
stone house; an dova barreske-hispa boddrar vavre romanoa other
Travellers live in this stone house;
bàrr-hispa; barreske-hìspa;
barrvalò-gavo; Rib; s; rik-mann; rich man;
bàrrvar-tjuro; babbreske-tjúro;
barsj; Rib; s; år; year;
bartri; Rib; adv; borte; gone, away;
bàrva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; raka; shave;
bárvalo, bàrvalo, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; rik, förmögen; rich, wealthy;
mander ashar barvalo an truppo ta sia, kammar jekh baro narta I am
rich in my body and soul, (I) have a big family; Romani barvalo rich
from Skt. balavat- powerful;
bàrvalo-manus; Iv; s, m; rikfolk; the rich;
bàrvalopa uninfl; LDj, Iv; s, r; rikedom, förmögenhet; fortune, wealth;
bàrvalipa;
barvla; Etz; s; skägg; beard;
basch, bash, -et; LDj; s, n; skäll; scolding; beng, so basch mander ledde
avri garian! damn, that lady gave me a scolding!;
bàscha, bàcha, bàsha, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, KIH; v, s; 1. skälla, skrika,
gräla, krangle, være dum, 2. skellsord; 1. bark, yell, argue, be difficult,
be stupid, 2. epithet; jukkloarna bashar butt avri, avar ghana? the
dogs are barking a lot, is someone coming?; Romani bašel play (an
instrument), make music, sound, shout, howl, bark, cackle, from Skt.
vāśya- roar, sing;
bàschi-mosch, baschiske-mósch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m;
gårdsmusikant; itinerant/wandering musician;
basht, bashjt, bacht, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; år; year; miro
jykklo ashar okto basht, tjakke mander ledde, karna mander asha enja
basht my dog that I got when I was nine years old, is eight years old,
ashar butt basht snelo? was that many years ago?; Iv bærsj, bærs;
Romani berš, from Skt. varsa-;
bàsja; Iv; v; 1. spille (instrument, kort) 2; play (instrument, cards);
basjdalò; Rib; adj; streng; stern, strict; Iv básjtalo;
basjdonò; Rib, Iv; adj; streng morsk; harsh, fierce, severe, bold;
básjiba; Iv; s, m; musikkinstrument; musical instrument;
básjipa; Iv; s, m; skjelling, kjekling; scolding, squabble(s);
 140

basjlon; Rib; s; get; goat

basjtalò; Rib; adj, v; 1.strict, stern;
bàsjtano; Iv; adj; falsk, upålitelig; false, untrustworthy;
baskro; KIH; s; ledare, domare; ruler, judge;
báskro; Iv; s, m; 1. herre, 2. slåsskjempe; 1. master, 2. bully, fighter;
básno; Iv; s, m; hane; cock, rooster;
bástalo, bàstalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; illmarig, knipslug; crafty, cunning;
devel, moschen mander tjinna voddron avri asha bastalo dre
bekknepa gud the man we bought the car from was a crafty
businessman; likely from Romani baštardo rogue, cad, scamp,
rapscallion, scoundrel; bastard, dwarf;
bataljàre; Rib; s; smed; smith;
batra; Etz; v; skälla (på ngn); scold, tell off;
bavo; KIH; interj; helvetes, jävliga; damn;
bǻkkipa, bokkipa; Iv; s, m; sult; hunger;
bǻnnika; Iv; s, m; høyvåndel; great wisp of hay;
båbbi; Etz; s; ugn; oven;
båjaskiro; Etz; s; istadig häst; restive horse;
båk, båkk; KIH; adj; hungrig; hungry;
båkon; KIH; s; bok, lommebok; book, wallet;
bålla; Rib; s; dop; christening;
bånnika; KIH; s; hötjuga; hayfork;
båtra; KIH, Iv; s; meddelande; matter, message, errand; Iv bǻtra;
bäckatriner; Etz; s, pl; ankor; ducks;
bäckaträckare; Etz; s, pl; ankor; ducks;
bä̀ dda, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Rib; s, r; kopp, kjele; cup, bowl;
bädda; KIH; s; sovested; place to sleep;
bädda; KIH; s; embetsmann; state official;
bä̀ ffa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ha samlag; have intercourse;
bäffa; Etz; s; vulva; vulva; from Rotwelsch Beff vulva, from German
Befze lip;
bäsat, bäsjat; KIH; adj; vært; worth;
bä̀ shar-mosch, bèshar-mosch, -en; LDj; s, m; spelman, musiker,
gatumusikant; fiddler, musician, street musician;
bä̀ te, -n, -n, -na; LDj; s, r; bit, visa; piece, song; from Sw.Dial. bete, bite
piece;
bèda, -n; LDj; s, r; stjärna; star; probably from Slavic, cf. Ru. zvezdá star;
bèddeske-rani; bèddo-rani;
béddo; Iv; s, m; politimann; fengselfunksionær; policeman; prison guard;
 141

béddo, béddano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fin, förnäm; distinguished, noble;
béddo, bä́ do, bèddo, bä̀ ddo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; fin karl,
herreman, högt uppsatt person, myndighetsperson av något slag;
gentleman, master, nobleman, man of high stature, person in
authority; person from the authorities; KIH bäddor;
bèddo-hispa; Iv; s, m; politistasjon; police-station;
bèddo-kher, bä̀ ddo-kher, beddoske-khér, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r;
herrgård; mansion, manor;
bèddo-lil; Iv; s, m; politi-pass; passport of police;
bèddo-manusch, bä̀ ddo-manusch, beddoske-mánusch, -et, -, -ena;
LDj; s, n; herrskap(sfolk); gentleman(‘s family);
bèddo-mosch, bä̀ ddo-mosch, beddoske-mósch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s,
m; fin karl, herre(man); gentleman, master, nobleman; def pl
myndigheterna; the authorities;
beddo-penndri; Rib; s; politi-hus; police headquarters, police station;
bèddo-rani, bä̀ ddo-rani, beddeske-ráni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f;
fin dam, herrskapsfru; woman of high stature, lady;
beddoske-ròmni, bèddo-romni, bä̀ ddo-romni, bä̀ do-romni, -n/-a, -er,
-er(n)a; LDj; s, f; fin dam, herrskapsfru; woman of high station, lady;
bedeske-bár, bèda-bar, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; diamant; diamond;
bedor; KIH; s; sivil herre; civilian gentleman;
beffa; Rib; s; kjønnsorgan (det kv.); genitals (female);
bèjla, bä̀ jla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; fria; propose; Sw.Dial. bejla propose;
bekk, -et; LDj, Etz s, n; stycke, bit; piece, part;
bèkka, bä̀ kka, -(n), pl bekker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; 1. bit, stycke
(äv. musik), 2. kaka; 1. part, piece (also music), 2. bisquit;
békker, pl bèkkrar; bélka, pl bèlker; LDj; s, r; ekorre; squirrel; dikk
palla belka prachtar siggro oppre to chumb! look at the squirrel
running quickly to the hill!; from Slav, Ru. bélka squirrel;
bèkkna, bä̀ kkna, bìkkna, bèkkra, bä̀ kkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sälja; sell;
Romani bikinel sell, from Skt. vi-krīṇā-;
bèkknare, bìkknare, bä̀ kknare, bèkkrarle, bä̀ kkrarle, bìkkrarle, -n, -,
def pl bèkknarna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; försäljare, (gårdfari)handlare;
salesman, (itinerant) pedlar; miro dad honkar bekknare, lo bekknar
minker ta vavert tjakk my father is a salesman, he sells clocks and
other wares; Iv bèknar;
bèkknepa, bä̀ kknepa, bìkknepa, bèkkrepa, bä̀ kkrepa, bìkkrepa, -t, -
(n), -na; LDj, Rib;; s, n; handel, försäljning, handelsvaror, marknad;
 142

trade, selling, merchandise, market; fair; trissa butt ninna romanoa

pre bekknepat (I) met many Travellers at the market;
bekko; KIH; s; tottenslager; weapon;
béknipa; Iv; s, m; butikk, krambu; shop, stall;
beknús; Etz; v, imp; bekänn; admit;
bekron, bækron; Iv; s, m; sau; sheep;
bella; KIH, Rib; v; gjøe; bark; from Gm. bellen bark;
bello; KIH; s; øret; penny; maybe Romani (Sinte) bema, bemo coin;
bèlsing, bä̀ lsing, -en; LDj; s, r; mage, magsäck; stomach; mander
kammar dukk an belsingen my stomach hurts;
beltusse; Rib; s; belte; belt;
bèlven, bä́ lven, bä̀ lvel, bä̀ rvel, -, -, -a; bèlving, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj,
Rib, Iv; s, r; kväll, afton; evening; Iv bèlvel; Romani bijavel, belvel
evening, from Skt. vikāla- evening;
bèmlare, bä̀ mlare, -n, -, bèmlarna; LDj; s, r; femma (mynt); five-krona
(coin);
beng; Rib; s; gullstempel, (falskt); hallmark (false);
beng, bäng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; djävul, satan, fan; devil, Satan;
Romani beng devil, gendarme, from Skt. vyāṅga- deformed,
monstrous;
béngali, bèngali, bä̀ ngali, -a, -a, -erna; LDj; s, f; tokig kvinna;
madwoman;
béngalo, bèngalo, bä̀ ngalo, -n; LDj; s, m; tokig man; madman;
béngalo, bä̀ ngalo, -i, -a; LDj, Rib, KIH; adj; 1. djävlig, tokig, galen, 2.
ugudelig; 1. devilish, crazy, mad, 2. ungodly; bengaloa moschar crazy
men, Rib bennalò; KIH bængalo;
bengalò-hir; Rib; s; galning, dumrian; madman, fool;
bèngalo-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; mentalsjukhus; mental
hospital;
bengalò-penndri; Rib; s; galehus; madhouse;
bengen; Rib; s; telefon, telegraf; telephone, telegraph;
bengens-makt; Rib; s; spøkeri; haunting;
béngerste, bä´ngerste, béngerske, bèngerske uninfl; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH;;
s; helvete, helvetet (i vissa uttryck); hell, Hell (in certain expressions);
asha malanoa nii nukkoar palla ersnos nani voltrar tradra to
bengerste be nice now children, lest you want to go to Hell; Iv
bèngelske; KIH bængerske;
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bèngi, bä̀ ngi, -t, -a; beng; LDj; adj; djävlig; devilishly, damned; bengit
tero nii, I need to go to the bathroom really bad (lit. I am damned
neccessary);
bengkus; Rib; s; benk; bench;
bennling; Rib; s; kjede; chain;
béro, bä́ ro, béri, -n, -s/-ar, -s/-arna; bèring, -en; LDj; s, r; båt; boat;
Romani bero ship, barge, boat;
bero-penndri; Rib; s; båthus; boathouse;
beroske-vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; båtvagn; boat trailer;
berrvalo; Rib; adj; fet, rik; fat, rich;
berubba; Rib; adj; belagt (gull- eller sølvbel.); plated (gold or silver
plated);
berv; Rib; s; dag; day;
bèscha, bèsha, bècha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. sitta, 2. sätta, 3. ställa, lägga,
4. sitta inne; 1. sit, 2. seat (oneself), 3. put, 4. doing time (in prison);
Romani bešel sit, seat oneself, be located, live;
bèsha, bàscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; spela (ett instrument); play (a musical
instrument); Romani bašel play (an instrument), make music, sound,
shout, howl, bark, cackle; from Skt vāśyate roar, sing;
besja; Rib; v; bli, stå, stille, vær; stay, stand, stop, be;
bèsja; Iv; v; 1. sitte, sette, 2. stå 3. være; 1. sit, set, 2. stand 3. be;
besjar; Rib; v; er; is, are;
bèsjar; Iv; s, m; bestyrer, egl. en som står (for), forstander; manager, lit.
one who stands (in charge of);
bia, bya; Etz; s; tia (sedel); ten Kronor bill;
bíbbli, bìbbli, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; änka; widow; Romani
bibi aunt; (infrequently:) mother, grandmother;
bìddra -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; vänta, stanna, vila; wait, stop, rest; KIH
bidra;
bìkka, bíkkan; Iv; s, m; bete; morsel;
bikknaren; Rib; s, def; butikken; the store;
binåm; Rib; prep; i, inne, in; in, inside, into;
bìscha; bìsha;
bìsha, bìscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skicka; send; Romani bičhalel send,
dispatch, from Skt. abhi-ajya- being send to;
bisjlinger; Rib; s, pl; beter, småstykker; bits, small pieces;
bìssling, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; tand (smeksamt till barn); tooth
(fondly to children); Romani bissling tooth; from MHG bīzen bite;
bisslinger; Rib; s, pl; beter, småbeter; bits, small bits;
 144

bì-stokk, -en, -s/-ar, -s/-arna; LDj; s, r; stövel; boot; tjinna bi-stokks to

mande dre spekkaria buy boots for me at the store;
bìstra, -(de) -t; LDj, Etz; v; glömma, skicka, sända; forget, send; bistra
tji mander glöm inte mig; Romani bistarel forget, from Skt. vi-smar-;
bìtta, bíttan; Iv; s, m; bit, bete; morsel, bit;
biváll, bivál, -t, -a; LDj; adj/adv; rå, okokt, ostekt; raw, unboiled,
unfried, uncooked; pekkra masset buttider ashar bivall! fry the meat
longer, it’s not cooked through!; Romani bivant raw, verdant, humid;
bívano, bívalo -t, -a; LDj; adj; rå; raw, uncooked;
bja; Etz; s; stor bjudning, kalas; big party, feast;
bjav, -et, -, -ena; bjavani -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; 1. bröllop, dop, 2. gravøl, 3.
gilde; 1. wedding, christening, 2. funeral feast, 3. feast; Iv bjav m
bryllup, gravøl, gilde; wedding, funeral feast, feast; Romani biab
wedding;
bjàva, -de, -t; LDj, Etz; v; gifta sig; get married; bjavas gifta sig; marry;
bjàvdepa, bjàvepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj; s, n; bröllop. dop; wedding,
baptism; Etz bjav;
bjùddra, -(de), -t; v; bjuda; treat; From Sw. bjuda treat;
bjùsha, bjùssa, bjùcha, bùttja -(de) -t; LDj; v; heta; be called; be
named; Romani bučhol be called, be named, to call oneself, uncertain
etymology;
blàvar-påtissa; Iv; s, m; lommeveske med lås for kvinner, egl.
hengelomme; ladies pocket pouch with lock, lit. hanging pocket;
bláddrika, bléddrika, blàddrika, blèddrika, blä̀ ddrika, -(n), pl
bladdriker, -(n)a; blàttran, -; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; tidning; newspaper;
ster palla jekh mulepa dre bladdrika there’s an article about a murder
in the newspaper; Rib blattan; from Gm. Blatt, MLG blat leaf, paper,
Sw. bläddra turn over pages;
blaksnan; Rib; s; laken; sheets;
blakstran; Rib; s; laken, teppe, tørkle; sheets, carpet, kerchief;
blankus; Rib; s; blekk, tinn; sheet metal, tin;
blankus-plattan; Rib; s; tinn-fat; tin plate (dish);
blànn-monsing, -en; LDj; s, r; luffarspråk; secret language among
Traveller people and pedlars, borrowing words from Romani;
blánshen uninfl; LDj; s; den ljushårige (öknamn); the fair-haired one
(epithet);
blava; Rib; v; bli, sitte, stå, være; become, sit, stand, be;
blàva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hänga; hang; Romani (um)blavel hang, from Skt.
ava-lambh- hang down;
 145

blava, -e; Rib; v; snakke; talk;

blàvad; LDj; pst ptc; hängd; hung; mander dikka pre dikkeske-leddik
karna jekh mosch bliddra blavad dre jekh rukk I saw a man get hung
from a tree on TV;
blávano, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; blå, gällen, halvsur (om mjölk); blue, on
the turn (about milk); KIH blavadot blått; Romani blauto, blavato
blue;
blavanter; KIH, Iv; s; forkle; apron; Iv blàvantyr;
blavantí; Iv; s, f; laken; sheet;
blejd, bläjd, -en; LDj; s, r; 25-öring; 25 cent coint;
blénker, blä̀ nker, -(n); LDj; s, pl; glasögon; glasses; spectacles;
blìddra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bli; become; kava bliddrar tjattjot lattjot this
will be very good, bliddra tji dukkalo ninna don’t get sick now
bliddra uschlig to become responsible (for something);
blingka; Rib; s; klokke; watch, clock;
blinkus; Rib; s; speil; mirror;
blìsja; Iv; v; regne; rain;
blissa; Rib; v; blåse; blow (wind);
blúmmrika, -(n), pl blùmmriker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; blomma; flower; from
Gm. Blume flower;
blytran, blyttan; KIH; s; bly; lead;
blåmann; Rib; s; kniv; knife;
blä́ ddria, -(n), pl blä̀ ddrier, -(n)a; bláddrika; LDj; s, r; tidning;
newspaper;
blänkert, blänkis; Etz; s; tenn; tin;
bóbber, bòbber, -(n)a; LDj, Rib; s, pl; bönor; beans; Romani bobo bean,
broad bean, from Romanian bob, Slav. bob bean;
bòddra, bṑddra, -(de), -t, bodra; LDj; Etz; v; bo; live (in a house or
area); From Sw. bo live;
bṑfarma, bofárma, bofórma, -(n), pl bṑfarmer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r;
handelsbod, butik; shop, store; most likely a combination of Sw. bo
live and Eng. farm farm, farm-house, from MLat. firmāre contract for;
bòggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bädda; make a (the) bed, put to bed, tuck in;
boggra boggron karna phrala avar make the bed when brother comes,
boggra teli nukkoarna an voddron tuck the kids into the carriage.
bóggro, bòggro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; säng; bed;
boïvot; KIH; adj; rå; raw;
bokk; Iv; s, m; sult; hunger;
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bòkka, -de, -t; LDj; v; hungra, svälta; hunger, starve; bokka tji, ka! don’t
starve, eat!; Romani bokh hunger;
bòkka, -n, -na; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; bok; book; Etz båcko, KIH bocko;
Romani bucho book, from MLG bôk book;
bókkalo, búkkalo -t, -a; LDj, KIH; båcka; adj; hungrig; hungry; so
bokkalo mander asha an dives, pattja mander saste ka oppri jekh
helko balo I was so hungry today, I thought I would eat a whole pig;
KIH bokalo, båkalo.
bòlla, -de, -t; LDj; v; döpa; christen, baptise; Romani bolel baptise,
christen, dive, submerge;
bòllepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Iv; s, n; dop; christening, baptism; savo dives
asha bollepat? what day was the baptism?;
bolleske-dìves uninfl; LDj; s; julafton, döparedagen; Christmas Eve;
boltus, båntus; KIH; s; lödpenna; soldering iron;
bolvína, bulvína -(n), pl bolviner, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kudde, dyna, bolster;
pillow, cushion, soft mattress; probably from Sw. bolster feather bed;
bomma; Etz; v; röka; smoke;
bómmali, bòmmali, mómmali, -(a)n, -s, -s; LDj, Etz; s, r; lampa; lamp;
Romani momeli wax, candle;
bóngi, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fel, falsk; wrong, false, counterfeit; Romani bango
bended, crooked, halt, limping; unfair;
bòngi-rigg, bongeske-rígg; uninfl; LDj; vänster; left; tradra to bongi
rigg! drive to the left!; Romani bango bended, crooked, halt, limping;
unfair;
bori; KIH; s; dun, dyna; down feather, cushion;
bórtri; LDj; adv; bort, borta; away, off;
bòscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; spela; play; Romani bašel play (an instrument),
make music, sound, shout, howl, bark, cackle;
bòschepa, bèshipa, -t; LDj; s, n; musik; music; spekkra boschepa play
music;
boscheprásko, boscheskíro, boscheske-skíro, -n, -ar, -ar(n)a;
bòschare, -n, -, def pl bòscharna, bòscha; bòscha; s, m; spelman,
musiker; musician; boschepraskon tjakke ster doj nikli honkar miro
dadeske-phral, lo spekkrar schukkart! the musician over there is my
uncle, he plays beautifully!;
bòtta, -(n), pl bòtter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; bit, stycke (äv. musik); bit, piece
(also music); le jekh botta to mande take a piece for me; probably
Sw.Dial. baita bite;
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bòttra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bita; bite; bottra ta tjingra tji dre barr! don’t
bite and cut into a stone!;
bōv, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; 1. kakelugn, spis, 2. ovn; 1. stove,
tiled stove, 2. oven; KIH bau, bov; Iv bau, bov; Romani bov oven,
baking oven, from Armenian;
bøien; KIH; s; kakelovn; tiled stove;
bøitus; KIH; s; høsten; Autumn;
bökk, bökkt uninfl; LDj; s, coll; pengar; money; jinna tji bökk, ashar
obahi don’t count your money, it brings bad luck; Romani baxt luck,
good fortune;
bö́ lo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; tjur; bull; Romani bullo bullock, castrated
bull;
börjfara; KIH; v; begynne; begin; Sw. börja begin;
bøyto; KIH; adj; fet, tykk; fat, thick;
bràsa, bràsja; Iv, Rib, KIH; v, adj; 1. fryse, 2. kaldt; 1. be cold, freeze, 2.
cold;
bràsha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; frysa; freeze; be cold; penta budan, mander
brashar an mul! close the door, I’m freezing to death!;
bráshano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; kall, kylig; cold, chilly;
braatfælling; KIH; s; forbryter; criminal; Etz bråttfälling otrevlig
person, lymmel; rude person, scoundrel;
brala, -er; Rib; s; bukse, -r; pants;
bralene; KIH, Etz; s, pl, def; buksene; the pants;
brangsdò; Rib II; adj; fin; nice;
bránshno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; mager; skinny; meager; garian honka
branshno kar liskris tji? the woman is skinny, don’t you think?;
brasano; KIH; adj; frossen; cold, freezing;
bráshli, bràshli, -t, -a; bràshil uninfl; LDj; adj; kall, kylig; cold, chilly;
bráshno, -t, -a, bránshno; LDj; adj; mager; skinny;
brasja; Rib; adj; islagt; frozen over;
breftan; KIH; s; brev; letter;
briál, -et/-en, vriál; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, n/r; gröt; porridge; Etz brialt,
briam, briant, Iv brián, briánt, KIH bria, briant; from MLG brī
porridge;
brillor; KIH; s, pl; briller; spectacles;
brìsha, vrìsha -(de), -t; DjL, Etz; v; regna; rain; Romani bršind rain (s);
brìshepa, -t; DjL, Etz; s, n; regn; rain;
bróchno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; högfärdig, fisförnäm; conceited, pretentious;
broforma; Rib; s, def; brua; bridge;
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brol; Rib; s; flesk; pork;

bròla, pròla, bròlla, -(n), pl bròler, -a; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; potatis;
potato; Etz brål, KIH (pl) broggler; Romani ambrol pear, from
Persian amrūd;
brom; Rib; s; kopper, metall; copper, metal;
brom; Iv; s, m; damp; steam;
bromo; KIH; adj; fast, brisk; firm;
bruform; KIH; s; bridge; bridge;
brùkfara, brùkerra, brùkkla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; bruka, använda; use
to/to usually + inf, use; brukerrar diro ava hikk? brukar du komma
hit?; do you usually come here? from Swedish/Norwegian
bruka/bruke use to;
brùsja; Iv; v; regne; rain;
brùsja; Iv, KIH; s, m; regn; rain; KIH bruscha;
brutla, brutra; KIH, Rib; v; bruke; use; Rib: brukla, bruktala; from
Sw/Norw bruka/bruke use, use to;
brùtra; Iv; s, m; bru; bridge; from Norw bru bridge.
brå̀ sjno; Iv; adj; bra; good;
bråka; KIH; v; skravle, oppdage; tell (on sb.), reveal;
bråkbindare; KIH; s; foræder, angiver; traitor, informer;
bråsjno; Rib II; adj; brå; sudden, impatient, quick-tempered;
bùganto; Iv, Rib; adj; sta (om hest); jibbing (of horse); Rib bugantò;
bùte-gaer; Iv; s, pl; folk, egl. mange menn; people, lit. many men;
bútiba; Iv; s, m; mengde; multitude;
bùda, bùnta, dỳnta -(n), pl bùder, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, r;
dörr; door; budda, budàr, -en, Rib burdan, burdarn døra; the door
(defsg); Iv búdar, budár; KIH buda; budan dør, port; door, gate;
bygda, dunta døren, porten; the door, the gate;
budar; Rib; s; butikk; shop;
buddra; Rib; s; bu (butikk); shop;
budingen; KIH; s, def; förstugan; the (entrance) hall;
budingsa; Rib; s; butikk; shop;
budna; KIH; v; spinne; spin;
budom; Rib II; adv; ute; outside;
bùdra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; beställa; order;
bùdra, bòdra; Iv, KIH; v; bo; live (reside);
bùdran; Iv; s, m; befaling, bud; order, command(ment);
budåm; Rib; adv; ut; out;
buforma; Rib; s; butikk; shop;
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bul, -et, -ena; LDj, Rib; s, n; ända, bakdel; bottom, behind; Rib bule;
bùla, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, KIH; bul; v; ha samlag, have intercourse; Rib
bùja; KIH buja, byja;
bule; Rib; s; holet (endetarmen); anus (rectum);
bùlepa, -t, -(n), -na; bul; LDj; s, n; samlag; intercourse;
bùl-hekk, bùl-hakk, -et, -en, -ena; LDj; s, n; horhus, bordell;
whorehouse, brothel;
bùl-kev, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; anus; anus; Romani bul anus, from Skt.
buli- vulva, anus;
búlo, búllo, -n, -s/-ar, -s/-na; LDj; s, r; björn; bear; from German Bulle
bull;
buni; Rib; adj; fin, frisk, glad, snill, stolt; nice, healthy, happy, kind,
proud;
buni-ril; Rib; adj; overlegen, viktig; superior, conceited, important;
búno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; 1. stolt, fin, vacker, 2. kry, 3. glad; 1.
proud, fine, beautiful, 2. healthy, 3. glad; Rib: buno; Romani (Sinte)
bojno proud;
bùnopa, -t; LDj; s, n; stolthet; pride;
bunoril; KIH; adj; selfish, lofty, superior; selfish, lofty, superior;
búro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; bonde, icke-resande; farmer, non-
Traveller; tji lo honkar nani romano, lo honkar buro no, he is not of
the Romani people, he is a non-Traveller, dova buron honkar jekh
malano gavo that non-Traveller is a good guy, mander kammar
mengrat helko dives an dova buros kher I’ve been working all day in
this farmers house; from MLG bûr farmer;
buro-béng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; bonddjävel; damn redneck
(insult); buro-beng ja nikkli fann mander! get away from me you
damn redneck!; KIH burobæng bondeklods; redneck
buro-bengel; Rib; s; bonde-galning; farmer-lunatic;
bùro-gaja, -a(n), -er, -erna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, f; bondkvinna; farm woman;
Rib buro-gaije; Iv bùro-gaï;
bùro-gavo, bùro-gao, -n -ar, -arna, bùro-gae, -n; LDj; s, m;
bùro-ghana, -t; s, coll; bondfolk; farm people;
bùro-ghav, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; bondby, liten by; farming village,
small village;
bùro-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; s, r; bondgård; farm; Iv bùro-kjer;
buro-kjei; KIH; s; bondepike; farmer daughter;
buro-måsj; Rib; s; bondekar; farmer man;
buro-nakke; Rib; s; bonde-satan; farmer-devil;
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bùro-rakkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; bondflicka, icke-resande

flicka; farm girl, non-traveller girl;
bùro-rakklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; bondpojke; farm boy;
buro-rátt, -en; LDj; s, r; bondblod; farmers blood; cf. búro, ratt;
buro-råmni; Etz; s; bondkvinna; farmer woman;
burra; KIH; s; buser; boogers
búshni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, f/ r; get; goat; Romani buzno he-
goat; buzni goat, from Persian buz goat;
bùshni-jimm, bushniske-jímm, -et, -, -ena; s, n; getskinn; goatskin;
bùsjni-gavo; Iv; s, m; geitebukk, egl. geitemann; he-goat, lit. goat-
man;
bùsjni-keral; Iv, Rib; s, m; geitost; goat cheese; Rib busjni-királ;
butare; KIH; adj, comp; bedre; better;
butepa; Etz; s; arbete; work;
butt; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; adv, adj; 1. mer, mycket, fler, 2. vell, bra; 1.
more, a lot, more (in numbers), 2. well, good; ka butt ninna kaben eat
a lot of food, ka tji buttider don’t eat more, avar buttare ninna
manusch tjakke voltrar ka (there are) more people coming, that want
to eat; Iv but, butt, búto 1. adj, mye; much, 2. adv, ofte; often; bùte,
bùtri pl mange; many; KIH butt mye, vell, bra; much, well, good;
Romani but much, many, often, from Skt bahutva- abundance;
bùtta, bùta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; arbeta; work; Romani buti work, business,
from Skt vṛtti- way of living;
bùttider; LDj; ad; mer, fler; more, more (in numbers); Romani but much,
many, often;
bùttja, bùscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; heta; be called, be named; Romani
bučhol be called, be named, to call oneself;
butum; KIH; adv; ava butum komme ut; come out;
bylling; KIH; s; politimann; policeman;
býskri, bö́ skri, bỳskri, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, f; judinna; Jewess; býskro,
bỳskro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; jude; Jew; maybe from Rotwelsch
Brudel Jew;

C
chàla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; krama; hug; Romani čalavel touch, move, hit,
beat, have intercourse;
chàli, -t, -a; LDj; adj; döv, dövstum; deaf, deaf-mute;
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chèkla, chèklar uninfl; cheklano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lösaktig, halvklädd;
loose (immoral), half dressed, shabbily dressed; chekla tji glan
puranot manusch! don’t be so shabbily dressed in front of the elderly!;
chèla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klappa; pet;
chòcha, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; hare; hare; Romani šošoj hare, from Skt.
śaśa-;
cikk, -et; LDj; s, n; kind; cheek; likely from Eng. cheek jaw, jawbone;
címpi, -t; LDj; s, n; kålrot; Swedish turnip; maybe related to Ru. shchi
cabbage soup;
círklo, schírklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna; LDj; s, r; fågel; bird; Romani čiriklo
bird, from Skt. caṭaka- bird;

dabb, -et; LDj; KIH; s, n; 1. stryk, slag, 2. straff; 1. beating, blow, 2.

punishment Romani dab beat, blow, wound, snap, from Skt. dabh-
hurt, wound;
dàbba, -(de), -t; LDj; v; slå; hit; dabbas tji tjavoar don’t fight boys!
dabba to sappen! hit the snake!;
dabbar; KIH; s; ekstra juridisiel avstraffelse; additional judicial penalty;
dàbbar; Iv; s, m; hammer, egl. slåer; hammer, lit. hitter;
dàbbepa, dàbbrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; slagsmål, stryk;
brawl, beating; Rib dabbipà; KIH dabbeba;
dabbeprásko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, m; slagskämpe; fighter; Iv
dàbbasbaskro;
dad, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, m; far; father; Rib dad, Iv
dádo; KIH darn; Romani dad father;
dadeske-dád, -en; LDj; s, m; farfar; grandfather (on father’s side);
dadeske-phrál, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; farbror; uncle (on father’s
side);
dákkri, dàkkri, -n/-a, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, f; mor; mother; Etz
dakri, Iv dagri; KIH dakria; Romani daj mother;
dand, danj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; tand; tooth; Iv pl
dánder, dàndra, tàndra; KIH pl dannar; Romani dand tooth, from
Skt danta-;
dànderske-dukk; Iv; s, m; tannverk; toothache;
dandra; KIH; v; sende; send;
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dàndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; 1. bita, 2. dre, laste; 1. bite, 2. find
fault with, blame; Romani dandalel bite;
dandra; KIH; s; dann; tooth;
dandra; KIH; v; legge, sette; lay, put;
dàndre; Iv; s, f; sag; saw;
dandrikere; KIH; v; reparere; foryngre tenna på en hest slik at den ser
yngre ut; fix, mend; fix the teeth of a horse to make it look younger;
dándripa; Iv, Rib; s, m; kjekling, trette, munnhoggeri, ogs. skrål;
squabble, quarrel, also clamour;
danik; Iv, KIH; s; Danske; Dane;
dànje-dukk, danjeske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; tandvärk, eg. tandont; tooth
ache, lit. tooth pain; devel, so danje-dukk mander kammar! Heavens,
what a tooth-ache I have!;
dank, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; hammare; hammer; KIH dankus;
Romani dab beat, blow, wound, snap, dabbar hammer;
danka; KIH; s; øks; axe;
dànka -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; 1. hamra, 2. hugge; 1. hammer, 2. hew;
danka kaj ninna danken daden! hammer right here, dad!;
Dánniken uninfl; LDj; namn; Norge, gränsen till Norge, även Danmark;
Norway, the border to Norway, also Denmark;
dánnikus; Iv; s, m; nordmann; Norwegian;
dar, darr uninfl; LDj; adj; rädd; afraid; Romani dar fear, anxiety, horror,
from Skt. dar- fear.
dàra, -(de), -t; LDj; v. skrämma; frighten; Romani daral be afraid;
dáro, -n; LDj, Iv; s, r; hals, strupen; neck, throat; miro kammar dukk dre
miro daro, hashta mander miro develske dad! my throat hurts, help
me heavenly father!; Iv dar;
darra; KIH; v; skjelve; tremble, shiver;
dárrano, dàrano, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; 1. farlig, 2. rädd; 1. dangerous, 2.
afraid, fearful; dova mosch, honkar tji darano, lo honkar jekh malano
mala to mander that man isn't dangerous, he is a good friend of mine,
darranoa ghana farligt folk, tji miro jukklo honkar tji darano no, my
dog isn’t dangerous, gola nani attjer beng, ashar daranot don’t call
Satans name, it is dangerous; Romani dar fear, anxiety, horror;
darano dangerous, dreadful, horrible;
darvani; KIH; adj; tvilsom, uviss; in doubt, uncertain;
davra; KIH; v; lese; read;
dàvra-rankano; Iv; s, m; lærer, egl. lese-herre; teacher, lit. reading-
master;
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davripa; KIH; s; lesning; reading;

dåcka; Etz; v; bedraga, kvacksalva; deceive/cheat, quack (in the sense of
selling with fraudulant claims);
dåckepa; Etz; s; kvacksalveri; quackery (having to do with quack);
dåk; KIH; adj; syk; ill;
dåkalo-bäddor; KIH; s; sykehus vaktmester; hospital superintendent;
dåkalo-hisp-barobäddor; KIH; s; doktor; doctor;
dåms(j)nus; Etz; pron; de, dem; they, them;
dåsjto; Etz; adj; lång (om tid); long (about time);
dåstano; KIH; adv; always; always;
däkaskiro barobäddor; KIH; s; høy offiser; high-ranked officer;
däkkaskíro; dèkkaprasko;
de; Iv; v; give; give;
dèan, dèlan, den; Iv; v; angi (til politiet); report (to the police);
déro, dèro, díro, dìro; Iv; pron; du, deg; dere; 2nd pers sg you (thou,
thee); 2nd pers pl you (ye);
déros, dèros, déros, dìros; Iv; poss pron; din; your(s) (thy, thine);
dèja, dä̀ ja, -n pl dèjer, -na, dej; däj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Rib; s, f;
mor; mom, mother; Romani daj mother, cf. Hi. dāī nurse;
dèjall, dàjall, -i, pl déjer, -na; déjali, dä̀ jali, -a; dèja; LDj; s, f; moder;
mother;
dèkaprasko, dekkaprásko, dekkaskíro, däkkaskíro, -n, -ar, -arna;
LDj, KIH; s, m; soldat; soldier; KIH däkaskiro, dåckaskiro;
dèkkan, dä́ kkan, dèkan, -, pl dèkker, -na, dä̀ kkja, -(n), pl dä̀ kkjer, -
(n)a; LDj; s, r; sabel; sabre; dabba ninna dekkan ta tjuro hit with a
sabre and dagger; from Gm. Degen knife, dagger;
deklujm; KIH; s; halstørkle; bandana;
dèlla, dèla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ge; give; Romani del give, from Skt dadāti;
dèndra, dìndra, dìnra; Iv, KIH; v; tjene; 1. serve, 2. earn (money);
dendrar; KIH, Iv; s; dreng; servant, farm hand; Iv dìndrar;
dèndrerske-kjei; Iv; s, f; tjenestejente; servant-maid;
dèndrerske-raklo; Iv; s, m; tjenestegutt; man-servant;
dènkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tänka, tycka; think, think (opinion); Romani
(Sinte) denkrel think, from Gm. denken think;
denu; KIH; pron; du; (2 sg) you;
denus; KIH; pron; deg; (2 sg obl) you;
dersno, dǽrsno; Iv; pron; de; they;
deru; KIH; pron; de; they; KIH eru;
derus; KIH; poss pron; deres; their(s); KIH erus;
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Devél, -(e)n, Dévlo, -n; LDj, Rib; s, m; 1. Gud, 2. himmel; 1. God. 2 sky;
Devel hilpra mander bliddra mukkalo ta pattja God help me be free
and begin to believe; Romani devel God, heaven, from Skt. devatā-
deity, divinity;
devélske, devlósken; LDj; adj, defsg; gudomlige, himmelske; divine,
heavenly;
Develske-bòkkan, Dèvel-bokkan uninfl; LDj; s, defsg; Bibeln; the
Bible; ster butt schukkart an Develske-bokkan (there) is much beauty
written in the Bibel;
Develske-Dád, Devéleske-Dad uninfl; LDj; Himmelske Fader; Heavenly
Father;
dévlon uninfl; LDj; s, defsg; himlen; Heaven;
dìves-loviar; Iv; s, pl; dagløn, eg. dagpenger; daily wage, lit. day’s
money;
dìves-palar-díves; Iv; adv; daglig, egl. dag etter dag; daily, lit. day after
day;
dick; Etz; adv; där; there;
dicker; KIH; adj; hafvande; pregnant; from Gm. Dicker fat person;
dickopa; Etz; syn; sight;
dìkka, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, KIH; v; se, skåda, titta; see, view, look; dikk
pre dova! look at that! dikka kaj! see here!; Rib dikk; KIH dekka;
Romani dikhel see, look, view, from Skt. dṛś- see;
díkkan; Iv; s, m; spjeld; air damper;
dìkkar-ali; Iv; s, f; speil, egl. se-glass; mirror, lit. see-glass (looking-
glass);
dìkkar-aliar; Iv; s, pl; briller, egl. se-glass; spectacles, lit. see-glasses;
dìkkar-jakkar; Iv; s, pl; briller, egl. se-øyer; spectacles, lit. see-eyes;
dìkkepa, dèkkepa, dèkepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, n. syn; sight, view,
perspective; an rattia sunna mander palla miro jibben ta dolle ledde
mander jekh vavre dikkepa palla pre jiben last night I had a dream
about my life, and I got a new perspective on life;
dìkkerar; Iv; s, pl; briller; spectacles;
dikkeske-léddik, -en, -, -erna; LDj; s, r; TV; TV, television set;
díkklo, dýkklo, -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, n; 1. huvudduk, sjal, näsduk, 2. bind;
1. headscarf, scarf, handkerchief, 2. bandage; Iv díklo, tíklo; KIH
declo klede, duk; cloth; dikklå(k)k halsduk, lommetørkle; headscarf,
hankerchief; Romani diklo cloth, neckerchief, headscarf, bandana;
díkklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj; s, r; bordsduk; tablecloth; dikklon diro
tjinna honka fedig bordsduken du köpte var fin; Romani (Sinte) diklo,
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dikhlo bandana, kerchief, scarf, cloth, from MLG doec, Gm. Tuch
cloth, tablecloth;
dikkoprásko, dikkopráskro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; spegel; mirror;
dilisjader; KIH; s, pl; sko (av alle slag); shoes (of all kinds);
díllo (1), -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; stackare; poor fellow;
díllo (2), -t, -a; LDj; adj; stackars; poor (unfortunate); Romani dilo,
dinelo dumb, stupid, crazy, mad, from Skt. dīna- weak;
dínalo, dínlo, -a; LDj; adj; tokig, efterbliven; mad, crazy, retarded; dova
bullo honkar dinalo, rakka diro! that bear is mad, watch out!; Romani
dinelo dumb, stupid, crazy, mad;
dindripa; Rib; s; tjeneste; service;
dingali; Etz; tokig kvinna; mad woman;
díngalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; tokig; mad, crazy;
dingalohispa; Etz; s; dårhus, sinnessjukavdelning; madhouse, mental
ward;
díngel; Iv; adj; dum, tosket; stupid, foolish;
dingel; KIH; adj; gal, tilbakestående; crazy, retarded;
díngel uninfl; LDj; s; småhandel; small deals, small merchandise; from
Gm. Ding(s) things, small things;
dìngelske-tjakk; LDj; uninfl; s; handelsvaror; merchandise;
dìngla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; handla; buy, shop; from MLG dingen negotiate;
dìnglare, -n, -, -na; LDj; s, m; handlare, beteckning på resande;
merchant, name for Travellers; ja teli to spekkarian ta tjinna maro to
mander attjer dinglaren go to the store and buy me bread from the
merchant;
dings; KIH; s. pl; ting; thing(s); Iv dings, dìngse; from Gm. Ding thing;
dings, -ar, -ane; KIH, Iv; s; mynt; coin; Iv dìngse;
dingsar; Etz; s, pl; galoscher; galoshes;
díngstro, -t, -n; LDj; adj; tung; heavy;
dìnkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tänka; think; dinkra tji pre dolle! dont’ think
about that!; from Gm. denken think;
dínnus; Iv; pers pron; du; you (thou);
dìnra, tìndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; tjäna; earn (money); dinra diro
butt an dives? did you earn a lot today?; Romani (Sinte) dinrel earn,
from Gm. dienen serve;
dinreske-rákkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; piga, tjänsteflicka;
maid, servant girl;
dinreske-rákklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, m; dräng; farm hand;
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dínster uninfl, dìnstrepa, -t; LDj; s; förtjänst; profit; kerra diro butt an
dinster? did you make a large profit?;
díro; LDj; pers pron; du, dig; you; so kammar diro kerrat an dives? I
have you done today? avar diro? are you coming? prinjar mander
diro? do I know you?;
díros; LDj; poss pron; din, ditt, dina; your, yours; fysher mander lindra
diros tabbrik? may I borrow your lighter? trissa diros dad dre vago
dives (I) met your father yesterday;
dissjan, -et; Etz; s; bord; table;
dìstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; känna igen; recognise; most likely a variant
derived from dikka see;
diverslo; KIH; adv; daglig, hver dag; daily, every day;
divirsen, divisen; KIH; livstid, uten slutt; life (sentence), without end;
divis; KIH; s; adv; morgendagen, i morgen; tomorrow;
dìvus, díves, dìves, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; dag; day; an dives avar
liskris khere he is coming home today, lattjo dives el. lattjo divus good
day, dre dives today; KIH devis; Etz divis; KIH divers, -en; Romani
dives day;
dòa, dòva; Iv; dem pron; den, det; it, that;
dóbbo, dòbo uninfl; LDj; s, m; dalkarl, dalmas; man from Dalarna
(Dalecarlia);
dobo-mósch, dòbo-mosch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; dalkarl, dalmas;
man from Dalarna (Dalecarlia);
Dobo-thém, Dòbo-themmen uninfl; LDj; namn; Dalarna; Dalecarlia;
dóchalo uninfl; adj; skyldig, ansvarig; guilty, responsible; diro honkar
dochalo! nobba tji! you are responsible! don’t deny it!; Romani doš
mistake, affliction, deficit, damage, guilt; došalo sinful, guilty,
deficient, from Skt. doṣa- fault;
doj; LDj, Etz; adv; där, dit; there, dither/over there; ja andri doj! go in
there! jadde doj (he) went dither/over there; Etz duj; KIH doj;
Romani (Sinte) doj there, over there;
dòkka, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ge; give;
dòlle; LDj, Etz, Rib; dem pron, empty subject, adv, pers pron; 1. (dem
pron) den där, det här, dessa, 2. (empty subject) det, 3. (adv) då, 4.
han; 1. (dem pron) that, this, these, 2. (empty subject) it, 3. (adv) then,
4. he;
dommen; KIH; s, def; (veka livet), siden på ett menneske; side of a
person;
dommripà; Rib; s; sövn; sleep;
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dòmra, dùmra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; v; sova; sleep; lattjo rattia,
domra lattjot good night, sleep well; Iv dorma; KIH dorma sove;
sleep; from Rotw. dormen sleep, from French dormir;
dómrano, dúmrano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; sömnig, trött; sleepy, tired; tugalo
dives mander honkar domrano (it was a) long day today, I’m tired;
dòmre-lakk, dùmro-lakk, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, KIH; adj; sömnig, trött;
sleepy, tired; Etz dummerlack; KIH dommerlatt;
dómripa; Iv; s, m; søvn; sleep;
dóri, -n/-a, -er, -erna; dóro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. snöre,
band, 2. tau; 1. string, ribbon, 2. rope; Romani dori ribbon, cord,
string, rope, band; from Skt davara-;
dórjer, dóljer, dòrjer, dòljer, -(n)a; LDj; Etz, Iv; s, pl; tömmar; reins;
dårjar, dörjer; Iv dòriar; Romani dori ribbon, cord, string, rope,
band;
dormalo; KIH; adj; søvnig, dorsk; sleepy, drowsy;
dormar; KIH; s; sover; latsekk; sleeper; lazybones;
dormus; KIH; s; søvnen; (the) sleep;
dosch, dusch, -a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; bröst; breast;
dòscha, dùscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; mjölka, dia; milk, suckle; duscha
gurmnin milk the cow; Romani dušel milk, from Skt. duhya- being
milked;
dòshta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; räcka, vara tillräckligt, vara nog; suffice, be
enough; Romani dosta enough, from Skt. dosta;
dóshto uninfl; Etz; adj; otålig, arg; impatient, angry; doshto diro honkar!
you’re so impatient!;
dosjta, dǻsjta; Iv; adv; nok; enough;
dòtta; LDj, Etz; adv; borta, där borta; away, over there; Etz dåttar;
dòva; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; dem pron; 1. de där, dem där, dessa 2. den der,
den, det, dette; 1. those, these, 2. that one there, that one, it, this; Etz
doa;
dòvas; LDj; gen., dem pron, poss pron; (gen av dova) 1. (dem pron.)
dennes etc., 2. (poss pron.) hans, hennes, dess, deras; (gen of dova) 1.
(dem pron) his etc., 2. (poss pron) his, her, their;
dö́ mfara; Iv; v; dømme; sentence;
dømfara; KIH; v; döma; judge;
döy; Iv; adv; der; (sj.) her; there; (rarely) here;
drabb, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; medicin, knark; medicine, drugs; Romani
drab herb, root, medicine, poison, tobacco, from Skt dravya-
substance, medicine;
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drabbeske-mèrare, dràbb-merare, -n, -, def pl -merarna; LDj; s, m;

djurläkare, veterinär; animal doctor, veterinarian;
dràbbeske-måkti, dràbberske-måkti; Iv; s, f; medisinveske; medicine
box;
drabbeske-vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; medicinvagn; medicine cart;
drabb-kabisar; KIH; s.pl; piller; pills;
dràbbla, -n, pl drabbler, -na; drábbli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; drabbrik, -
a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; bok, tidskrift; book, magazine; ster
palla dova an kava drabbla they write about it in this book; KIH
drablia;
dràbblare, dràbbrare -n, -, pl drabblarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; läsare
(religiös); lärare; reader (religious); teacher; Iv dàvrar, dràbrar,
dràblar m lerer, egl. leser; teacher, lit. reader; Romani drabel read,
pray, adjure, perform magic, tell someones fortune; drabrar, drablar,
davrar teacher;
drabble-bädda; Etz; s; läsebok; textbook (lit. reading book);
dràbbra, dràbbla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; läsa; read; Etz dabbra, KIH
drabla; Romani drabarel read, pray, adjure, perform magic, tell
someones fortune, from drab;
drábbrano, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; lärare, lärd man, läskarl; teacher,
educated man;
drabbrano-músch; LDj; s, m; läskarl, lärare; reader (of the Bible),
teacher;
drabbrepa, dabbrepa; Etz, KIH; s; läsning; reading; KIH drableba;
drabbreske-hìspa, dràbbrar-hispa, dràbblar-hispa, dràbbla-hispa, -
(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; missionshus, skola, frikyrka;
missionary house (simple building for missionary meetings), school,
free church; Etz drabblehisp skola; school; Iv dàvra-hispa skola;
school;
drábbrika, -(n), pl drabbriker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; tidning; newspaper;
dràbb-tjaro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj; s, r; medicinburk,
pillerburk; medicine jar, pill jar;
drabelina; KIH; s; bok; book;
drablopa; KIH; s; lesning, skriving; reading, writing;
dràbrar, dràblar, dàvrar; Iv; s, m; lærer, egl. leser; teacher, lit. reader;
dràbrar-lilar; Iv, KIH; s, pl; avis, egl. lesepapirer; newspaper, lit.
reading papers;
dràbrask-libri, dràbraske-libri; Iv; s, f; bok, egl. lese-bok; bok til å lese
i, brukt som motsetning til lovieske-libri (pengebok, lommebok);
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book, lit. reading-book, generally used in contrast to lovieske-libri

(pocket-book);
dragdéra; Etz; v; draga; pull; from Sw./Norw. draga pull;
dragla; KIH; v; dra; carry, pull; Sw./Norw. draga pull;
dragna; KIH; v; sage; saw;
dragni; KIH; s; kontursåg; jigsaw, saw;
dragruta; KIH; s; såg; saw;
dragrute; KIH; s; fil; file;
dre; Etz, KIH; adv; in, inne; in, inside;
dre, drío; LDj; prep; i; in; dre miro voddro daden ashar drabbrikan the
newspaper is in my car, father;
drèja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; dra; pull; voddron nastar nani dreja sass kava
mengret! the car can’t take pulling all of this junk!;
drigra; KIH; v; carry, pull, bring; carry, pull, bring;
drìssa, dríssan; Iv; s, m; møte; meeting;
drom, dromm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; 1. väg, 2. gate; 1. road, 2.
street; kutti dromar småvägar, lattjo drom pleasant travels, good road
tradra pre dromen travel on the road; Romani drom street, path, road,
from Greek drómos road;
dromeske-patrín, -en, pl patríner, -na; LDj; s, r; vägskylt; road sign;
drómit; LDj; adv; tungt, långt; heavy, far;
drómmen uninfl; LDj, KIH; s, defsg; vägen; the road; KIH drummen;
drǻppina; Iv; s, m; dråpe; drop;
dråvint, dråvont; KIH; adv; quickly, heavily, sadly, hardly;
dùbba, -n, pl dùbber, -na; LDj; s, r; trumma; drum; dabba pre dubban
beat the drum; Romani toba, duba drum, from Romanian tobă;
dubbling; KIH; s; speil; mirror;
duckalopa; Etz; s; sjukhus; hospital;
dudd, dud, -a/-et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; ljus, lyse; light; Jesus honkar duda
dre jibben, sikkra dromen gla manuschet angla ghav ta dre themm
Jesus is the light of life, lighting the way for the people in the towns
and country; Romani dud light, from Skt. dyuti- lightness;
dukk, dukkt uninfl; LDj, Rib; adj/adv; 1. ont, 2. syk; 1. ache, pain, 2. ill;
kammar diro dukk an tjanget miro phral? do you have a pain in your
knee, my brother? Romani dukh pain (s); dukhado (adj) painful, achy,
ill, from Skt. duḥkha- pain, misfortune;
dúkkalo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv, KIH; adj; sjuk; ill; lattjot te asha sasto nani
dukkalo (it is) good to be healthy (and) not sick; Iv dókkalo, KIH
dåkalo;
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dukkalò-fakkar; Rib; s; syke-arbeider (lege); doctor;

dukkalò-gaije; Rib; s; sykekone; nurse;
dùkkalo-kjer; Iv; s, m; sjukhus; hospital;
dukkalò-penndri; Rib; s; sykehus; hospital;
dùkkalo-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; ambulans; ambulance;
dùkkepa, -t, -, -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; sjukdom; illness; Rib dukkipàn,
Iv dúkkipa; KIH dykkeba;
dummaskíro, demmoskíro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; väst; vest,
waistcoat; Iv dúmmakro, dùmmasjero; KIH domaskiro,
dommaskiro, dummesker, Romani (Sinte) dummo blouse
dummeske-léddika, dùmmo-leddika, -n; LDj; s, r; ryggsäck; backpack;
dúmmo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; rygg; back; Iv dúrmo, dúma;
Romani dumo back, shoulder, axle;
dùmmo-dukk, dummeske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; ryggvärk; back ache;
dumstro; Etz; adj; dum; stupid;
duno; KIH; adj; 1. len, smal, 2. tunn; 1. lean, skinny, 2. thin; Iv ogs.
mager; also meager;
dur, dùro, dùri; Iv; adj; lang; long;
durali; KIH; s; bowl, tub; bowl, tub;
dúri, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj/adv, adv; 1. (adj/adv) lång (om avstånd, tid), 2.
(adv) långt, länge; långsamt, 3. dryg; 1. (adj/adv) long (about distance,
time), 2. (adv) far, for a long time; slowly, 3. substantial; Iv dùri lang;
long; dryg; substantial; Romani dur far, long, distant, from Skt. dūra-;
dùri-drom; LDj; s expr; lång väg; long road;
dùroment; LDj; adv; långsamt; slowly; tradra tji duroment, siggra diro!
don’t drive so slowly, hurry up!;
dusa; KIH; v; knuse, sønderslå; break, destroy;
dùstus, -(e)n, -, -na; LDj; s, m; tiggare, luffare, uteliggare; beggar, hobo,
homeless person;
dústus, dúshtus, dùstus, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; mjöl; flour; from Sw.Dial.,
Norw. dust flour, dust, or English dust; Etz dustes; KIH duftus;
dy, do, duj; LDj; num; två; two; Romani duj two, from Skt. dvā;
dỳ-kjettanes; Iv; adj; dobbelt, egl. to sammen; double, lit. two together;
dỳnkra, -(de), -t; v; tycka, tänka; think (opinion); dynkrar diro dova
honkar fediga? do you think these are nice? dynkrar palla diro I like
you (lit. I think about you); Romani (Sinte) denkrel, denkarel think;
from Gm. denken think;
dỳnta, dỳntja, -(n), pl dỳnter, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; dörr; door;
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dỳshta, dỳsta uninfl; s; dugg, något; (not) a damn thing, anything;

mander kerar tji jekh dyshta I’m not doing a damn thing/ I’m not
doing anything; from Sw.Dial. dust crumb, bit, scramp;
dyk-hispa; KIH; s; sykehuset; hospital;
dykkalo; KIH; adj; sykelig; sick;
dý-lokk, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-era; LDj; s, r; tvåkrona; two-crown (coin);

E
edit; KIH; adv; morgen (i morgen); tomorrow;
éfta, èfta; LDj, Iv; num; sju; seven; Iv héfta; Romani efta seven;
éhe; LDj, KIH; interj; ja; ja visst; yes; certainly; KIH ee ja, jasså, ja;
indeed! is that so?;
ekh; LDj; num; ett; one;
élko; LDj; pron; båda, bådas; both, belonging to both;
emmer; KIH; s; salg; sale;
emo; KIH; s; ryggen; (the) back;
emra; KIH; v; selge, borthandle; sell;
èmrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; billigt pris; cheap price; emrepa pre tafflanet deja
tjinna (it is) a cheap price on the table mother bought;
énja; Iv; num; 1. ni, 2. tjue; 1. nine, 2. twenty;
énsaro uninfl; LDj; adj/adv; ensam; alone; from Swe ensam alone;
ènsates uninfl; LDj; adj/adv; ensam; alone; from Swe ensam alone;
enslo; Etz; num; en; one;
enso; Etz; adj, adv; ensam; alone;
éntro; LDj; adv; in; in, inside; ja entro gå in;
érsnos, érsnus; LDj, Etz; pers pron., poss pron; 1. (pers pron) ni, er, 2.
(poss pron) er, ert, era (även artigt för du, dig); 1. (pers pron 2pl) you,
2. (poss pron 2pl) your, yours (also politely for 2sg you); 1. Devel jar
ninna ersnos God goes with you (pl), ersnos avar senslo? are you (pl)
coming later?; 2. savo narta avar ersnos romni fann? which family
does your wife come from?;
Ést-themm uninfl; LDj; name; Estland; Estonia;
ettnåss; Etz; num; ett; one;
ettstott; Etz; num; ett; one;

F
fackare; Etz; s; arbetare; worker;
fàkka, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; arbeta; work; fakkat an dives? (have you)
worked today?; Romani(Sinte) fakerel use up;
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fàkkepa, -t; LDj; s, n; arbete, jobb; work, job;

faláttjer fàlattjer, fláttjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, pl; vantar, handskar;
mittens, gloves; Etz förlåttjer; KIH falatjer; Romani (Sinte) forlocin
glove;
fallman; Rib; s; brua; the bridge;
falma; KIH; s; bru; bridge;
fann; LDj; prep/adv; från; from;
fant, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; luffare, usling, stackare; hobo,
wretch, unfortunate individual; KIH fante;
farníssa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; förtenna; tin (the act of coating something with
tin);
fass; Iv; adv; stille; silent;
fårrus; KIH; s; vott; mitten;
fælsingen; KIH; s, defsg; berget; mountain;
fändrik; KIH; s; ost; cheese;
fänta; Etz; (med nek. förord) ingenting, inte ett dugg; (with neg. word)
nothing, not one bit;
færníssa; Iv; v; ønske, ville, ha lyst til; wish, want to, like to;
fässare; Etz; s; rackare, nattman; animal gelder;
fède, fèdi, fèdig, fèddi, -t, -a; LDj; adj; god, snäll, vänlig, bra; good,
kind, friendly, nice; Romani feder better, from Skt. bhadra- happy;
féder, fédder; LDj; adv; bättre; better;
fèdiske-dad, fèdeske-dad, féde-dad, -en, fèdeske-dad; LDj; s, m; snäll
far; kind father;
fèdiske-dej, fédi-dej, -a; LDj; s, f; snäll mor; kind mother; miro fediske-
deja! my kind mother!;
fej uninfl; LDj; s; lungsot, KOL, astma; tuberculosis, COPD, asthma;
fenom, fenum; KIH; s; strå; straw;
fernissa; KIH; v; ønske; wish;
fílasni, fílasjni; Etz; s; herrgård; manor, mansion;
fímpus; LDj; num; fem; five; from Gm. fünf, OHG funf, finf five;
Fìntiko-them uninfl; LDj; name; Finland; Finland;
flàsha, flàsa, -(n), pl flàsher, -(n)a; LDj; s; gnet, ägg från lus; nit, louse
eggs;
flàsing, -en; LDj; s, r; havre; oats;
flàtan uninfl; LDj; s, r, defsg; ansiktet; the face; from Sw.dial. fles, fleta
face;
flàttan, -et, pl flàttan/flàttas, -(en)a; LDj; s, n; ansikte; face;
florus; KIH; s; våren; Spring;
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flùssa, flùsa, -(n), pl flùsser, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; flod, å, bäck; river, creek,
stream; from Gm. Fluss river;
flöde; Etz; s; grädde; cream;
fobik; Etz; adj; tokig; crazy;
fokta, foktan; KIH; s; fogde; bailiff;
fòrael uninfl; LDj; s; byte; game(hunting);
fordivers; KIH; adv; igår; yesterday;
fòro, fóro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; stad; city, town; mander
boddrar dre foron I live in the city; Etz forum, KIH faarun; Romani
foro city, town, market, from Gr. foros city;
fòro-ghana, -t; LDj; s, coll; stadsbor; citizens, city people;
fòro-manusch, -et; LDj; s, coll; stadsbor; citizens, city people;
fòrsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; byta (på ärligt sätt); trade (in an honest way);
forum-barobäddor; KIH; s; borgermester; mayor; KIH forumens
bäddor byens vaktmester; the city caretaker;
forusa; Iv, Etz, Rib; s; vante, hanske; mitten, glove; Etz förresa; Rib
fårrusa;
fossike-mìnka, -(n), pl -minker, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; fickur; pocket watch;
fòssikja, fòssika -(n), pl fòssikjer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; ficka; pocket; Romani
poski pocket, from Skt. prasiti band;
fottra; Etz; s, coll; hö, klöver, foder; hay, clover, fodder, feed; from Gm.
Futter forage, feed stuff;
förbittes; Etz; prep; förbi; past, by;
förmóllvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; förtenna; tin; Etz förmållra, Iv
formǻllra;
förståddra; Etz; v; förstå; understand;
framters; Etz; adv; fram; forward;
fransjar; KIH; s; sotare; chimney sweeper;
frèkkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; fråga; question; frekkra moschen doj ask that
man; from Sw.Dial. freka ask;
frémlo; Iv; s, m; adj; 1. (s) fremmend 2. (adj) fremmend; 1. -(s) stranger,
2. (adj) strange;
frémslo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; främmande; visiting (people; guests),
foreign; avade fremslot an dives strangers came today, dova
manuschet dikkas fremsloa avri those people look foreign; from Sw.
främmande foreign;
Frø̀ydi-fåro; Iv;name; Fredrikstad; Fredrikstad;
fröja; Etz; v; stjäla; steal;
Frøýdi; Iv;name; Fredrik; Frederic;
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fùlar-gaje; Iv; s, f; lortkjerring; dirty woman;

fùl-måkti; Iv; s, f; medisin-dåse, egl. lort-dåse; medicine-box, lit. dirt-
box;
fùsla; Iv; s, m; bør; burden;
ful, -et; LDj; s, n; skit, smuts, skräp, avföring, smörja, strunt; shit/crap,
dirt, trash, excrement, grease, rubbish (in the sense of truthfulness);
diro tjinnar sassaro butt ninna ful! you always buy a bunch of crap!;
Romani khul dirt, excrements, dung, rubbish, from Skt. gūtha-;
ful, fúlano, -t, -a; LDj, KIH, Etz, Iv; adj; skitig, smutsig; dirty, foul,
soiled; helstara tji pre kava ghana dre vashterna, dolle honkar savo
fulanoa! don’t shake these people’s hands, they’re dirty!; KIH fulano
møkete, styg, stygt; dirty, soiled, ugly, dangerous, mean; Etz fulo, Iv
fùlano skitten, ogs. ussel, elendig; dirty, also wretched, miserable;
fùla, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v, s; skita, smutsa (ner); defecate, soil, to make
dirty; jukklon kammar fulat! hunden har bajsat! fula tji teli kaj! don’t
make it dirty here! dova fular mander dre! I don’t give a shit! (lit. I
shit in that);
fuldrani; KIH; s; vindmølle; mill, windmill;
ful-fakkar; Rib; s; skit-arbeider; bad worker (lit. shit worker);
fulínna; Iv; s, m; lortkjerring; dirty woman;
ful-kàr; Rib; s; skitt-spiser; shit eater;
fulkev; Etz; s; smutshål; dirt hole;
fulna; KIH; v; skitne, tilsøle; dirty, soil;
ful-nav; Rib; s; skitt-navn; shit name;
fulot; KIH; adj; stygt; ugly, dangerous, mean;
fùl-penneri, -t, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, n; wc, toalett, dass; WC, toilet, loo;
funka; KIH; v; nøle; hesitate, waver;
fùrka, fùrkla, -n, pl furkler, -na; LDj; s, r; gaffel; fork; from MLG
forke, vorke fork;
fùrrters, fö́ rrters; Etz; adv; före, i förväg; before, in advance;
fùrsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; byta, ömsa; change, shed;
fursté, -dde, -tt; LDj, Etz; v; förstå; understand; mander furster sas diro
pennar I understand everything you’re saying, furster diro so mander
pennar nii karna mander rakkrar romani? do you understand what
I’m saying when I speak Romani?; from Gm. verstehen understand;
fùsla, -(de), -t; v; byta; trade; fusla grejer byta hästar;
fỳsha, fùshja, fùssa, fỳssa, fỳsa, fusa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; 1. få, 2. ska
(temporal/modal auxiliary); 1. be allowed to, may, 2. will
(temporal/modal auxiliary); 1. puscha to tjavon ta lo fysher tjinna
 165

miro voddro palla lo kammar lover tell the Traveller boy that he may
buy my car if he has money, fysher mander lindra kutti ninna lover,
mander prejsar topalo may I borrow some money, I will pay you
back;

G
ga; KIH; s; distrikt; district;
gárden uninfl; LDj; s, r; nattlinne, särk; night dress; night gown; Romani
gad shirt, from Skt. gātrikā- belt;
gadd; Iv; s, f; tann; tooth;
gadd, gad, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; skjorta; shirt; KIH gad,
gard; shirt, linen fabric, linen clothes, linen bedclothes, tablecloths
etc, Romani gad shirt, from Skt. gātrikā- belt;
gádja, gájia, gája, gója, gária, gárija, -(n), pl gàdjer, -(n)a; gáii, gáje, -
n, -(e)r, -erna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, f; kvinna, fru, fruntimmer;
woman, wife, womenfolk; Etz gaja, Iv gàji, geiè, KIH gaja; Romani
gadži farmer’s wife, peasant woman, woman, womanfolk;
gae; Etz; s; man, karl; man, fellow;
gàer; Iv; s, pl; folk, mennesker; people, men;
gamra; KIH; v; gjemme, skjule; hide, cover;
gào; Iv; s, m; (gift) mann; (married) man;
gapstock; KIH; adj; skje, sleiv; spoon, ladle;
gàra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; gömma; hide; Romani garavel hide, conceal, from
Skt. *gaḍḍ-, cf. H gārnā press, suppress;
garad; KIH; adj (pst ptc); gjemt; hidden;
gasjtano; KIH; adj; vanskelig; difficult, surly;
gaskanit; KIH; adv; stort; great;
gáskanit; Iv; adj, n., adv; forståelig, greitt; intelligible (-bly), plain(ly);
gasse, gatse; KIH; s; man; man;
gásskano -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; klok; wise; Romani godźalo intelligent,
smart, Romani godi brain, soul, mind, sense, from Skt. gorda- brain;
gastus; Etz, Rib; s; havre, korn; oats, barley;
gatta; KIH; v; holde; hold;
gauve; Iv; s; ægtemand; husband;
gav; Iv; s, n; bygd, prestegjeld, distrikt; rural parts, parish, district;
gávo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, m; man, karl, äkta man, husbonde;
man, fellow, husband, master; savoa gavoar rakklar lo palla? which
man is he talking about? puscha lester palla lo kanslar gavon ask him
 166

if he knows the fellow; KIH gauve; Romani gadžo farmer, land

owner, man, human;
gårdacken; Etz; adv; (i)går; yesterday; from Swedish gårdagen
yesterday;
gårfåjin, gåfåjin; Etz; adv; (i) går; yesterday;
gårrno; Etz; s; ål; eel;
gåsjvaro, gåssvaro; Etz; adj; klok, förståndig; wise, intelligent, sensible;
gåssvárepa; Etz; s; klokhet, förstånd; wisdom, sense;
géddo, -n, -, -na; LDj; s, r; spöke; ghost; devel, mander pattjade te
mander jura jekh geddo an ratti Heavens, I thought I ghost last night!;
ger; Iv; s, m; sag; saw;
ger; Iv, Rib; adj; sår; sore; Romani ger scabies, mange, from Skt gara- a
disease;
ghàna, -t; LDj; s, coll; folk, människor, bybor (icke resande); people,
humans, villagers (non-traveller); sosti baschar ghanat palla vorsnos?
why do all people talk bad about us?; probably variant of ghav;
ghav, gav, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; by; village; Romani gav village,
from Skt grāma-;
ghàv-dromm, gàv-dromm, gàv-drom, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; byväg,
grusväg; village road, gravel road; jar tji tradra siggrot pre dova
kuttia ghav-drommar you can’t drive so fast on these gravel roads;
ghíldo, shíldo, -t, -, -n; LDj; s, n; fest, party; Romani gili song, from Skt.
gīti-;
gìbba, jìbba, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sjunga; sing; Romani gilabel to sing,
Romani gili song, from Skt. gīti-;
gif; KIH; s; sed; corn, seed;
gìja, jìa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sjunga; sing; gija jekh gijepa gla mander tjeja
sing a song for me, girl, moschen gijar lattjot! the man sings very
well!; Romani gilabel to sing, Romani gili song, from Skt. gīti-;
gìjare, jìare, -n, -, def pl gijarna; LDj; s, m; sångare; singer;
gìjepa, -t/-n, pl gìepar/gìer, -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; sång, sjungande; song,
singing;
ginnepa; Etz; s; räkning; calculation, arithmetics;
giv; Etz; s, coll; säd, spec. råg; corn, esp. rye;
gja; KIH; v; nyte alterets sakramente; enjoy the Holy Sacrament;
gja-drabla; KIH; v; gaa til konfirmation; go to confirmation studies;
gjal; Etz; prep, adv; för, före; for, before;
gjeddo; KIH; s; gud; god;
gjenikken; KIH; s, def; fanden; the deuce, the devil;
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gjenniksmath; KIH; s; sjelm, djevel; scoundrel, deuce;

gjennikstad; KIH; s; helvete; hell;
gjukni; KIH; s; suppe, velling; soup, baby formula;
gla; LDj; prep/adv; före, framför, för; before, in front of, for;
gladrum-jakka; KIH; s, pl; briller; spectacles;
gladrummen; KIH; s, best; vinduet; window;
glana; Etz; s; öppen plats, fönster, ansikte; open area, window, face;
glaneske-sárgan, -et; LDj; s, n; förtält (till husvagn); awning (for a
caravan);
glann, glan, gláneske; LDj, KIH; prep/adv; före, fram; before, onward,
(prep) up to; KIH glan først; first; Romani glan in front of, before;
glarom, glarum; Etz; s; fönster, glas; window, glass; from MLG glār
glass;
glasónom; Etz; s; glas; glass; from Sw glas glass;
glassjalo; Etz; adj; glad; happy;
glassjalot; Etz; adv; roligt; funny;
glinder; Etz; s; spegel; mirror; Romani glenderí mirror; from Romanian.
oglindă.
glinter; Etz; s; glas, fönster; glass, window;
glisa; Etz; s; lampa; lamp;
glising; Etz; s; nyckel; key;
gloris; KIH; s; kam; comb;
glössjano; Etz; adj; glad; glad, happy;
gnagfara; Etz; v; gnaga; gnaw; from Sw gnaga gnaw;
gnarka; Etz; v; spela; play;
gnav; KIH; s; skurk, lømmel, tyv; villain, scoundrel, thief;
góchvalo, góchvardo, gòrfalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; intelligent; intelligent;
beng savo gorfalo tekkno tjavo diro kammar miro phral, diro fysher
honka butt buno preall lester! damn, what a smart little kid you have
my brother, you must be very proud of him!; Romani godźalo wise,
smart, reasonable, judicious, scholarly; Romani godi brain, soul, mind,
sense; from Skt. gorda- brain;
goj, göj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; korv; hot dog, sausage; Iv gö̀ ye;
Romani goi sausage;
gòj-bekka, gö̀ j-bekka, -(n), -bekker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; korvbit; piece of
sausage;
gol, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, r; efterlysning, larm (då en fånge har rymt);
notification of an missing person; alarm (for an escaped prisoner);
Romani godli noise, sound, shouting, roar, from Skt. ghoṣa-.
 168

gòla, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; skrika, ropa, väsnas, gråta; scream, yell,
make noise, cry; Iv gåla; KIH gola, golar, gåla gåla opri fortelle,
snakke om, forklike; tell, talk about, let slip;
golare; Etz; s; klockare; parish clerk and organist;

góno, gòning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; säck, täcke; sack, quilt,
duvet; goningarna honkar tji perdoa ninna maro the sacks aren’t
filled with bread, kerra jekh goning gla nukkoarna an voddrish, dolle
honkar tjyldranot kaj make (=put) a cover in the bead for the kids, it’s
cold here; KIH goning; Romani gono sack from Skt. goṇi-;
gordíni, gordínni uninfl; LDj; s, n; åska; thunder; ashar tjakk ninna
brishepa ta dova avar gordinni akaj pre saroe tjer there is so much
rain and it is going to thunder across the whole sky; Romani grumos
thunder; from Slovakian hrom;
gorrlot; KIH; adj; søt; sweet;
gøie; KIH; s, pl; poteter; potatoes;
græle; KIH; v; skjelle, pukke; bellow, scold, destroy;
græna; KIH; v; jøre, ri;
grævling; KIH; s; barn; child;
gragla; KIH; v; sludre, sladre; chat, gossip, tell on someone;
gráshni, gràshni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; märr, sto; mare;
grashnia mekkstar dy tover the mare costs two thousand; ashar
grashnin sasto? is the mare healthy?;
gráshno, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; hingst; stallion;
grasni, grassni; KIH; s; hoppe, merr; mare;
gråla; KIH; v; tordne; boom, rumble, thunder;
gråmsing; Etz; s; barn; child;
gråpa; Etz; s; gryta; boiling pot;
grägg, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; fuling, lymmel, ligist, huligan; rough
neck, scoundrel, thug, hooligan; penna to gräggen te stila siro tell that
rough neck to calm down; Romani grecho sin, vice, burden,
imperfection, aberration, misfortune;
gräja; KIH; s; sto, merr; mare;
gräjanglo; Etz; s; selkrok; harness hook;
grei-batàlje; Rib; s; heste-sko; horseshoe;
greìerske-dindrar, greìeske-dindrar; Iv; s, m; stallkar, egl. hestetjener;
groom, lit. horse-servant;
greìerske-dukkalofakkar, greìeske-dukkalofakkar; Iv; s, m; dyrlæge,
egl. hestedoktor; veterinary surgeon, lit. horse-doctor;
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greìerske-låddipa, greìeske-låddipa; Iv; s, m; stall, egl. hestehus; stable,

lit. horse-house;
greìerske-mengar, greìeske-mengar; Iv; s, m; dyrlæge, egl. hestedoktor;
veterinary surgeon, lit. horse-doctor;
greìerske-tyrak, greìeske-tyrak; Iv; s, m; hestesko; horse-shoe;
greieske-kjingripà; Rib; s; heste-skjæring; horse gelding;
greieske-parra; Rib; v; hestebytte; trade horses;
grei-pori; Rib; s; heste-hale; horse tail;
grej, graj, gräj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; häst; horse; Etz
gräjónom; KIH gräj, gräjji, græ; Romani grast, grai horse, from
Armenian grast;
grejeske-bál, grèj-bal, -et; LDj; s, n; tagel; horsehair;
grejeske-bèkknare, grèj-bekknare, -n, -, def pl -bekknarna; LDj; s, m;
hästhandlare; horse-dealer; glan an tjiron dingla romanoa butt ninna
grej ta asha grejeske-bekknare a long time ago, Travellers traded a lot
with horses, and were horse traders;
grejeske-pàrrare, grèj-parrare, -n, -, def pl -parrarna; LDj, Iv; s, m;
hästhandlare, eg. hästbytar; horse-dealer, lit. horse-barterer; Iv
greìe(r)ske-parrar;
grejeske-pàrrepa, grèj-parrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; hästhandel,
eg. hästbyte; horse dealing, lit. horse trading;
grejeske-pór, grèj-por, -et; LDj; s, n; tagel; horsehair;
grejeske-sérgan, -et; LDj; s, n; hästtäcke; horse blanket;
grejeske-tjìngrare, grèj-tjingrare, -n, -, def pl -tjingrarna; LDj, Iv; s,
m; valackare, hästkastrerare (tidigare vanligt yrke bland resande);
horse gelder/castrator (previously common occupation among
travellers); grejeske-tjingrarns mengrepa honka tji lattjot, dikka
mander the gelders’ work was nothing fun, I saw; Iv grèie(r)ske-
kjingrar;
grékkalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; syndig; sinful;
grèkkepa, grìkkepa, -n/-t; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r/n; synd; sin; grickopa,
gräckopa, Iv gríkkipa; Romani grecho sin, vice, burden,
imperfection, aberration, misfortune;
grékko; Iv; s, m; synd; sin;
grékko, grécho, -n/-t; LDj, Etz; s, r./n; kreatur; cattle, animal;
grékko, gríkko, -t; LDj; adj; synd; (a) shame, (lit. a sin);
grékkus, grä́ kkus, gríkkus uninfl; LDj; s; synd; sin; Romani grecho sin,
vice, burden, imperfection, aberration, misfortune; from Pol grzech;
gricka, gräcka; Etz; v; synda; sin;
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grìkka; Iv; v; synde; sin;

gríkkalo; Iv; adj; syndig; sinful (wrong);
grikko; Iv; s; synder; sinner;
gròffla, gròffja, -(n), pl gròffler, -na; LDj, Etz; s; gryta; (boiling) pot;
svakko dives fysher mander ja avri ninna grofflan ta anner broller
every day I go out with the pot and get potatoes; Romani gråpa, gråffa
cooking pot; from MLG grope, gropen, grapen cauldron;
gromsing; KIH; s; barn; child;
gròsa-kakklare, -n; LDj; s, r; gräsklippare; lawnmower, lit. grass cutter;
gròsa-scharo, groseske-scháro, -n; LDj; s, r; gräsklippare; lawnmower,
lit. grass cutter;
gròshan, gròsan, -et; LDj, KIH; s, n; gräs; grass; KIH gråsa; from Gm.
Gras grass;
gróshno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; 1. tjock, stor, grov, 2. arg, 3. mett; 1. fat,
big, coarse, 2. angry, 3. satisfied/full (from eating); Etz gråsjno, Iv
grǻsno, gǻrsjno; Romani (Sinte) grozno thick, fat; from Romanian
gras;
grønningen; KIH; s; sommeren; summer;
grúmnin, gúrmin uninfl; LDj; s, r; åska; thunder, lightning; jurra nikli
preall veshan pre gurmin look there over the forest at the
thunder/lightning; Romani grumos thunder. from Slov. hrom;
gùlo; Iv; s, n; sukker; sugar;
gùlo-kalot; Iv; s, m; sirup, egl. (noe) søtsvart; syrup, lit. (smth.) sweet-
black;
gùni-hispa; Iv; s, m; sommerfjøs, egl. lite kuhus, kustue; small shed for
cows, used only in summer, lit. small cow-house, cow-cot;
gùni-ker, gùni-kjer; Iv; s, m; fjøs, in Norw. lit. ku-gard; shed, cow-
house;
gùni-låddipa; Iv; s, m; fjøs, egl. kubygning; cow-shed, lit. cow-building;
gula; KIH; v; kärlek; love;
gùllepa, -t, gullopa, gulipà; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; socker; sugar; Romani
gudlo sweet; sugar, gullepa sugar, sweetness, sweets;
gúllo, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; söt; 1. sweet, 2. cute, pretty; kava morstat
ashar gla gullot this coffee is too sweet, diro honkar gullo you are
cute; Romani gudlo, guglo sweet; sugar; from Skt. guḍa- melasses;
gùllo-tjaro, gulliske-tjáro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj; s, r/n;
sockerskål; sugar bowl;
gullotój, gùllotoj uninfl; LDj; s, coll; karameller, godis, sötsaker; hard
candies, candy, sweets;
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gullotúdd, gùllotudd, -en/-a; LDj; s, coll; sötmjölk; fresh milk, whole

milk;
gullovár, gùllovar uninfl; LDj, Etz; s, coll; karameller, godis, sötsaker;
hard candies, candy, sweets;
guma; KIH; s; rygge, ryggrad; back, backbone;
gunnis; KIH; adv; hvor; 1. where, 2. how (degree);
gurg; Iv; s, m; oxe; ox;
gúris, gúrish, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; öre; cent (coin), fig: penny,
farthing; ghanat kamma tji jekh guris the people dind’t have a cent;
KIH guress, guris, guriss, gurrisch; Romani guršo cent, penny,
groschen (coin) from MLG grosse groschen;
gurma; KIH; v; breke seg, kaste opp; vomit, throw up;
gúrmi; gúrmni;
gùrmi-kjei, gùrmiske-kjei; Iv; s, f; budeie, egl. ku-jente; dairy-maid, lit.
cow-girl;
gurminer; KIH; spl; grain; grain;
gurmipirat; Etz; adj; kobent; knock-kneed;
gùrmja, gùrma, -(n), pl gùrmjer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; ladugård; barn, cow-
shed;
gúrmni, gúrmi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, f; ko; cow; KIH
gurmeijar; Romani gurumni, guruvni cow, cattle; Romani guruv cow;
from Skt garūpa- shaped like a cow;
gúshtro, -n, -ar, -arna; gústri, -n, -, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; ring; ring;
Romani gusterin, angustri ring, from Pers. anguštar;
gusjni; Rib; s; kalv; calf;
gùstring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; ring; ring; KIH gustring
örhänge; earring;
gústro, -t, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, n; 1. finger, 2. ring; 1. finger, 2. ring;
mander kammar pansch gustroar I have five fingers; Romani (Sinte)
gušto finger, toe;
gutto; KIH; pron interr; hvem; who;
gvogta; KIH; num; to (2); two;
gvottra; KIH; v; bære, dra; carry, pull;

H
hàja, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; förstå; understand; haja diro sass mander
penna palla mengrepat do you understand everything I said about the
job? hajar tji (I) don’t understand; KIH heia; Romani hajel, haćardel
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understand, comprehend, perceive, realize, feel, assume, from Skt.

ākhyāta- explained;
hakk, hak, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; ställe, hus; place, house; in different
contexts: ka-hak matservering; cafeteria; bengalo-hak tokställe,
dårhus; mental ward;
Hallónken, Hàllonken uninfl; LDj;name; Halland;; Halland; ehe,
vorsnos ava fann Hallonken dre rattia yes, we came from Halland last
night;
hangra; Etz; v; tigga, bedja; beg;
hánji, hànning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; brunn; well; Romani hanik
well, spring, font; from Skt khana- digging, Kashmiri khan hole,
breach in a river bank;
hannalé; Etz; s; kvast; broom;
hansjnus, hansnus; Etz; pers pron, poss pron; han, honom; hans; he,
him, his;
hàrga; LDj, Etz; adv; länge; (for) long, (any) longer; Romani (Sinte)
harga long; Etz harja;
hargat; Etz; adv; fort; fast;
hark; KIH; s; fil; file;
hàrta, hä̀ rtla, -n, pl harter, -(n)a; hartan uninfl; LDj, KIH; s, r; spis,
ugn; stove, oven; rakka diro gla hartan honkar tatto watch out or the
stove, (it) is warm; KIH härtan kakeloven, kokeoven, skorstein; tiled
stove, cooking oven, chimney; from MLG hert cooker, hearth;
hàshta, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; hjälpa; help; KIH asta, hasta; maybe
Romani (Sinte) hacel search, find;
háshtalo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; hjälpsam; helpful; KIH hastalo;
hàsjta; Iv; v; 1. veie, 2. ta feil, 3. hjelpe; 1. weigh, 2. err, mistake, be
mistaken, 3. help;
hàsjta; Iv; adv; hvorfor; why;
hásjtar; Iv; s, m; vekt; weight;
hasjtipà; Rib; s; vekt; weight;
hásjtipa; Iv, Rib; s, m; hjelp; help; Rib hasjtipà;
hástipa; Iv; s, m; mark (1/4 kilo); half-a-pound;
hatfara; Etz; v; hata; hate; from Sw. hata hate;
haútus; Iv; s, m; ava i hautus komme i hug; ava i hautus bear in mind;
hågstri; Etz; adv; håg (i uttr. komma i håg); recall (in expr. bear in
mind); from Sw. håg mind;
hållfara; Etz; v; hålla; hållfara ninna hålla med; hold; hållfara ninna
agree, lit. hold with; from Sw. hålla hold;
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hårsno; Etz; adj; hård; hard, harsh; from Sw. hård hard;
hårsnopa; Etz; s; hårdhet; hardness, harshness;
hårt; Etz; adj; mycket; a lot;
håta; KIH; v; knipe, bortta, berøve; snatch, take away;
häkto; Etz; s; luffare, taskspelare (icke resande); hobo, conjurer (non-
traveller);
hämfaras; Etz; v; hämnas; take revenge; from Sw. hämnas take revenge;
häring; Etz, KIH; a; strömming, sill; herring; from Gm. Hering herring;
hærdepa; Iv; s, m; mark (dvs. 1/4 kilo); old unit of weight = 1/4
kilogram, about half-a-pound;
heìa; Iv; v; 1. høre, 2. forstå (kunne); 1. hear, 2. understand (know);
heia-bamsus; KIH; s; björn; bear;
heiipa; KIH, Iv; s; 1. sense 2. forstand; 1. sense 2. intellect; Iv heíipa;
hélko, hä́ lko; LDj, Etz, Iv; pron; hela, båda, alla; whole, both, all helkot
everything; Etz helke, helsko, helskro, Iv hélko, hílko (adj, pron);
Romani (Sinte) hako every; cf. also Sw./Norw. hel all;
hèllsfara, hèllstradra, -(de), -t; v; hälsa; greet, say hello; from Sw. hälsa
salute;
Hélmen; Iv; name; Vilhelm; William;
hensjnus; Etz; pers pron; henne; her;
héril, hä́ ril, -en, -ar, -arna; hérli, -n, -er, -erna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; ärta;
pea; Iv hìril; KIH herrile; Romani (Sinte) rihel pea, bean;
hérma, hä́ rma, -t, -; LDj adj; grå; grey; nuttan mander tjinna to tjeja
honka herma the shirt I bought for the wirl was grey;
hèrta, hä̀ rta, -n; LDj., Etz; s, r; spis; stove; Romani härta cooking stove,
fireside; from MLG hert cooker, hearth;
hikk, hekk; LDj; adv; hit; hither;
hìkkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vänta, hålla, stanna; wait, hold, stop; hikkra pre
mander! wait for me! hikkrar ta biddra pre dejja, tjavo! stop and wait
for mother, boy!; probably from Sw.Dial. hia prevent, stop;
hìlpfara, hjälpfara, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; hjälpa; help; from MLG
helpen, 3sghilpet help, also Swedish hjälpa help;
hìlpra, -(de), -t; LDj., Etz, KIH; v; hjälpa; help; Etz hälpra, KIH
hämpra;
hìlprano; Iv; adj; hjelpsom; helpful;
hilprepa; Etz; s; hjälp, hjälpsamhet; help, helpfulness;
hílpripa; Iv; s, m; hjelp; help;
hir, hia; KIH; s; impious body;
hírsakk uninfl; LDj; s; råtta; rat;
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hìspa, -n, pl hìsper, -na; hisp, -an, -er/-a, erna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1.
hus, 2. lite hus, stue; 1. house, 2. small house, cot; Iv híspa; KIH hisp,
hispa; from Ru. izba small house;
hìspa-gaje; Iv; s, f; plasskjerring, husmannskone; cottar’s wife, cottager’s
wife;
hìspa-gavo; Iv; s, m; husmann; cottager;
hìsp-voddro, hispeske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; husbil; caravanette,
dormobile small caravan, trailer;
hòffser, hùffser, -(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, pl; 1. byxor, 2. underbukse; 1.
pants, 2. drawers; Iv hǻfsa; KIH hoffsar, håffsor; maybe from MLG
hufte hip;
hoj; KIH; spl tømmer; reins;
hom; Etz; s; hem; home;
hònka, hùnka, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vara; be; honkar diros narta khere? is
your family home?
hòno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; mager; skinny;
hónom; Iv; s, m; (heste)hov; (horse’s) hoof;
honsjnus, honsnus; Etz; pers pron; hon, henne; she, her; from Sw./Norw.
hon she;
hòrta, -t, -; hórto, -t, -a; LDj, Iv, KIH; adj; bra, fin, riktig, äkta; good,
nice, real, authentic; Iv horta, hårta genuine, sterling, valuable; KIH
horta kind, beautiful, mild-mannered, patient; Romani orto right, fair,
straight, good, brave, from Gr. orthós straight;
horta-lil; KIH; s; godt (ekte) pass; good (authentic) passport;
hortalo; KIH; adj; rask, flink; healthy, strong, capable, efficient;
hòrtepa, -t; LDj; s, n; sanning, rätt; truth, right; kokka tji penna hortepa
gla mander! don’t lie, tell me the truth!; Romani orthó right, fair,
straight, good, brave;
hòvvra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hugga; hack, chop, cut; hovvra teli dova
rukkerna! chop down that tree! hovvra tji lester, rakka lo! don’t cut
him, watch out or him!; from MLG houuen, howen, hoggen hack,
chop;
hóvvri, hòvvri, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; yxa; axe; KIH hoffro;
höffer; KIH; s, pl; lår; thighs; from Sw. höft, Norw. hoffe hip;
höftara; Etz; v; behöva; need; from Sw. behöva need;
høyquanting; KIH; s; stiftamtmann, en høy embedsmann; prefect, a high
official;
hùbba, -n, pl hùbbor, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; mössa; cap; from MHG hūbe
headgear;
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hultrum; Etz; s; ved; firewood;

hùnka, hònka, hòlkla, -(n), pl hùnker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; flaska;
bottle; from Sw.Dial. hålk something hollow, cup, cup for liquor;
husare, hyvare; KIH; s; onanist; masturbator;
hvervel; KIH; s; kiste, skrin; chest, case, box;
hvittus; KIH; s; vinteren; winter; from Sw./Norw. vinter winter, cf.
ONor. vetr;

I
ifánn, ìfann; LDj; prep/adv; ifrån; from; nascha lo ifann diro? did he get
away from you? lillet ava ifann miro phral the letter is from my
brother;
ihópri, anhópri, drehópri, ànhopri, drèhopri; LDj; adv; ihop,
tillsammans; together; suta ihopri consolidate, tji ihopri not together;
from Sw. ihop together:
il; Iv; s, f; fil; file; from Norw./Sw. fil file;
ìllusmann, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; lymmel, drummel; cad, rascal,
scoundrel; cf. ilsmat;
ìlsmat uninfl; LDj; s; drummel, illmarig, jäkel; scoundrel, blackguardly,
(skilled) devil; savo ilsmat pre dingla what a crafty businessman (lit.
what a devil at business); from Sw.Dial., combinations with ill-, iller
evil, mean, angry, illmarig underhanded, sly;
ìlsmatig, ìlsmarig, -t, -a; LDj; adj; falsk, jäklig; deceitful, devilish; cf.
ilsmat;
ima; KIH; v; tenke, tro; think;
Ímmus; Iv; name; Emma; Emma;
ínto; LDj; adj/adv; intill, nära; beside, close; ja into mander, miro kamli!
come beside me, my dear!; from Sw. intill intill, cf. to;
ìsa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klä; dress; cf. ising;
ìsar, -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, pl; kläder; clothes; Rib ising; KIH hisar; cf.
ising;
ising; Etz; s; klänning; dress; Romani idja clothes, suit, from Gr. éndyma;
ìsing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kostym; suit; cf. ising;
isler; Etz; s; filt; blanket;

J
ja, -dde, -tt; Rib, KIH, LDj; v; gå; go, walk; KIH gja; jàbin-gaje; Iv; s,
f; barselkvinne; woman in childbed; Romani dšal go, travel, from Skt.
yā-;
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jàer; Iv; s, pl; spiker; (spike) nails;

jànga; Iv, Rib; v; vekke; våkne; wake (someone), wake up, tr. and itr;
Rib jangna; Romani džanglo intelligent, famous;
jàr-sigg; Iv; s, m; fart, egl. går-fort; speed, lit. goes-fast;
jáipa, jàipa; Iv; s, m; gående, gang; goings, going;
jàare, -n, -, def pl jàarna; LDj; s, m; luffare, vandrare; hobo, wanderer;
jaben; Iv; s; gaaen, gang; goings, going; cf. ja;
jagg, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. eld, 2. fyrstikk; 1. fire, 2.
(safety) match; Romani jag fire, from Skt. agni-;
jàggars-kero; Iv; s, m; bryggerhus, eldhus; laundry, wash-house;
jàgge-bero; Iv; s, m; dampbåt, egl. ild-båt; steamboat, lit. fire-boat;
jàggerske-dingse; Iv; s, f; fyrstikk, lit. eld-greie; match, lit. fire-gear;
jàggerske-måkti, jàggerske-måkting; Iv; s, f/m; fyrstikk-eske; match-
box;
jaggeske-vóddro, jàgg-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; brandbil; fire truck;
jàggra, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; elda, tända; burn, light; KIH jagra;
jaggrepa; Etz; s; eldning; firing, wood firing, lighting of fires;
jagralo; KIH; adj; varm, het; warm, hot;
jágro; Iv; s, m; fyrstikk, egl. brenner; (safety) match, lit. (a) burner;
jàgs-bar; Iv; s, m; fyrkolj egl. ild-stein; steam-coals, lit. fire-stone;
jàing, -en; LDj; s, r; gång (om häst); gait (about a horse);
jakk; Iv; s, m; øre (mynten); pl jakkar - småpenger; øre (the coin); pl
jakkar small change;
jakk, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; öga; eye; KIH jakane,
jakor, jakorne; Romani jakh eye, from Skt. akṣi-;
jàkkane; Iv; s, def pl; ansiktet; the face;
jàna, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; veta, känna till, förstå; know, know of,
understand; janar diro, mander kanslar krajon you know, I know the
king; Romani dšanel know, know of, from Skt. jñā-, jānāti;
jàngna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; väcka; wake up (trans.); Romani džungavel
wake (up), awake, be awake, from Skt. jāgṛ-;
jángno, jagno, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; vaken; awake; lattjo teijsa, honkar
diro jangno? good morning, are you awake?;
járo, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj; s, n; ägg; egg; Romani jaro (Sinte),
anřo egg, (also) testicle, from Skt. āṇḍa-;
jänget; KIH; s; gangjærn; hinge;
je; LDj; num/indef art; en, ett; a, an; Romani jekh one, someone, a, an,
from Skt. eka one;
jeckjackad; Etz; adj; enögd; one-eyed;
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jeckmussad; Etz; adj; enarmad; one-armed;

jecksaro; Etz; adj; ensam; alone;
jeckspan; Etz; s; inbrott; housebreaking, burglary;
jekh, jekh, jikk; LDj, KIH; num/indef art; en, ett; one; KIH gikk, jek; cf.
je;
jekk-bàrolill, -et/-en; LDj, Etz; s, n/r; stor sedel, hundra- eller tusenlapp;
big bill, hundred- or thousand kronor bill;
jekk-jakk; Rib; adj; en-öyet; one-eyed;
jèkkum, jìkkum, jékhum; LDj; num/indef art; en, ett; a, an; cf. je;
jèkkum-lokke, -n, pl -lokkar/-lokker, -na/-a; LDj; s, r; enkrona; one-
krona (coin);
jèla, jä̀ la, jèrla, jä̀ rla, jä̀ rda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bli skyldig, köpa på krita;
owe, buy on tick/credit;
jellm, -an; Rib; s; fjell; fjeld; mountain
jellmeske-gav; Rib; s; fjell-bygd; fjeld district; mountain village,
mountain district;
jellmeske-kèr; Rib; s; fjell-gård; fjeld farm; mountain farm;
jelm, jelme; KIH, Iv; s; mountain, fjeld; mountain, fell; Iv jélma;
jèlme-bamsus; Iv; s, m; bjørn, egl. fjellbamse; bear, lit. mountain bear;
jèlme-hispa; Iv; s, m; seter, egl. fjellstue; summer outfarm, lit. mountain
cot(tage);
jèlmeske-gav; Iv; s, n; fjellbygd; mountain district;
jelänk; Etz; s; remtyg på sele; strap on harness;
jènga, jä̀ nga, -(de), -t; LDj., Etz; v; gifta sig; get married; from
Romanian. zhenit’ marry;
jengd; KIH; adj (pst ptc); gift (med noen); married;
jèngepa, jä̀ ngepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; bröllop, giftermål; wedding,
marriage; Etz jängdepa, Iv jéngnopa;
jénglo, jä́ nglo, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; gift; married; Etz jängdo, Iv jéngno;
jìda, jìdda; Iv; v; 1. lekke, 2. leve; 1. leak, 2. live; cf. jiddra;
jìla, jìba, jìa; Iv, KIH; v; synge; sing; KIH jøiga;
jìlipa; Iv; s, m; sang; song;
jíbipa; Iv; s, m; sang; song;
jíbben, jíven, jiben uninfl; LDj, Etz; s, r, defsg; livet; (the) life; Romani
(Sinte) džiben life;
jibing; Etz; s; hals; neck, throat;
jíddan; Iv; s, n; liv; life;
jìddra, jìdra, jida, jidda, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; leva, göra oväsen;
live, make noise; Romani dživel live, from Skt. jīv- live;
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jìddrepa, -t, -(n), -na; s, n; LDj; Iv; oväsen; noise; kerrar tji savo
jiddrepa miro nukkoar! don’t much such noise, my children!;
jíddro, jído, jidro, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; livlig, levande; lively, alive;
jíkk-enja-divesar; Iv; num, s; 3 veker, egl. en-tjue-dager; 3 weeks, lit.
one-twenty-days;
jili; Etz; s; sång, visa; song;
jilier; Etz; s, pl; ådror; veins;
jimm, -et, -, -ena; jímmer uninfl; LDj; s, n; skinn, hud; skin, hide;
probably Romani cipa skin, from Gr. skípa;
jimmeske-bánkus, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; skinnsoffa; leather couch;
jimmeske-hòffser, jìmm-hoffser, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; skinnbyxor; leather
pants;
jimmeske-nùtta, jìmmer-nutta, jìmm-nutta, -(n), pl -nutter, -(n)a;
LDj; s, r; skinnjacka; leather jacket;
jingna; Rib; v; forynge; rejuvenate;
jinn, ginn, -et; LDj; s, n; nummer; number; Romani gin numeral,
number, from Skt. gaṇa- multitude;
jìnna, gìnna, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; räkna; count; jinna to trin! count to
three! jinna loverna honkar obahi to count money is bad luck; Iv jèna,
jìna; cf. jinn;
jiv; Etz; s, coll; säd, spec. havre; grain, esp. oats;
jiv; Etz; s, coll; snö; snow;
jiv; Iv; s, n; korn, særlig brukt om bygg; grainj esp. used of barley;
jìva, jìvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; snöa; snow; Iv jìba, jìbba, jìva; Romani
jib snow (noun); from Skt. hima- cold, frost, snow;
jíven, jìven, def sg. jìvanet, jìvet; LDj, Iv; s, n; snö; snow; Iv jib, jibb,
jiv, jev; cf. jìva;
jivenskebädder; Etz; s, pl; havreneker; oat sheaves;
jivreske-mósch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; snögubbe; snowman;
jomla; KIH, Iv; s; gud; God; Iv jómlia;
jomla; KIH; adj; helig; holy;
jòna, -t; LDj; s, n; brännvin; moonshine;
Jónkus; Iv; name; Johan; John;
jor, jår; Etz; s; lie; scythe;
jucklott; Etz; adj; ont, elakt; evil, mean;
júji, jùji, -n/-a; LDj, KIH; s, f; flicka (ej ännu kvinna); girl (not yet a
woman); KIH juja; cf. jujo;
jújo, jùjono, jùjolo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; ren; clean; jujoa plakter rena lakan,
tovva diros vashter savi dova honkar jujoloa! wash your hands so
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they’re clean!; Romani šužo clear, clean, empty, from Skt. śucya- is
purified, burns;
jukkelpi; KIH; s; politi; police;
jukklope; KIH; s; politi, rådstue, rett; police station, town hall, court;
jùra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; se, kika, titta, glo; see, peek, look, stare; jura kaj
deja! look here, mother! so maskan nast jura pre tjirklon! the cat is
really staring at the bird!;
jùstring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; ring, fingerring; ring, ring on finger;
cf. gushtro;
júva, -(n), pl jùver, -(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; lus; louse; Iv ju lus, ogs.
generelt om insekt; louse, also of insect in general; KIH jua, juva:
Romani džuw louse, bug, from Skt. yūkā- louse;
júvano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lusig; lousy, infested with lice;
juvar, juver; Etz; s, coll; löss; lice;
júvlia, -(n), pl júvlier, -na; LDj; s, f; kvinna, flicka; woman, girl;
Romani džuvli woman, from Skt yuvati- young woman;
jýkkli, júkkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; hynda; bitch; female dog; cf.
jykklo; Romani džukli dšúkli bitch, female dog;
jýkklo, júkklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; hund (hanhund); (male)
dog; Romani džukel dog; from Skt. jukuṭa- dog;

K
ka, -(d)de, -tt; LDj, Rib; v; äta; eat; Romani xal eat, from Skt. khād- eat,
bite;
kàben-låddipa; Iv; s, m; stabbur, egl. mathus; store-house on pillars, lit.
food-house;
kàben-ry; Iv; s, m; bordkniv; table-knife;
kàare, -n, -, def pl kàarna; LDj; s, m; ätare; eater;
kabalo; KIH; adj; mettet; full (from eating);
kàben, -; kàbing, kàving, -en; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; mat; food; dejas
kaben ashar tjattjot lattjot mother’s food is really good; Etz kabin,
KIH kab, kabeln, kapjen; Romani xabe food;
kaben-kjuro; Rib; s; mat-kniv; table knife;
kabenske-díkklo, -n; LDj, Rib; s, r; matduk (bars som ett förkläde där
man lade mat när man var ute och tiggde); food cloth (worn as an
apron in which you put food when out begging);
kabenske-tàfflan, -et/-taffla, -, def pl -tàfflerna; LDj; s, n;
middagsbord; dinner table;
kabuset, kabbuset; Etz; s, def; ansiktet; face;
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kacknir; KIH; s, pl; fjærfe; fugler (av alle slag); fowl; birds (of all
kinds); cf. kakkni;
kagsi; KIH; num; ni (9); nine;
kà-hak, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; matställe, matservering; place that serves
food, cafeteria;
kaj, kej; LDj, KIH; adv; här, hit; here, over here; Romani kai here;
kak, kákel; Iv; s, m; onkel; uncle; Romani kak, from Hi. kākā uncle,
father;
kakk; subj; om; if; Jfr. pàlla;
kakkaráska, kàkkeraska, -(n), pl kakkarásker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; skata,
stor fågel, örn, falk, rovfågel; magpie, big bird, eagle, falcon, bird of
prey; KIH patteráska; Romani kakaraška magpie, from Gr.
karakáxa;
kàkkaven uninfl; LDj, Iv; s; kittel, panna, hink; cauldron, pot, bucket; Iv
kakavé, kakáve, kàkkave kettle; coffee-pot; Romani kakavi
cauldron, from Gr. kakkabē;
kakken; KIH; s; axel; shoulder;
Kákken; Iv; name; Aksel; Axel;
kàkkla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klippa; cut (with scissors); kakkla tji an mul
lillet! don’t cut the letter!;
kàkkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; sax; scissors; Iv kákli, KIH
kakni; Romani kat scissors, from Skt. karttrī-;
kákklo, -n/-t; LDj; s, r./n; smuts, skräp, avföring, skit; dirt, garbage,
excrements, shit; from Gm. kacken to dirt, take a shit;
kákklo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; smutsig; dirty;
kàkkni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a/-na; LDj; s, f; höna; hen; Romani khajni,
Sinte kaxni hen, chicken;
kakkni-gålipà; Rib; s; höne-gal; fowl crowing, fowl call;
kakkniske-khér, kàkkni-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hönshus; hen
house;
kakkniske-mój, kàkkni-moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hönsnäbb; hen’s
beak;
kakkniske-píro, kàkkni-piro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hönsfot,
hönsben; hen’s foot, hen’s leg;
kákkno, -n, -ar,-arna; LDj; s, m; tupp; cock; rooster; cf. kakkni;
Kàkni-fåron; Iv; namn; Hønefoss, egl. høne-byen; Hønefoss, lit. the hen-
town;
kàkni-gavo; Iv; s, m; hane, egl. hønemann; cock, lit. hen-man;
kaks; Etz; num; två; two; from Månsing kaks, from Finnish kaksi;
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kala; KIH; s; botn; behind, bottom;

kalker; KIH; s; trädgård; garden;
kálo uninfl; LDj; namn; namn på finska resande(romer); name for
Finnish Travellers (Romani); mander trissade schtar lallaroa kalo
fann Fintiko-them I met four Finnish Travellers from Finland;
kalo, karlo; KIH; adj; svart, mørk; black, dark;
kálo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. svart, 2. blind; 1. black, 2. blind; Iv kálo
black; also (with the younger generation) blind; Romani kalo black,
from Skt. kāla- black, time;
kàlo-dukk, -t, -a; LDj; adj; svartsjuk; jealous;
Kalosiro; Etz; namn; Svartsjö (tvångsarbetsanstalten där); Svartsjö (lit.
Black Lake, referring to an institution for forced labour in that
community);
kaloske-bár, kàlo-bar, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; onyxsten; onyx stone;
kalot; Etz; s, coll; bly; lead;
kầli, kàllie, -t, -(n)/-er, -na/-r(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, n; stuga, ställe; cottage,
place (where you live); dova honkar an siros kali they are in their
cottage; KIH käll yard; maybe from Gm./ MLG keller basement;
kàloar; Iv; s, pl; kol, egl. (de) svarte; coal, lit. (the) black ones;
kàlo-bar; Iv; s, m; kol, egl. svart-stein; coal, lit. black-stone;
kàlo-bero; Iv; s, m; dampskip; steamship;
kálot; Iv; s, m; sirup (egl. noe svart); syrup (lit. smth. black);
kàlot-mass; Iv; s, n; spekekjøtt, egl. svart kjøtt; dried mutton, lit. black
meat;
kalsa; KIH; v; hestsko; shoe (horse);
kàlsing, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-erna; LDj, KIH; s, r; sko; shoe; KIH kalsing
boot; kalsingane boots; from Gr. khaltsa shoe, sock;
kalsingdoroar; Etz; s, pl; kängsnören; bootlaces;
kalsíng-fakkare, kàlsing-fakkare, -n, -e, def pl -fakkarna; LDj, KIH; s,
m; skomakare; shoemaker; KIH kalsinfakare, kalsingfakare;
kalsing-mäggrare; Etz; s; skomakare; shoemaker;
Káltus; Iv; name; Karl; Charles;
kalvónom; Etz; s; kalv; calf; from Sw. kalv calf;
kànisa, kànnisa, kaníssa; Iv; v; gjerne ville, ha lyst til; want to, like to;
cf. kamma;
kambána, karbána, kàmbana, kàrbana, kàrbanja, -(n), pl kambáner,
-(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; klocka, väggklocka; watch, clock, wall
clock; puscha so kambanan ashar! ask what the time is!; Iv kambáne
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(f.), KIH kabana pocket watch; Romani (Sinte) kambana watch,

clock, bell, from Gr. kámpana clock, bell;
kambàn-fakkar; Rib, KIH; s; klokke-arbeider (urmaker); watch-worker,
clock-worker (watchmaker, clockmaker); KIH kambanefakker;
kambàn-verranì; Rib; s; klokke-kjede; watch chain;
kamïna; KIH; s; lykt; lantern, lamp; from Gr. kamínos oven;
kàmla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; älska; love; cf. kamma;
kàmlepa, -t; LDj; s, n; kärlek; love;
kamleske-bár, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kärlekssten; love stone;
kàmli; LDj; sgf; kära, käre, älskade; dear, beloved; honkar diro miros
kamli? are you my dear?;
kámlo; Iv; adj; himmelsk; heavenly;
kámlo, kámmelo; Iv; s, m; himmel; sky; heaven;
kámlo, -t, -a, f kàmli; LDj; adj; kär, älskad; dear, loved; Romani kamelo
dear, loved, lovely, in love, likeable, nice, polite, compliant;
kàmma, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ha; have; kammat lattjot have it well (good
bye), kammar diro lover? do you have money?; Romani kamel want,
crave, like, wish, love, (also) owe, from Skt. kāma- love;
kamma-de-lákjot; Iv; expr; farvel, adjø, egl. ha det godt!; used as a
parting salutation; farewell, goodbye, lit. have it well!;
kammelòn; Rib; s; himmel; sky, heaven;
kámmeloske; Iv; adj; himmelsk; heavenly;
kammíssa, kammísha, kàmmissa, kàmmisha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vilja;
want; KIH kanisa; cf. kamma;
kammóra, kammóro, kàmmora uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; rum, kammare;
room, chamber; ja to diro kammora! go to your room!; Etz kamúrra;
from Gm. Kammer chamber, little room;
kampus; KIH; s; bær, stein; berry, pit, stone seed;
kandelom; KIH, Iv; s; ljus, eld; light, fire; Iv kandélom bål; bonfire,
may also be used of the sun; from MLG kandeler candle stick;
kanderina; KIH; s; kirke; church;
kandra; KIH; s; stank, vond lukt; stench, bad smell;
kàndra, kànja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; lukta, osa; smell, smell bad; Etz
kanda; Romani khandel stink, smell, Romani khand (s) smell, stench,
from Skt. gandha-;
kanfara; KIH, Iv; v; 1. kunna; 1. know; be knowledgeable in, 2. be able
to; from Sw./Norw. kan know (inflected form);
kángari, khéngari, -n/-a/-an, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; kyrka;
church; Iv kangarí, kàngari, kànnali, kànnari (f.), kanaria, KIH
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kangrï, kankaria, kanaria; Romani khangiri church, from Pers.

kongere tower;
kangari-khér, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kyrkogård; churchyard;
kàngla, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; kamma; comb; Iv kàngra; Romani kangli
comb, from Skt. kaṅkata-;
kàngling, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; kam; comb; KIH kangli; cf.
kangla;
kanise, konissa, kåssnis, kåssnise; KIH, Iv; s; korg; basket; Iv kårnísse;
kánjipa; Iv; s, m; lukt; smell;
kannjipà; Rib; s; lukting; smelling;
kánno; Iv; s, m; klokker; parish clerk;
kánno, -n; LDj; s, m; tupp; cock; rooster;
kànsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; känna; feel; probably from Sw. känsla feeling;
kao; KIH; s; främming; stranger;
kapjeba; KIH; s, def; bordet; the table;
kàra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kalla, kalla samman; call, summon; ghana karar
vorsnos gla tattare people call us tattare; Romani (a)kharel call,
scream, call someone something, be called, from Skt. garh- complain;
karadil; KIH, Rib, Iv; s; pistol, revolver; gun, revolver; Rib karjadil, Iv
karadíl, karjodíl;
kardíni, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; pistol, revolver; pistol, revolver;
karipà; Rib; s; kalling; call; cf. kara;
karja; KIH; v; ladda (weapon), knipa; load (weapon), pinch;
kàrna; LDj; adv; när; when; Romani kar near, by, to;
káro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, m; penis; penis; KIH karon; Romani
kar penis, from Skt. *kāṭa- stick, penis;
karpo; KIH; s; kroppen, legeme; body, organism;
karting; Rib; s; brev; letter; cf. kartli;
kártli, kárti, kàrtali, kàrtli, kàrti, -a/-t, -/-er, -na/-erna; kárto, kàrto, -
t, -s, -s; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r/n; 1. kort, spelkort, körkort, 2. biljett; 1.
card, playing card, driver’s license, 2. ticket; Etz karti, -ar kort,
porträtt, biljett; card, portrait, ticket; Iv kært (n.) kort (brev-, spille-);
card (post-, playing-); KIH kartingar; Romani (Sinte) karta playing
card, card, chart, map, ticket, from Gm. Karte;
kartli, kartling; Etz; s; kortlek; deck of cards;
karva; KIH; s; lampa; lamp;
kas; Etz; s; lus, löss; louse, lice;
kasfakker; KIH; s; snekker, tømmermann; carpenter, woodworker;
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kasht, -en; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, r; ved, träd; wood; firewood, tree; kava rukk
bliddrar fedig kasht this tree will make good firewood; Rib kasjt
kjepp, stokk; cane, log, KIH kas, kascht, kast, khast; Romani kašt
tree, wood, stem, stick, log; from Skt. kāṣṭha- piece of wood;
kàshta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hosta; cough; kashta tji miro an lishto! don’t
cough in my face!; Romani xasal cough, from Skt. kās- cough;
kasing; Etz; s; ost; cheese;
kàsjtakjero; Iv; s, m; bydgevekter; parish beadle;
kàsjta-krajo; Iv; s, m; bygdevekter, egl. stokke-konge; parish beadle, lit.
cudgel king;
kásjtar; Iv; s, m; hoste; cough; cf. kashta;
kàsjteske-kjerar, kásjeske-kjerar; Iv; s, m; snekker, tømmermann, egl.
tre-arbeider; joiner, carpenter, lit. wood-worker;
kàsjtesse-dandrar; Iv; s, m; krybbebiter, egl. tre-biter; crib-biter, lit.
wood-biter;
kàsjt-ger; Iv; s, m; sag, egl. ved-sag; saw, lit. wood-saw;
kasjtlittra; Etz; s; vedskjul; woodshed;
kasjtpiro; Etz; s; träben; wooden leg;
kasjtvantra; Etz; s; vedskjul; woodshed;
kaskdivers; KIH; adv; middagen; noon;
kass, kach, -et; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, n; 1. hö, 2. halm; 1. hay, 2. straw; tjinna
kass dre kherarna! buy hay at the farms!; Iv kas, kass, kasj; KIH
kass; Romani khas hay, (uncommonly), from Skt. ghāsa- food,
pasture grass;
kàss-goning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hösäck; hay sack;
kassplákta; Etz; s; hölakan, höskynke (skynke avsett att bära hö i); hay
sheet, hay cloth (clot for carrying hay in);
kassvasjt; Etz; s; hötapp (egl höhand); wisp of hay (lit. hay hand);
kaston; Etz; s; konung; king;
Kàstona-foro, Kralìlleske-foro uninfl; LDj, Etz; name; Stockholm
(kungliga staden); Stockholm (lit. the Royal City);
kastrílja, -n; LDj; s, r; kastrull; saucepan;
kastrínja, kàstrinja, kàstrinla, kàstringla, -(n), pl kastrínjer, -(n)a;
LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; kista, dragkista, byrå, låda; chest, chest of
drawers, box; Etz kasjtrina, kasjtrínja; Iv kastrína, kàstrine; KIH
kastrïnna; from MLG kast (kass, kaste) container, receptable;
kàttja, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; brinna, bränna; burn; kattja pre kava
puranoa hispan nanit te kamma burn this old house, (it’s) not worth
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anything; KIH katja; Romani (Sinte) xačel burn, glow, from Gr.
kataskeuazo;
kàttjali, -t; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, n; brännvin, hembränt; schnaps,
moonshine; Rib kasjtjalì; Iv kakjalí, kákjali, kàkjali; KIH
kakjervil, katjali, katkjali;
kattler; Etz; s, pl; kort; cards;
kàva, kàvva; LDj, Rib; dem pron, pers pron; 1. (dem pron) den (här), det
(här), denne, denna, detta; de (här), dessa, 2. (pers pron, mindre
vanligt) han, honom, hon, henne, den, det; de, dem, 3. maken, samme;
1. (dem pron) this, this (man); these, 2. (pers pron, less common) he,
him, she, her, it, them, 3. match, the same (kind); Romani (a)kava this
(dem pron);
kávo; Iv; adj, s, m; fremmend; strange, stranger;
kåckepaskro; Etz; s; lögnare; liar;
kå̀ kkabaskro, kå̀ kkarbaskro, kåkkarbáskro, kå̀ kkibaskro; Iv; s, m;
løgnhals; fibster;
kå̀ kkaro; Iv; adj; løgnaktig, upålitelig; lying, unreliable;
kǻkkiba; Iv; s, m; løgn; lie;
kålo; KIH, Rib; S; bröst; breast;
kårrko; Rib; adj, s; hellig, hœytid (sœndag); holy, holiday (Sunday);
kåstis; KIH; s; kläder, kostym clothing, suit;
kåta, kåto; Etz; s; stuga, ställe; cottage, place;
kǻtro; Iv; pron; själv; self;
kå̀ var; Iv; s, pl; (små)penger; (small) coins;
kåven; Etz; s, def; kammaren; the chamber;
kä̀ nda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; plocka; pick; kända diro butt ninna muroar dre
vago dives? did you pick many berries the day before yesterday?;
kärjel; Etz; s; lymmel, illmaring; scoundrel, sly person;
kæve; KIH; s; snurre, tukthus; penitentiary;
kævmors; KIH; s; tukthuslem; someone admitted into a penitentiary;
kèria-dukken; Iv; s, m, def; kjønns-sjukdom; venereal disease;
kèria-gavon; Iv; s, m, def; fanden, egl. styggemannen; the deuce, lit. the
ugly man;
kèria-mosjn; Iv; s, m, def; fanden, egl. styggemannen; the deuce, lit. the
ugly man;
kèria-varo; Iv; s, m; havremjøl, egl. stygt, vondt mjøl; oatmeal, lit. ill-
looking, bad flour;
kéria, kérja, kírja; Iv, KIH; adj; stygg, vond, dårlig; ugly, ill, bad; KIH
kerria ondt, ille; bad, hostile, unpleasant;
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kei fann; Rib; prep; her-fra; from here;

kei palla; Rib; prep; her-etter; hereafter;
kei teli; Rib; prep; her-ned; down here;
kell; KIH; s; mel; meal, flour;
kèlla, kèla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; dansa; dance; Romani khel play, dance;
kèllepa, kèlepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; dans; dance; Etz källipa;
Iv kélipa, kéllipa;
Kèllodikko-them uninfl; name; Ryssland; Russia;
kerál, kärál, királ, kèral, kill, kild, -en, -/ar, -en/-arna; LDj, Etz, Iv,
KIH; s, r; ost; cheese; kill ta cheese and bread, suta pre keral pre
killgåsen Natalia! put some cheese on the sandwich, Natalia!; Etz
kírali; Iv kjirál; KIH kïrall; Romani khil butter, oil, fat, lard, from
Skt. kṣīra- milk, thickened milk;
kerdat; KIH; adj (sup); kokt, stekt; boiled, fried;
kere; KIH; adv; hjem; home; atja kere be at home:
keri, kiri; Etz; adj; ful; ugly;
kèri-jaggra; Rib; s; heime-brent; moonshine;
kèripà; Rib; s; heimsted, heimen; homestead, home;
kérno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; rutten; rotten; kernoa muron kammar paschat dre
vesha gla jekh langsno tija rotten berries, (that) have lain in the forest
a long time; Romani kerno rotten;
keropa(r); Etz; s; gård, hem; farmyard, home;
kèrra, kèra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; 1. göra, 2. arbeide, 3. lage, 4.
trolle; 1. do, make, 2. work, 3. prepare, 4. charm (=conjure); dikk so lo
kerra siro to gla garia look at him trying to impress the woman (lit.
doing himself for the woman) kammar diro kerrat dova khere? did
you make this at home? lattjot kerrat! well done!; Iv kjèra, kjèrra,
kèra gjøre, arbeide, lage; ogs. trolle; do, make, work, prepare; also
charm (=conjure); KIH kjera do, fix, perform tricks;kera pre åpne,
gjøre opp; open, make a deal; Romani kerel do, make, from Skt. kṛ-;
kes; KIH; s; ost; cheese;
kess; KIH; s; ande, Helige Anden; spirit, Holy Spirit;
kéttane, kettầnes, kèttanes, kéttalo, kä́ ttalo; LDj, Etz; adv; ihop,
tillsammans, i sällskap; together, in (eachother’s) company; mander
voltrar diro bliddrar kettanes ninna mande I want you to be together
with me, kettanes soraloa ta bunoa together (we are) strong and
proud;
kev, käv, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; hål; hole; Iv kev n. hol, åpning; også
brukt overført om tukthus; hole, aperture; also used metaphorically as
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a house of correction; Romani xev hole, window, cave, cavity,

asshole, vagina, prison, from Skt. kheya- ditch;
kham, -en; LDj; s, r; sol, solsken; sun, sunshine; Romani kham sun, from
Skt. gharma- heat;
kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; gård; farm; estate, homestead (on
the countryside); dova khern bekkna Lindgren to Rosengren Lindgren
sold that farm to Rosengren; Iv kjer, ker; KIH kjær; Romani kher
house, from Skt. gṛha-;
khére, khère, khèri; LDj; adv; hem, hemma; home, at home;
kheriske-jàggra, khèri-jaggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; hembränna; home-
distill;
kheriske-jàggring, khèri-jaggring, -en; LDj; s, r; hembränning; home-
distilling;
kíno; Iv; adj; trøtt, matt; tired, faint; Romani khino tired, from Skt.
khinna- tired;
kia; KIH; adj; våt; wet; cf. kindo;
kibb; Etz; s; skål; bowl;
kill, -et; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, n; smör; butter; Etz kil; Iv kil, kjil; KIH
kiil; Romani khil butter, oil, fat, lard, from Skt. kṣīra- thickened milk;
kìll-gås, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; smörgås; sandwich; Etz kilgås;
kílo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. käpp, 2. staur; 1. cane, 2. pole;
Romani kilo pole, cane, cudgel, peg, from Skt kīla- stake, peg,
tumour;
kìltra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; neka; deny;
kíndo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; våt, blöt; wet; Iv kínto; Romani kingo wet,
from Skt. timita-;
kìngla, krìngla, -(n), pl kìngler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kvarn; mill; maybe
from Gm. Kringel ring;
kìnna, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; köpa; buy; KIH tjina; Romani kinel buy,
from Skt. krīnāti;
kìnnepa, -t, -, -na; LDj, KIH; s, n; marknad, försäljningsplats; market,
sales location; honkar but ninna romani-manusch pre kava kinnepat
there are a lot of Romani people at this market; KIH kinnep; cf.
kinna;
kinnipà; Rib; s; kjöp; purchase;
kintan; Etz; s; menstruation; menstruation;
kíppa, -n, -, -na; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. spann, hink, 2. bøtte; 1. bucket, 2.
pail; Iv kìbba, kìbbi (m), kjíbban, kíppan, kjíppan, KIH kipp så;
vat; from MLG kipe, Gm. Kiepe a great, long carrying basket;
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kippo; Etz; s; skål, mugg; bowl, mug; cf. kippa;

kir uninfl; kíro, -n, -s/-ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; myra; ant; Romani kir ant,
from Skt. kīṭa- bug;
kìrja, kèrja, kèrjia, kä̀ rja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; vara ful, elak, dålig,
usel; be ugly, mean, bad (in a dishonest way), wretched; dolle honka
kirjat kerrat attjer lester that was badly done of him, kerja ghana
mean people; Romani kerno lazy, decomposed, rotten, brittle, slow;
kìrjing, kèrjing, kä̀ rjing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; fuling, elaking;
rascal, nasty person; cf. kirja;
kirkloske-hìspa, -n, pl -hisper, -na; LDj; s, r; fågelholk; bird house;
kis; Etz; s; man; man;
kìsing, kìssing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; börs, portmonnä; purse;
Romani kisi purse, moneybag, from Pers. kīsa;
kísko, kírklo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; god, bra, fin; good, nice; KIH kjesko
god, snill, skjønn, blid, godmodig; good, kind, mild-mannered,
patient, friendly; Romani čisto clean, probably from Slavic;
kisko-dìves, kiska-dìves; LDj; interj; goddag!; Hello! (lit. good day);
kjỳnna; Iv; v; høre; hear;
kjǽrvar-bau; Iv; s, m; grue, peis, egl. koke-ovn; fireplace, hearth, lit.
cooking oven;
kjàveske-vådro; Iv; s, m; barneseng; cot (bed for child);
kjàvo-davripa, kjávo-davripa; Iv; s, m; barnedåp, egl. barne-lesing, i.e.
lesing over barnet; infant baptism, lit. child-reading, i.e. reading over
the child;
kjàvo-dukkalo, kjávo-dukkalo; Iv; adj; barnsjuk (om kvinne som skal
føde); having pains of childbirth, labor, lit. child-ill;
kjàvo-kjavoar, kjávo-kjavoar; Iv; s, m, pl; barnebarn; grandchildren;
kjàvoske-dakri; Iv; s, f; jordmor, egl. barne-mor; midwife, lit. child-
mother;
kjàvoske-drablar; Iv; s, m; lærer, egl. barne-leser; teacher, lit. child-
reader;
kjàvoske-isar; Iv; s, pl; barneklær; childrens clothes;
kjaarkaner; KIH; s; tyv; thief;
kjadda; Rib; v; spy; vomit;
kjæka; KIH; v; søke, lete; search;
kjækla; KIH; num; sju; seven;
kjærver; KIH; s; kok; boiling;
kjákjipa; Iv; s, m; rett; domstol; right; court of justice;
kjákjo; Iv; adj; sann; viss; true; certain;
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kjal; Iv; s, n; sladring, angiveri; tattle-telling, report of a crime;

kjámlo; Iv, Joh; s, m; skrå, buss, egl. tugge; quid (of tobacco), chaw, lit.
chew; Joh tjàmmlo, -n, -ar, -arna;
kjar; Rib; s; kyt, ros, skryt, sleik; praise, boast;
kjara; KIH, Iv; v; skryta, prisa; boast, praise; Iv sjàra; Romani (a)šarel
to boast, from Skt. uc-car- shout;
kjaripà; Rib; s; kyting, rosing, skryting, sleiking; praising, boasting;
kjasjipàn; Rib; s; domstolen, retten, sannheten; the court of justice, the
truth;
kjasjot; Rib; adv; sant; true;
kjatsa; KIH; v; regne; rain;
kjàvo-låkki; Iv; s, f; barsel; confinement (childbed);
kjåggar; KIH; s; ost; cheese;
kjår; Rib; s; stjel, tjuv; theft, thief;
kjåralo; KIH; adj; tyvaktig; thievish;
kjåralo-gavo; Iv; s, m; fattigforstander; relief officer;
kjåtan; KIH; s; kedja; chain;
kjèrar; Iv; s, m; arbeider; håntverker; worker; artisan;
kjèrar-låddipa; Iv; s, m; verksted, egl. arbeider- eller håndverker-hus;
workshop, lit. workers or artisans house;
kjèrerske-gaje; Iv; s, f; bondekone, egl. gardkone; peasant woman, lit.
farm-wife;
kjèrerske-gavo; Iv; s, m; bonde (på en større gård, i mots. til småbruker
eller husmann), egl. gardmann; farmer (on a good-sized farm, in
contradistinction to small farmer or crofter), lit. farm-man;
kjèri, kèri; Iv; adv; 1. heim, 2. heime; 1. home, 2. at home;
kjèri-kil; Iv; s, n; bondesmør (i motsetning til meierismør og margarin),
egl. heimesmør; farm butter (made by farmers) in contradistinction to
creamery butter (made in a factory) and margarine, lit. home-butter;
kjèr-jagra; Iv; s, m; heimebrent; moonshine, home distilled spirits;
kéripa; Iv; s, m; arbeid, ogs. trolldom; work, also witchcraft;
kjeì-kjavo; Iv; s, m; datter, egl. jentebarn, jentunge; daughter, lit. girl-
child, little girl;
kjerklo-pòri; Rib; s, pl; fugle-fjaer; bird feather;
kjerveba; KIH; s; skorstein, ildsted; chimney, fireplace, hearth;
kjervia; KIH; s; gryte; (boiling) pot;
kjéttan, kjǻtan; Iv; s, m; (ur) kjede; (watch) chain;
kjèttanes, kèttanes; Iv; adv; sammen, i lag; together, jointly;
kjínger; Iv, Rib; s; risp, arr; slit, scar, cicatrice;
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kjingripà; Rib; s; skjaering; cutting;

kjíngripa; Iv; s, m; arr; scar, cicatrice;
kjinn; KIH; s; kjøp; purchase;
kjomalott; KIH; adv; kallt; cold;
kjòna; Iv; v; barbere, egl. ta skjegget bort; shave, lit. take away the beard;
Romani čhor beard;
kjongker; Rib; s; spyttklyse; wad of spit;
kjónker; Iv; s, n; spytt; saliva; cf. tjonkra;
kjon-kjuro; Rib; s; barber-kniv; razor;
kjøiter; KIH; s; skilling; old Scandinavian monetary unit, coin, money;
kjøivo; KIH; s; buken, magen; belly, stomach;
kjøtta; KIH; v; stå; stand;
kjùro-bar; Iv; s, m; slipestein; bryne, egl. knivstein; grindstone;
whetstone, lit. knifestone;
kjùkja; Iv; v; patte; suck;
kjùla; KIH, Iv; v; 1. sweep, 2. koste; 1. sweep, 2. brush;
kjulma, kjumra, kjylma; KIH; v; freeze, be cold; freeze, be cold;
kjumm; Iv; s, m; kyss; kiss;
kjùmmalot; Iv; s, n; frost; frost;
kjyllalò; Rib; adj, s; kald (kulde); cold (adj), cold (n);
kjyrer; KIH; spl; kvinnobröst; female breasts.
klàva, klàve; Iv; s, m; kammers; closet;
klajdari, kläjdare; KIH; s; onanist; masturbator;
klappfara; Etz; v; klappa; pet, stroke;
klénsko, klènsko, klèvsko, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; träsko; (wooden) clog;
probably from MLG, Gm. *Kleinschuh, MLG klen small.
kli, -dde, -att; LDj, Iv; v; rida; ride; Iv klìdda;
klíben; Iv; s, m; ridning; riding;
klìare, -n, -, def pl kliarna; LDj; s, m; ryttare; rider; Romani inki(j)av
climb (the horse e.g.); inchlistipé riding, ride (nouns); klisni riding
horse;
klieske-gréj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; ridhäst; saddle horse;
klina; KIH; v; vaske; clean, wash; from Engl. clean clean;
klìsa, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; låsa, stänga; lock, close; klisa diro
voddron? did you lock the car? klisa tjattjot tjavo karna diro jar avri
lock it properly when you leave, boy; Iv klìssa; KIH klisa låsa, låsa
upp; lock, unlock; cf. klissing;
klisaskiro; KIH; s; fangevokter; warder;
klíssan; Iv; s, m; lås; lock;
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klìssing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. nyckel, lås, 2.
dørvrider; 1. key, lock, 2. door-handle; Etz klising, Iv klìsi, klìsin,
klìssing, klèssing also door-handle; KIH klising, klysing nøkkel,
dirk; key, passkey, picklock; klæssing; Romani klidi key, lock; from
Gr. kleidí;
klístos uninfl; LDj; s; kosack; cossack;
klìstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; neka; deny;
klistro; Etz; s; polis; policeman;
klorus; KIH; s; kamm; comb; from Sw./Norw. klo claw;
klỳs-moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, f; vulva; vulva;
klä̀ mma, -(n), pl klämmer, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; tång; pliers, tongs; Iv
klèmsa; maybe from Gm. Klam chain;
klämm; Etz; s, coll; mat; food;
klämma; Etz; v; äta; eat; from Rotw. klemmen eat;
knæ̀rke; Iv; s, f; musikkinstrument; musical instrument;
knarka; KIH; v; leka; play; probably onomatopoetic;
knarka, knærka; KIH; s; musik; music;
kne; Etz; v, s; 1. (v) cacare, smutsa, lorta (ner); defecate, foul, make
dirty, 2. (s) lort, smörja; dirt, grime;
knetra; KIH; s; kne; knee; from Sw. knä Norw. kne knee;
knotta, knottan; KIH; s; knut; knot;
kodd, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; pung, testiklar, äv. i överförd bemärkelse
som smeknamn; scrotum, testicles, also as nickname; from Norw.
kodd testicles;
kokk, kòkkepa, -t; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; lögn; lie; KIH kokkar,
kokkeba, kåk, kåkk usanhet, løgnfalskhet; dishonesty, tendency to
lie; cf. kokka;
kòkka, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; ljuga; lie; KIH kokka lure; lie, trick, fool;
Romani xoxavel lie, deny, from Skt. khakkh- laugh;
kòkkalo-tavring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; låtsas-resande, en som utger
sig för att vara resande utan att vara det; pretend-Traveller; one who
claims to be traveller without being it;
kokkano; KIH; adj; løgnaktig, usanferdig; prone to lying, dishonest;
kokkanolill; KIH; s; falskt pass; forged passport;
kòkkare, -n, -, def pl kòkkarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; lögnare; liar; Iv kå̀ kkar;
kókkaro; LDj, KIH; adv, pron; 1. (adv) ensam, 2. (pron) själv; 1. (adv)
alone, 2. (pron) by oneself, by myself; KIH kockaro; Romani korkořo
alone, from Skt. ekkala-;
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kókko, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, m; tupp; cock, rooster; from Gm. Gockel
rooster;
kòlleva, -n/-a, -(e)r, -rna/-(e)ra; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. strumpa, 2. underbukser;
1. sock, 2. drawers; Iv kå̀ lliva (m), kå̀ lloar strømpe(r); stocking(s),
also (in my oldest informants) drawers; Romani (Sinte) kolo dress,
piece of clothing;
kómmoni uninfl; LDj; pron; något; something;
komula; KIH; adj; helig; holy;
konn uninfl; LDj; pron; vem; who; Romani kon who, from Skt. ka-;
kóper, kópra, kòpra uninfl; LDj; adj; billigt pris; cheap price; from
MLG kopen buy, kop buy, price;
koppina; KIH; s; kopp; cup; from Sw./No. kopp cup;
kòppra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kosta; cost; cf. koper;
kóralo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; blind; blind; kamlepat ashar koralo love is blind;
Romani kořo blind, from Pers. kōr;
kórba, -t/-n, pl kórber/-s, -na/-s; LDj; s, n/r; korg; basket; Romani
(Sinte) korba basket, from Gm. Korb basket;
korbeske-mósch; LDj; s, m; korgmakare; basket-maker;
kóri, kóro, kòri, kòro, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; kruka, hink, spann;
jar, bucket; Romani khoro jar, cup, can, bottle, vat, bucket, from Skt.
ghaṭa- pot;
kórtja, kòrtja, kòrta, -(n), pl kòrter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; torp, ställe;
crofters holding, cottage, homestead, place (where you live);
kòscha, kòsha, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; svära; curse, swear (also with the
meaning to promise); diro fysher tji koscha! you may not swear!
koscha prét! swear on it! (promise!); Iv kå̀ rsa; Romani (a)kušel scold,
quarrel, from Skt. ākruś- cry out, scold;
kòschepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; förbannelse; curse; Iv kǻrsipa;
kòsta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; borsta; brush;
kòsting, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; borste; brush;
kòtta, -n, -; LDj, Etz; s, r; stycke, bit; bit, piece; jekh kotta ninna mass a
piece of meat; Etz kåtto, kåttro; Romani kotor piece, bit, chunk, rag,
from Arm. kotor;
kóttjik, póttjik, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; knapp; button; Etz
kåttlåck; Romani kočak button, from Arm. kočak button;
kova, kòva, -n; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, coll; 1. saker, varor, gods, 2. tøy; 1.
things, merchandise, goods, 2. cloth; Romani kova thing, merchandise,
goods, stuff, business, from kova dem pron;
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kova; Etz, Iv; s; 1. fängelse, 2. arrest, cell; 1. prison, 2. arrest, cell; Iv

kòva, kå̀ va;
krǻssus, krossus; Iv; s, m; kors; cross;
kràli; Iv; s, f; dronning; queen;
krágo; Iv; s, m; lensmann; bailiff;
krafsa; KIH, Iv; s; lampa; lamp; Iv kràfse;
kràfse-gaï; Iv; s, f; jordmor, egl. lampemor; midwife, lit. lamp-mother;
krájlis, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz; s, f; drottning; queen; Etz krajia;
Romani kraljica queen, princess;
krájo, krájlo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, Joh, KIH; s, m; 1. kung, 2.
lensmann, bygdevekter; 1. king, 2. bailiff, parish beadle; krajon
honkar baro ta gasskano the king is great and wise; Etz kräjon, Iv
krájo, Joh kràjjo, krájjo, KIH kralo(n), krago, krajo country police
sergeant, king; Romani kraljo king, ruler, prince, from Serbcr. kralj;
kràjoske-dikklo, kràjo-dikklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; flagga; flag;
krakofarare; KIH; s; dagdriver; loafer;
krakus; KIH; s; kråka; crow; from Norw. kråke crow;
krans; KIH; s; riksort; county;
krasa; Etz; v; äta; eat;
krasch, -et; LDj; s, n; gräs; grass; from Gm. Gras grass;
krekus, krekkus; KIH; s; myra, mask; ant, worm; cf. kreshtus;
kréshtus, pl krèsha, krésher; LDj; s; kreatur; cattle, livestock; kammar
diro kresha te bekkna? do you have cattle for sale?; probably from a
form present in Eng. creature, from Lat. creates creature;
krèstes-drom, kärèstes-drom, kärèste-drom; LDj; s, r; korsväg,
vägkorsning; crossroads, intersection, junction;
kréstos, käréstos, -; LDj; s, r; kors, krucifix; cross, crucifix; KIH
krossus, kårssus; from MLG crūse cross;
kri; KIH; v; fortære, ete; consume, eat;
krìla, krìlla, -(n), pl krìler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kvarn; mill; maybe from
Slavic, cf. Ru. krylo wing (of a bird or building);
krilla; Rib; v; male; mill;
krùmm-grej, kòmm-gräj, -en, -ar, -arma; LDj; s, r; oxe; ox;
krúmmik, grúmmik, grúmnik, -a, -er, -e(r)na; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; ko;
cow; Etz kromma, krumma, KIH krumma; kråmni; cf. grumni;
krylis; Etz; s, coll; ull; wool;
kråmm; KIH; s; (en type) straff; (a type of) punishment;
kräjerske rania; Etz; s, def; drottningen; the queen;
kastanjebrol; KIH; s; pærer; pears;
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kúro; Iv; adj; blind, ogs. (hos de yngre) svart; blind, also (with the
younger generation) black;
kùbba, -n, -; LDj, Etz; s, r; hatt; hat; Etz kúban;
kulma; KIH; num; tre (3); three;
kulters; Etz; adv; omkull; (fall) down, (fall) over;
kunja; KIH; s; alen; length measuring unit, ell;
kúrko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; söndag, helgdag; Sunday, holiday;
Romani kurko sunday, week, from Gr. kuriakḗ;
kurko-dìvus, kùrko-divus, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; söndag,
helgdag, påskafton; Sunday, holiday, Easter Eve; Rib kårrko-divis;
kúrmin, -/ -a; LDj, Rib, Iv, KIH; s, r; gryn, korn; groats, peeled grain;
Rib kurrmi, Iv gurmíner (pl) gryn; peeled grain; KIH kurrming;
Romani kukin grain, stye, bullet, from Gr. kouk(k)í;
kùrmi-sâni, -n/-a; LDj; s, r; grynvälling; gruel made from groats;
kúro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; föl; foal;
kurom; KIH; s; båthus; boat house;
kurr, kur, -et; LDj; s, n; stryk; beating;
kùrra, kùra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; slå; beat, strike, fight; Iv kòrra,
kå̀ rra, KIH kura piske, slå, gi stryk, pryle; lash, strike, beat up, flog;
kuras uforlikes; fight, disagree; Romani kurel beat, fight, from Skt.
kuṭṭaya- crush, grind;
kùrrare, kùrare -n, -, def pl kùrrarna; LDj; s, m; slagskämpe; fighter;
kùrrepa, kùrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; slagsmål; (free)
fight, brawl; Etz kuropa; Rib kurripà; Iv kórripa, kúrripa; KIH
kuriba pryl, hogg; beating, stab, punch;
kurre-prásko, kurre-páskro, kùrre-paskro -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz,
Rib, KIH; s, r; slagskämpe, boxare; fighter, boxer; KIH korrabaskro,
Etz kuropaskro, Rib kurra-baskro;
kùrr-mängare, kùr-mengare, -n, -, def pl -mengarna; LDj; s, m;
boxare; boxer;
kùrrning, kùrning, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, KIH; s, r; stryk, slagsmål;
beating, brawl; KIH kurning;
kusch, kush, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. dyr, 2. dyr (Norm.); 1. expensive 2.
dear; kusch kava leddikan asha! this bag is so expensive! dova
kalsingerna asha kuscha, tjinna tji dova those shoes were expensive,
don’t buy them; Iv kusj, kúsjo; Romani kuč expensive, precious, rare;
kùsha, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; flå; skin, flay; Romani kuš skin, flay, peel,
pluck, drag;
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kústno, -a -t; LDj; adj; dyr; expensive; tjakket honka kustno the wares
were expensive;
kutta; KIH; num; seks (6); six;
kútti,-t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; liten (om icke-levande varelser); small (about
inanimate objects); kutti drom small road; KIH kuti litt, mindre; little,
less, smaller; Romani (Sinte) kuti little, some, low, short;
Kùtti-them, -en; LDj; s, r; Småland; Småland (Smolandia, province);
kvanna; Etz; s; kvarn; mill;

L
Lái; Iv; namn; Nikolai; Nicholas;
labbelàlla; Rib, Iv; s; myssmör, prim; whey-butter, whey; Iv labelàlla,
babelàlla;
Lábben; Iv; name; Harald; Harold;
lackekurjis; Etz; s; arsenik; arsenic;
lacksint; Etz; adj; argsint; irascible, ill-tempered;
lacksinthet; Etz; s; argsinthet; irascibleness, ill-temperedness;
làffja, làffa, -(n), pl làffer, -(n)a; LDj; s, n; lada; barn; probably from a
form of Sw. lada barn, Old Sw. laþa, the fricative is kept only in
Dalecarlian dialects;
laggra; Etz; v; laga; mend; from Swedish laga mend;
laj uninfl; LDj; s; in expr. kera laj avri göra narr av; make a fool of;
ridicule; kera tji laj attjer puranot manusch don’t make fun of old
people; Romani ladž shame, shamefacedness, dishonour,
contumeliousness, from Skt. lajjā-;
làja, -(de), -t; pass. ladjas, lajvas; LDj, Etz; v; skämma ut, skämmas;
embarrass, be embarrassed; so mander lajas I’m so embarrassed, sosti
laja vri vorsnos? why embarrass us like that?; Romani ladžal be
ashamed, from Skt. lajj-;
lájano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; skamsen; embarrassing;
lajavrí, lájverdi, làjverdi, -t, -a; LDj; adj; skamsen, skamlig; ashamed,
shameful;
lákjipa; Iv; s, m; funn; find;
làkjo-kjinnipa, lákjo-kjinnipa; Iv; (used as an) adj; billig, egl. godt-
kjøp; cheap, lit. good purchase;
làkjo-varo, lákjo-varo; Iv; s, m; hvetemel, egl. god-mel; wheat-flour, lit.
good flour;
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lakk, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; ond, arg, elak; evil, angry, mean; sosti ashar
diro lakk? why are you angry?; KIH lakk, lak ille, dårlig, usell;
unhealthy, bad, wretched;
làkka; Iv; v; lodde (metall); solder;
lakkedùkk; Rib; s; kjönnssyke (egl. skamsyke); veneral disease patients
(lit. shame disease patients);
lakkedùkkipà; Rib; s; kjönnssykdom; veneral disease;
lákko-kher, làu-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, n; ladugård; barn;
Etz la-ker;
lákkravis, lákkvaris; Iv; s, m; bly; lead;
lakoaskus; Etz; s, coll; bly; lead;
lall, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, m; 1. finne, 2. same, lapp; 1. Finn, 2.
Sami, Lapp; boddra lallen doj? bor finnen där?;
lallalò; Rib; (snakker) finsk, lappisk; (speaks) Finnish, Lappish;
lallarốshka; LDj; s, f; finska; Finnish woman; Romani lalero silent;
lállaro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; finne; Finn; dova mosch honkar lallaro
that man is a Finn; Romani lalořo mute, dumb, from Pkt. lalla-
stuttering;
lallaróska; Etz; s; finska, finsk kvinna; Finnish woman;
Lállaro-themm, Lállaro-them uninfl; LDj, Iv; name; Finland äv.
Finnmarken; Finland, also Finnmark; Iv Làllaro-temmen, Làlla-
temmen, Làllar-temmen, Làllerske-temmen, Làlleske-temmen;
lallo; Rib; s; finne, lapp; Finn, Laplander;
lángalo, lánglo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; halt, långsam, ledsam; lame,
limping, slow, sad; devel savi miro grej honkar langalo! heavens my
horse is lame!;
làngla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; halta; limp; Etz langa; Romani langal to
limp, halt, from Skt. laṅg- to limp, halt;
Langstokeren; Etz; namn; Långholmen; Långholmen;
lángstro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lång; long (also of distance); Romani (Sinte)
lang, lengsto long, from Gm. lang long;
lant, -en, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; 1. kortlek, 2. papper, handlingar; 1. deck
of cards, 2. papers, legal documents;
lanter; Etz; s; betyg, tidning; certificate, report, newspaper;
làttja, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; hitta; find; lattja diro klisingen? did you find
the keys? ehe mander lattjade klisningarna kaj! yes, I found the keys
here!; Iv làkja; Romani (Sinte) hačel find, keep, pick up;
láttjo àvridikk uninfl; LDj; s; expr. bra utsikt; expr. nice view;
lattjo bèlven, lattjo bèlving; LDj; interj; god kväll; good evening;
 197

lattjo dìves; LDj; interj; god dag; hello (lit. good day);
lattjo rátti, lattjo ráttia; LDj; interj; god natt; good night;
lattjo tèijsha; LDj; interj; god morgon; good morning;
lattjo tjávo; LDj; uttr; bra kille; nice guy, good guy;
láttjo, láscho, lácho, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. god, fin, bra, 2. snill;
dugende; 1. good, nice, fine, 2. good-natured, sufficient; Iv lákjo,
látjo; Romani lačho good, nice, gracious, kind, capable, friendly,
cheerful, from Skt. lakṣita- marked;
Laùka; Iv; namn; Laura; Laura;
làu-kher; lákko-kher;
Laúkus; Iv; namn; Laurits; Lawrence;
laúso; Iv; s, m; lite hus, stue; small house, cottage;
lav, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; ord; word; mander kammar bistrat lavet! I
have forgotten that word! dolle kammar diro miro lav pre! you have
my word on that!; Romani lafi word, speech, names, from Serbcr.;
lavra; Etz; v; ro; row;
lavre; Rib; s; åre; oar;
làvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; ro (en båt); row (a boat);
lå̀ dda; Iv; v; losjere, bo; lodge, live;
lǻddipa; Iv; s, m; hus; ogs. losji; house; also lodging;
låddipà-penndri; Rib; s; losji-hus; lodging house;
Lå̀ do-fåron; Iv; name; Røros; Røros;
låkki; Rib; adj; ful, lur, innmari, opplagt; sly, cunning, difficult,
mischievous, disposed, obvious;
lǻkki; Iv; s, f; barsel; confinement (childbed);
Lå̀ lo-fåron; Iv; namn; Røros, egl. Rødbyen; Røros, lit. the red town;
lånfara; Etz; v; låna; borrow;
långfaro; Etz; adj; lång; long;
långgast; Etz; s, coll; havre; oats;
lǻngsto, lángsto; Iv; adj; lang, ogs. høg; long, also high;
lå̀ rra; Iv; v; røve, plyndre; rob, plunder;
lå̀ vra; Iv; adj; forlovet; engaged to be married;
låvrepa; Etz; s; löfte; promise;
läckar; Etz; s, pl; gnetter; nits (louse egg);
längtfara; Etz; v; längta; long (for);
lättra; Etz; s; säng; bed;
le, -dde, -tt; LDj; v; 1. ta, ta på sig, 2. gripa, 3. få; 1. take, put on, 2. arrest
3. get; 1. Romani lel take, from Skt. labhate seize;
le káj, lella káj; LDj; uttr; ta här; take (from) here;
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léddik, léaddik, lä́ ddik, -an; LDj; s, r; låda; box; from MLG lade box,
chest;
léddika, léaddika, lä́ ddika, -(n), pl léddiker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; väska,
resväska; bag, luggage; Etz låddika;
lèdra, lètra, lædra; Iv; v; lære; learn; from Sw. lära Norw. lære learn;
lédra, létra, lædra, lædran; Iv; s, m; lærdom; learning;
lei; Iv; s; narr; kjera lei gjøre narr, drive gjøn; fool; in the phrase kjera lei
make fun of, pulling someone’s leg;
leìa; Iv; v; 1. helbrede, kurere, 2. narre, bedrage; 1. heal, cure, 2. dupe,
defraud; cf. laja;
leianò; Rib, Iv; adj; skamfull, undselig; ashamed, embarrassed;
leìar; Iv; s, m; bedrager; impostor;
leíipa; Iv; s, m; bedrageri; juks; fraud; cheating;
leípa; Iv; s, m; brød; ogs. lefse; (loaf of) bread, also esp. of (flat)
bannock;
lekfara; Etz; v; leka; play;
lekk; Iv; s, m; flass i håret; dandruff;
lékkan; Iv; s, m; ledd (i kroppen); joint (in the body);
léngro; LDj; pron; de, deras, dem; they, theirs, them; rakkar diro lengros
rakkrepa? do you speak their language? dikka pre lengro look at
them; Romani lengo poss pron 3pl;
lesht uninfl; LDj; adj/adv; sist; last; Romani lešto last, from Gm. letzt;
léshti, -n, -; LDj; s, r; slida (på kniv); sheath (for knife);
léster, léshter; LDj, Etz; pron; honom; him; Etz lister; Romani lesko
poss pron 3sg m;
lésti, lèsting; Iv; s, m; knivskaft; knife-haft;
létra, lítran; Iv; s, m; lær; leather;
lètta, léttan; Iv; s, m; led(d); link;
li; LDj; pron; hon; she; Romani li pron 3sg f;
lìbbria, lìbbri, lìbbra, -n, pl lìbbrier, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; plånbok,
bok; wallet, book; Etz libri, libria, libra; Romani (Sinte) libro book,
from Romance, cf. It. libbra;
líbri, lébri; Iv; s, f; 1. bok 2. lommebok, tegnebok; 1. book, 2. pocket-
book, wallet; cf. libbria;
lìla; Iv; s, m; tikrone-seddel; ten-krone bill;
lìlje; Iv; s, f; vise, sang; ditty, tune, song;
lill, -et, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz; s, n; brev, betyg, sedel, handlingar av olika
slag; letter, certificate, report, documents of different kinds; Romani
lil paper, letter, document, book, from Skt. likhita, to likh- write;
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líller, lìller, -et, -, -era; LDj; s, n; betyg, handling, papper; certificate,

report, paper; sikkra drabbeske-moschen lillera! show the teacher
your grades! kammar diro lill pre voddron palla diro tjakkes bekkna
dova? do you have the papers for the car in case you want to sell it?;
lìll-kher, lilliske-khér, -et/-(e)n; LDj; s, n; post; mail;
linder; Etz; s, coll; papper; papers;
lìndra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; låna; borrow; lindra diro butt ninna lover pre
loveske-khern? did you borrow a lot of money from the bank?; from
Gm. lihen, MHG līhen borrow;
lìndrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; lån; loan;
líster, lìstkri, lìskri; LDj; pron; henne; her;
lístjo, líshto, -t, -r, -na; LDj; s, n; ansikte; face; dikka mander an listjo!
look ak my face! (look me in the eyes); from Slavic, cf. Ru. litsó face,
person;
lìttran, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz; s, n; skjul, bod, äv. säng; shed,
storehouse, also bed; from Sw. lider shed; Etz littra;
lo; LDj, Etz, Iv; pron; han, honom, hon, henne; he, him, she, her; lo
nashtar rakkrar butt ninna romani he speaks a lot of Romani; Romani
lo pron 3sg m;
lóchano, lóshano, lóshalo, láchano, láschano, láshano, -t, -a; LDj; adj;
glad, lycklig, äv. kär; glad, happy, also: in love; mander honkar
lachano te pre dromen tradra I am glad to be travelling on this road,
laschano an lister (he is) in love with her; Romani lošanel be happy,
(Kale) loxano happy, Romani loš joy, from Skt. roca- light;
lòchanopa, làschanopa, làshanopa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; glädje; joy; Iv
lǻsjipa (m);
lòchanopa, làschanopa, làshanopa, -t; LDj; s, n; glädje; joy;
lodd, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; 1. husrum, nattlogi, 2. hus; 1. housing,
night quarters, 2. house; Romani lodepen bivouac, overnight
accommodation, hostel, lodging, harbourage, lodel to camp, from Skt.
lagyati join;
lòddepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib; s, n; husrum, nattlogi, lägerplats;
housing, night quarters, camp site; kaj bliddrar jekh fedi loddepa this
will be a fine camp site; cf. lodd;
lòddni, -t; LDj; s, n; husrum; housing;
lokk, -en, -ar, -arna; lòkke, -n, pl lòkkar/lòkker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r;
krona; krona (coin); cf. lokki;
lokki, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lätt; easy; Romani lokho easy, minor, slow, from
Skt. laghu- light;
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lòkko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; polis, länsman, kronofogde; police, head
of the county constabulary, head of enforcement district; lokkon
honkar lakk pre tjoron the policeman is angry at the thief;
lòkko-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; polisstation, länsmansgård;
police station, estate of the head of the county constabulary;
lốllo, lólo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; röd; red; Iv lǻllo, lǻlo, lǻno; Romani lolo
red, from Skt. lohita-;
lốllodji, pl -er; LDj; s; blomma; flower;
lóndrano, lòndrano, lóndro, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; salt; salted, salty; londri
sellvani salt herring; Iv lå̀ ndro;
lonn, lond, -et; s, n; salt; salt; Romani lon salt, from Skt. lavana-;
lònna, lòndra, -(de) -t; LDj, Etz; v; salta; salt; sprinkle with salt; Etz
lånda;
lósto, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; kätte, svinstia; pen, pigpen; pigsty; kaj dikkas
vri tjakke jekh losto it looks like a pigsty in here;
lovalejt; Etz; s; luffare; hobo;
lốva, -; LDj; s; peng, slant; coin; kammar diro jekh lova to nukkon? do
you have a coin for the child?; Romani love money, from Skt loha-
metal, copper;
lốver, lốve, lốvier, lốviar, -na; LDj, Rib; s, pl; pengar; money; sikkra tji
loviarna! don’t show your money! butt ninna lover a lot of money;
lovi; Romani lovo coin, (in pl): money;
lóverske-ponta, lòverske-ponta; Iv; s, m; pengepung; purse;
lôveske-kárto, -t; lôveske-kártli, -t/-a; lôve-kártli, -t/-a; lôve-kárto, -t;
lôviske-kárto, -t; lôviske-kártli, -t/-a; lôvi-kártli, -t/-a; LDj; s, n/r;
bankomatkort; ATM card;
lôveske-khér, lồvi-kher, -en; LDj; s, r; bank; bank;
lôveske-líll, -et, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; räkning;
lôveske-prím, -, -s, -s; LDj; s; pengapung, börs; money pouch, purse;
lovie-libbri; Rib; s; pengebok; wallet; Iv lòvieske-libri;
lovien; Etz; s, def; slanten, pengen; the coin;
lòvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; lova; promise;
lúbbni-manish, -et; LDj; s, n; horaktiga människor, horfolk; whore-like
people, lit. whore-people;
lubbnipà; Rib; s; horeri; whoring;
lubniparo; Etz; s; man, som är begiven på kvinnor; man who is (a little
too) keen on women;
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lubnitjinn; Etz; s; horemärke; knivärr i ansiktet, som en man (eller

kvinna) fått, därför att han (hon) varit otrogen; whore mark, facial
knife scar that a man (or woman) was given for infidelity;
Ludívis, Lúdo, Lúkken; Iv; namn; Ludvig; Lewis;
lùdra; Iv; v; lodde (metall); solder;
lull; Iv; s, m; skurv; scurf, exfoliation, dandruff;
lùllalo; Iv; adj; skurvet; scurfy, flaky (skin);
lùmma, -n; LDj; s, n; glödlampa; light bulb; Romani lumina, lumja light,
from Romance, cf. Lat. lūmen, OFr. lum light, Romanian lumina;
lúmni, lúbbni, lùbba, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, f; hora,
gatflicka; whore, street girl; Rib: blubbe; Iv núbli, lúgni (f) skjøke;
strumpet; Romani lubni prostitute, from Skt. lubhya- be desirous;
lunsa; Etz; v; höra; hear;
lùnta, lùnte; Iv; s, m, f; klut, fille, ogs. bind; rag, tatter, also bandage;
lùppra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lova; promise; from Gm. *lub, MHG erluoben
promise;
luttra; Etz; v; ljuga; lie;
lytara; Etz; v; lyda; obey;

M
ma, mo uninfl; LDj; negpart; inte!; not!; Romani ma (negpart) not
(before imperative);
mackepa; Etz; s; smörjning (emot eng. sjukan); anointing (against
rickets);
màgra, màggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; förstöra, bryta, ha sönder; destroy,
break, cause to break; cf. pagra;
maj, -en; Etz; s; kvinna; woman;
mákhi, -n, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; fluga; fly; devel, lengro makhi! heavens,
these flies!; Romani makh fly, from Skt. makṣikā-;
màkja-ral; Iv; s, m; fiskekrok; fish-hook;
màkjo-ranja, màkjo-rela; Iv; s, m; fiskestang; fishing rod;
màkjoske-bero; Iv; s, m; fiskerbåt; fishing boat;
màkjo-tav; Iv; s, m; fiskesnøre; fishing line;
makka; Rib; s; smör; butter;
màkka, màkkla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; smörja; rub in (with oil); Romani
makhel to smear, grease, from Skt. mrakṣ- smear;
makkipà; Rib; s; smurning; grease, ski wax;
màkkling, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; tavla; painting; cf. makka;
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makúrja; Etz; s; gift, förgiftning; poison, poisoning;

mal; Iv; s, m; venn, kamerat; friend, comrade;
mala; Etz; adj; snäll, god, gott, väl; kind, good, well;
mấla, mála uninfl; LDj; s; vän, vän med, sams; friend, friends with, on
good terms; Kevin honkar miro mala Kevin is my friend, honka mala,
tjavoar tji omala! be friends boys, not enemies!; Romani mal
companion, associate, fellow, friend, from Pers., cf. Pasht. mal;
mấlano, málano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; vänlig, snäll; friendly, kind;
mànder, mànde; LDj, Iv; pers pron; jag, mig; I, me; Iv mánder; Romani
me pers pron 1sg; locsg mande;
mànders; LDj, Iv; poss pron; min, mitt, mina; my, mine; cf. mander;
màndrom; LDj; pers pron; jag; I; cf. mander;
màndroms; LDj; poss pron; min, mitt, mina; my, mine; cf. mander;
mànga, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. tigga, be, 2. be (om bön); 1. beg, ask for, 2.
pray; Romani mangel beg, ask for, claim, demand, desire, from Skt.
mārg- seek, wish for;
màngare, -n, -, def pl màngarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; tiggare; beggar; honkar
grekkot pala mangare tjakke nanit kammar it’s a shame about the
beggar that has nothing; Iv màngar; cf. manga;
màngar-kher, -et; LDj; s, n; socialen; social services, any welfare office;
mangars-kaben; Rib; s; tigge-mat; begged food;
mangars-rakklo; Rib; s; tiggergutt; beggar boy;
màngaske-stamlo; Iv; s, m; alter, egl. bedeskammel; altar, lit. praying-
stool;
mángen; uninfl; LDj; i uttr. ja pre mangen gå och tigga, gå på bommen;
expr. ja pre mangen go around begging;
mangfara; Etz; v; bedja; beg;
mangipà; Rib, Iv; s; tigging; begging; Iv mángipa;
mánser, mànser, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; människor, folk; humans, people;
ashar butt ninna manser dre foron (there) are many people in the city;
cf. manusch;
mànshli, mànskli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; kvinna, fruntimmer;
woman, female;
mánsklo, mànsklo, mànshlo, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, m; man, karl;
man, fellow; cf. manusch;
mànsni-håfsa; Iv; s, m; underbukse for kvinner; women’s drawers;
mànusch, manúsch, manísh, mànuch, mànish, -et/-ut; LDj, Etz; s, pl;
människor, folk; people (humans), people (ethnicity); romani-
manusch, ste oppri ta honka bunoa ta soraloa gla honka attjer jekh
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savot schukkranot manusch! ladja tji! Romani people, stand up and be

strong and proud of being (part) of such a beautiful people! Dont be
ashamed!; Etz mansj, manysj, Iv mánus; Romani manuš human,
man, from Skt. mānuṣa- human being;
manusj; Rib; s; mann, menneske; man, human;
manusjni; Rib, Iv; s; kvinne; woman; Iv manúsjni, mànusjni;
marồkka, márrokka, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; padda, groda; toad, frog;
from Skt. maṇḍūka- frog;
mara; Rib; v, s; skreppe; boast, knapsack, kitbag;
màra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; slakta; butcher; Iv marra; Romani marel kill,
murder, butcher, beat, thresh, from Skt. mārayati kill;
marare; Etz; s; slaktare; butcher;
marepa, merepa(r); Etz; s; slakt; slaughter;
Márken; Iv; name; Marie; Mary;
màrkli; mö̀ rkli;
márkli, màrkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; brödkaka, småbröd,
skorpa; round loaf (bread), biscuit, rusk; Romani marikli cake;
marmo; KIH; s; själ, ande; soul, spirit;
máro, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj, Iv; s, n; bröd; bread, loaf of bread;
Romani manřo bread, from Skt. maṇḍa- froth from boiled rice;
màro-bekk, -(n), pl -bekker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; brödbit; piece of bread;
marobåtta; Etz; s; brödbit; piece of bread;
màro-fakkar; Iv; s, m; baker, egl. brød-maker; baker, lit. bread-maker;
marohispa; Etz; s; brödstuga, sommarstuga; bakehouse, summer cottage;
maro-kjuro; Rib; s; bröd-kniv; bread knife;
màro-nejtja, -(n), pl -nejtjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; brödsmula; bread
crumb; Etz maronejta;
màr-pina, -(n), pl -piner, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. grimma till häst, 2
knivärr ( i ansiktet); 1. halter (for horses) 2. knife scar (in face); Iv
màr-pine (f), màr-pinja, màr-prima; from Sw. Dial. marr mare, and
pinne stick, or pina pain;
màseske-göye; Iv; s, f; kjøttpølse; sausage;
màsja; Iv; v; fryse; freeze, be cold;
masja-pani; Rib; s; fiske-vatn; fishing waters (fishing lake);
masja-sani; Rib; s; fiske-suppe; fish soup;
maskán, -; màska, màskra, -(n), pl màsker, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r;
katt; cat; Etz masjka, Rib pl masknar, Iv másjkan, máska, máskan,
máskar; Romani mačka cat, from Serbcr. mačka;
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másker, màsker, màskral, màskra, màskran; LDj; prep/adv; mellan;

between; Romani maškar between, in the middle of, amongst, from
Skt. madhya- middle;
mass, -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; kött; meat; Romani mas meat, from Skt. māṃsa-;
màss-bekk, -et; LDj; s, n; köttbit; piece of meat;
masseske-mérkler, màss-merkler, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; köttbullar;
meatballs;
màss-nejtla, -(n), pl nejtler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; köttbit; piece of meat;
màss-sani, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; köttsoppa; meat soup,
meat broth; tjerva mass-sani make (boil) meat soup; Rib massiske-
sani, Iv màseske-sani;
matter; Etz; s; moder; mother;
matti; Etz; s, märr; mare;
màttja, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, Iv; v; fiska, meta; fish, angle; Rib masja, Iv
màkja; cf. mattjo;
màttjare, -n, -, def pl màttjarna; LDj; s, m; fiskare; fisherman;
mattjaskiro; Etz; s; stadsfiskal; public prosecutor;
mattjeske-rànja, -t, -; -raj, -et; LDj; s, n; fiskespö; fishing rod;
máttjo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; fisk; fish; savo baro mattjo diro
ledde oppri! what a big fish you reeled up! Iv mákjo; Romani mačho
fish, from Skt. matsya-;
mattjoläddika; Etz; s; fisklåda; tackle box;
mátto, mótto, -a; LDj; adj; trött, utmattad, slutkörd, berusad; tired,
exhausted, run down, intoxicated; miro grej honkar butt matto an
dives my horse is tired today, honkar voddron matto? jar dova tji? is
the car run down? doesn’t it work?; Romani mato intoxicated, drunk,
boozy, from Skt. matta- delighted, intoxicated;
måddra; Etz; v; må; feel;
måggi, målga; KIH; s; väderkvarn; wind-mill;
måll; Etz; adj; värd, worth;
mållano; Rib; adj; kostbar; valuable, expensive;
målske; Etz; s; smeknamn i bet. bra, hygglig pojke; nickname meaning
good, decent boy;
målvaris; Etz, Rib, Iv; s; tenn; tin; Rib mållvaris, Iv mǻlboris, mǻllavis;
måndacken, måndackon; Etz; s, def; månen; the moon;
månónomen; Etz; s, def; månen; the moon;
må̀ nsing; Iv; s, m; Gaunersprache; beggars' language;
månter; Etz; s; månad; month;
måntfössingar; Etz; s, pl; vantar; mittens;
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mårrondacken; Etz; s; morgon; morning;

må̀ rti; Iv; s, f; hud, skinn; hide, skin;
måsjtatjärvare; Etz; s; kaffekokare; coffee maker;
måsker; Etz; s; landsfiskal; district police superintendent (and public
prosecutor);
må̀ skro-lil; Iv; s, m; politipass; passport of police;
måstastädo; Etz; s; café; café, coffee house;
måstfara; Etz; v; måste; must;
måttin; Etz; s; (djur)hud; animal hide, pelt;
mängi; Etz; adj; lumpig, trasig; ragged, torn, tattered;
mèrske-diklo; Iv; s, m; halstørkle; bandanda, neckerchief;
méripa; Iv; s, m; drap; murder;
mérist; Iv; s, m; 1. en militær (både om menig og officer), 2.
statsfunksjonær (av alle slag); 1. a military man (both of common
soldier and officer), 2. state official (of all kinds);
mèkka, mìkka; Iv; v; smøre; smear;
mékkipa, míkkipa; Iv; s, m; smurning, ogs. fettstoff i det hele; i
sjøbygdene på Vestlandet dessuten brukt om tjære og bek; grease, also
fats in general; in the western sea-districts also used of tar and pitch;
mèkksta, màkksa, màkkstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kosta; cost; from MLG
maken do;
mélano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; smutsig, skitig, lortig; dirty, soiled, gritty; cf.
melo; Romani melalo dirty;
mélo, -n; LDj; s, r; penis; penis; Romani mel dirt, dust, from Skt. mala-
dirt;
mélon uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; underlivet, penis; genitals, penis;
men, -, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s; hals; throat; Iv mern (m); Romani men
neck, throat, from Skt. manyā- neck;
meneske-díkklo, mèn-dikklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; halsduk;
scarf;
mèngar, mènjar; Iv; s, m; doktor; doctor;
mèngare, -n, -, def pl mèngarna; LDj; s, m; lumpsamlare, beteckning på
resande; ragman, term for Travellers;
mènge; Iv; s, f; bind; bandage;
ménger, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; trasor, lump, skrot; rags, scrap metal, junk;
mengeske-vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; skrotvagn, skrotbil, lastbil; truck, scrap
car, scrap wagon, junk wagon;
mèngnar; Rib; s; lege; doctor;
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mèngra, mènga, -(de), -t; LDj; v; arbeta; work; mengra nani an mul
tjavo! don’t work yourself to death, boy!; from Rotw. Meng tinker;
mèngrare, mä̀ ngare, -n, -, def pl mèngarna; LDj; s, m; arbetare;
worker;
mèngrar-manuch, mä̀ ngar-manish, -et; LDj; s, n; arbetare, eg.
arbetsfolk; workers (lit. working people);
mèngrepa, mèngepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz; s, n; arbete; job;
mèra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. slakta, 2. drepe; 1. butcher, 2. kill;
Romani marel beat, kill, from Skt. māraya-;
mèrare, mä̀ rarle, -n, -, def pl merarna; LDj, Etz; s, m; slaktare;
butcher; Etz märare;
mèrepa, mèrrepa, mä̀ repa, -n; LDj; s, r; slakt; slaughter; cf. mera;
mererí, märerí, -(e)t, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, n; slakthus, slakteributik;
butcher’s;
mèrja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ha samlag; have intercourse;
mès-kil; Iv; s, n; mys(e)smør; whey butter;
mía, mìlja uninfl; LDj, Rib, Iv; s; mil; Swedish mile (10 km); honkar
durit to manders kher, desch-u-trin milja it’s a long way home to me,
13 miles (130 km); Rib mian; Iv mìja, míljan; Romani mija
thousand, mile, from Gr. mília mile;
miák, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. ond, arg, elak, 2. vond, smertefull; 1. evil,
angry, mean, 2. bad, painful; honka tji miak, honka malano! don’t be
so mean, be nice!; Iv míak, míjek; Romani midžax evil, bad, wrong,
mean, form Skt. mithyā invertedly, wrongly;
middacken; Etz; s, def; middagen; the dinner;
miepa, miepar; Etz, Iv; s; 1. otur, olycka, ont, 2. noe vondt, leitt; 1. bad
luck, misfortune, harm, 2. something bad, awkward; Iv míjipa (m)
noe vondt, leitt; something bad, awkward; cf. miak;
mikkolì; Rib; s; symaskin; sewing machine;
mìldra; Iv; v; dele; divide;
mìnka, -n, pl mìnker, -na; LDj; s, r; klocka, armklocka; clock, watch;
miraskiron; Etz; s; morgon, dager; morning, dawn;
míro; LDj, Etz; poss/pers pron; min, mig, jag; mine, me, I; Romani miro,
pron 1sg;
míros; LDj; poss pron; min, mitt, mina; my, mine; Iv míros, mìros,
méros, mèros;
mirum; Etz; pers pron; jag, mig; I, me;
mislo, misnoss; Etz; pers pron; jag, mig, min; I, me, mine;
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místjo, mýshto; LDj; interj, adj; 1. okej, javisst, korrekt 2. klok, slug,
förståndig; 1. okay, sure, correct, 2. wise, cunning, sensible; Romani
mišto good, usable, useful, appropriate, from Skt. miṣṭa- sweet;
mjöltravare; Etz; s; föraktfull benämning på landstrykare av annat blod
och äv. fattiga stamfränder, som saknade häst och vagn el. bil och gick
med dragkärra el. påse i byarna; contemptious name for vagabonds of
other blood and poor travellers without a horse and carriage or car,
who walked the communities with a pulled cart or a bag;
mjúkra; Iv; adj; mjuk; limber, soft;
moj, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; mun; mouth; mander kammar
dukk an mojen my mouth hurts, penta mojen! shut your mouth!;
Romani mui mouth, face, from Skt. mukha- mouth, face;
mokka; Rib; v; låne; borrow;
moktel; KIH, Rib, Iv; s; tin, box; boks, dåse, eske; tin, box; Rib mokti;
Iv mòktel, mǻkti, må̀ kting;
mòl-boris, -et -ar -arna; LDj; s, n; hov; hoof;
mólder, mòlder, defsg móldret; LDj; s, n; tenn; tin; cf. molina;
moldring; Etz; s; bly, tenn; lead, tin;
molína, molìna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; förtenna; tin; Romani molivi tin, lead,
from Gr. molúbi;
molinare; Etz; s; förtennare; tinner;
moll, -en; LDj; s, r; vin; wine; Romani mol wine, form Skt. madhu-
sweet;
mòlla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kosta, vara värd; cost, be worth; so pattjar diro
lengros minka molla? how much do you think their clock/watch is
worth? Romani mol (be) worth, from Skt. maulya- being at the root,
price;
mòllepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Iv; s, n; pris; price; Iv mǻllipa;
molvấris, molvaríst, mollivaríst, -en, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, m;
förtennare; tinner; cf. molina;
molvaríssa, molvariséra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; förtenna; tin; miro
dejeske-dad molvarissa butt my grandfather tinned often; Iv
malvarísa;
molvína, -t; LDj, Etz; s, n; tenn; tin; Etz mulvina, målvina;
mómali, -t, -(n), -na; LDj; s, n; ljus, lyse; light, light (on bike or car);
mómmali, mámmoli, múmmali, -a, -er, -en; LDj, Iv; s, n; 1.
stearinljus, lampa, 2. talglys, vokslys 3. fyrstikk; 1. candle, lamp, 2.
tallow-candle, wax-candle, 3. (safety) match; Romani mom wax,
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candle wax, (new, but uncommon:) candle; momeli candle, light, from
Arm. momelēn of wax;
mòmmali-pani, -t; LDj; s, n; lampvätska, fotogen, bensin; lamp oil,
kerosene, petrol;
móntis, mòntis, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; måndag, månad, menstruation;
Monday, month, menstruation; an dives honkar montis it is Monday
today, kammar diro montis? are you menstruating?; from Gm. Montag
Monday;
mórchti, -n; LDj; s, r; hud, skinn; hide, skin; Romani morćhi leather,
skin, fur, bantling, from Arm. morth;
morføy; KIH, Etz, Iv; s; morgon; morning; Etz mårfåjin, Iv må̀ rfei,
må̀ rføy, må̀ rføyr (tidlig) morgen; (early) morning;
mórshta, mòshta, mósta, mòrsta, mórsta, múshta, mùshta, músta, -t;
LDj, Etz, Etz, Rib; s, n; kaffe; coffee; bescha pre morshta to ghana
karna dova avar put some coffee on for the people when they come;
KIH monschta, monsta, Etz måsjta, måsta Rib mosjta; from Fi.
musta black;
mòrshta-beda, -bedda, mùsta-bädda, -(n), pl -bèder, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s,
r; kaffekopp; coffee cup; Etz mosjtabädda, musjtabädda,
måsjtabädda;
mòrshta-pannika, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; kaffepanna;
coffeepot; Etz måsjtapannelika;
mosch, much, mush, mosh, moch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, m; 1.
man, karl, 2. gubbe, ungkar (enkemann); 1. man, fellow, 2. old man,
bachelor (widower); Iv mors, moss, mosj; Romani murš man, fellow;
mosjeske-håfsa; Iv; s, m; underbukse (for menn); drawers (for men);
mosjn-kåkkaro; Iv; s, m; vaktmester; forstander, sjef, egl. mannen sjøl;
caretaker; warden, manager, lit. the man himself;
mosjta-paggra; Rib; kaffe-brekker; coffee mill;
mosjta-rampa; Rib; s; kaffe-grut; coffee grounds;
mòskro, -n, -r, -na; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, m; 1. polis, 2. länsman, 3.
landsfiskal; 1. policeman, 2. bailiff, head of the county constabulary,
3. district police superintendent (and public prosecutor); Romani
moskêro mayor, policeman, constable, (uncommonly) priest;
mòskro-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; polisbil; police car;
mossa, mussa; Etz; v; kyssa; kiss; cf. moj;
mòsta-målga, mòsjta-målga, mòsta-måggi, mòsjta-måggi; Iv; s, m;
kaffekvern; coffee-grinder;
mòstula; LDj; v; måste; must, have to; from Sw. måste have to;
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motjíll, matjíll; LDj, Etz; interj; låt bli! var tyst!; leave that alone!
(stop!), be quiet!; Etz ma tjill;
motjílla, motjílla; LDj; interj; tyst! ta det lugnt!; quiet!, take it easy!;
móttjo, -n; mòffti, -a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; ask, dosa; box; Etz
mufti, måfti, måkti;
möligan; Etz; s; kvarn; mill;
mö́ rkli, màrkli; LDj; s, pl; kakor, småkakor, skorpor; cookies, rusks;
markli ta morshta ashar lattjot cookies and coffee are good;
mötfara; Etz; v; möta; meet;
múkhalo, múkkalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj, s; fri, frihet; free, freedom; lattjot te
diro honkar mukhalo an jiben! great that you have a free life!; cf.
mukka;
mukk uninfl; LDj; adj; fri; free; cf. mukka
mùkka, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; 1. bli fri, 2. släppa, 3. sluta, 4. slippa, 5. låne
(til); 1. become free, 2. let go, release, 3. stop, 4. escape, not need (to),
be spared (from), 5. lend; Romani mukel set free, free someone, let
(go), leave, from Skt. muc- release;
mùkkepa, -n; LDj; s, r; frihet; freedom; pre dromen honkar dolle
mukkepa there is freedom on the road; cf. mukka;
mul; Etz, Rib; adv; 1. i uttr. i mul ihjäl, 2. död; 1. in expr. i mul to death,
2. dead; cf. mulo;
mulấni, -n, -, -na; LDj; s, r; spöke; ghost; ashar diro trach gla mulani?
are you scared of ghosts?
mùla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. dö, 2. döda, förstöra; 1. die, 2. kill, destroy; 1.
mengrar tji savo butt diro mular! don’t work so much, you’ll die!; 2.
mula tji dova tikknoa kirorna, dova honkar mala! don’t kill the small
ants, they’re nice!; cf. mulo;
mùlepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; 1. mord, 2. döden; 1. murder, 2. death; 1.
an vago dives honka jekh mulepa an foron there was a murder in town
yesterday; 2. rakkra tji palla mulepa don’t talk about death; Etz
mulopa, Rib mulipà; cf. mulo;
mulipà-gål; Rib; s; døds-skrik; death cry;
múlo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; död; dead; KIH mulan; Romani mulo dead
person, ghost, from Skt. mṛta- dead;
múlo-kher, muloske-khér, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kyrkogård;
cemetary, burial ground, churchyard;
mùltra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; växla; change; cf. molla;
mulvinare, målvinare; Etz; s; förtennare; tinner;
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múro, mùrro, -t, pl -r/-ar/mùrron, -arna/-a/-en; LDj, Iv; s, n; bär,

lingon; berry, lingonberry; Iv mùrel, mùril, mùring (m), pl mùrnar,
mùrvar; Romani mura berry, fromRomanian mură;
mùsching, mùssing, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; arm, ärm; arm,
sleeve; Rib mussi; cf. muscho;
múscho, músso, múschi, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; arm, ärm; arm,
sleeve; Iv músjlo; Romani musi arm, hand, from Skt. muṣṭi- clenched
hand, fist;
múskro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; kalv; calf; Etz muskarón; Romani
muskari (Buffaloo) calf, from Gr. moskhádi;
mùskro-mass, -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; kalvkött; veal; Iv múskro-mas;
mussar; Etz; s, pl; kyssar; kisses;
mùssin; Iv; s, pl; muskler; muscles;
mùsta-bobber, mòrshta-bobber, -na; LDj; s, pl; kaffebönor; coffee
beans;
mutjíl, måtjíl, måtjill, måtjilla; Etz; interj; låt bli!; don’t!, stop!, leave
that alone!;
mútter, múttjer, defsg múttret; LDj; s, n; urin; urine; Romani muter
urine, from Skt. mūtra-;
mùtter-tero, -a; LDj; adj; kissnödig; in need to pee;
mùttra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kasta vatten, pissa; take a leak, pee;
mỳnscha, mìnsha, -(n), pl mỳnscher, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, f; vulva,
cunnus; vulva, cunnus; Romani mindž cunnus; Etz minsj, Iv mìnsje;
mỳnsche-skre, mìnshe-skre, -n; LDj; s, r; könssjukdom; veneral disease;

N
nā̀ cha, nā̀ sha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. springa, 2. fly, rymma; 1. run, 2.
escape, run away; Romani našel run, hurry, escape, run away, from
Skt. naś-ya- run away;
nā̀ chare, nā̀ share, -n, -, def pl nā̀ scharna; LDj, Iv; s, r; rymmare;
runaway, fugitive; Iv nàsjar;
nā́ chen, nā́ shen uninfl; LDj; s, def; i uttr. pre nachen på rymmen;in
expr.. pre nachen on the run; lo asha pre nachen helko tatto-tia he
was on the run all summer;
nấni, nấnit; LDj; adv; inte ingenting; not, nothing; mander janar nanit
pala dova I don’t know anything about it, ja nani avri! don’t go out!;
Romani nane is not, no;
naben; Rib; interj; nei; no;
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nacka; Etz; s; nål; needle;

nackdycklo; Etz; s; näsduk; handkerchief;
nadd; KIH; s; favus, skurv (hudsjukdom); favus, scurf (skin skin
ailment);
nadda; KIH, Iv; v; 1. scratch, 2. klore; 1. scratch, 2. claw; Iv nàdda;
naj, -en, -, def pl najerna; LDj; s, r; nagel, tå; nail, toe; kakkla najerna
cut your nails; KIH negus; Romani naj fingernail, toenail, finger,
from Skt. nakha- nail;
nakk, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; snus; snus; cf. nakkus;
nàkka, -(de), -t; LDj; v; snusa; to use snus; cf. nakk;
nàkkepa, -t; LDj, Rib; s, n; snus; snus; Rib nàkkipà; cf. nakk;
nàkkus, nákk, -en, -ar, -arna; násika, -n, pl násiker, -na; LDJ, Etz,
Rib; s, r; näsa; nose; Etz nasik, snasiken (defsg), Rib nàk; Romani
nakh nose, beak, trunk, from Skt. *nakka- nose;
náklo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; naken, fattig; naked, poor; isa diro, diro honkar
naklo! put some clothes on, you’re naked! Romani nango naked, bare,
bald, from Skt. nagna- naked;
namen; Etz; interj, adv; nej, inte; no, not; cf. Sw. nämen no, but;
nànda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; bada; bathe; Romani najarel to bathe, from Skt.
snā- to bathe;
nandeske-hòffser; LDj; s, pl; badbyxor; swimming trunks;
nầne; LDj; adv; inget; nothing, no; Romani nane is not, no;
nane, nani; Etz; interj, adv; nej, inte; no, not; cf. nâne;
nấni, nấnit; adv; not, nothing;
nangni; Etz; adj; naken, fattig; naked, poor;
nángno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; 1. naken, oklädd, 2. fattig, 3. mager; 1.
naked, undressed, 2. poor, 3. meager; Romani nango naked, bare,
bald;
nangnohispa; Etz; s; fattighus; poorhouse;
nàngno-kher, -n; LDj; s, r; socialen, fattighus; social services,
poorhouse; nangnot manusch fysher ja to nangno-khern poor people
go to social services;
nángsto, -t, -a; LDj; adj; naken, bar; naked, bare; cf. nangno;
nàrta, nàta, -(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; släkt, familj, stam; family,
lineage; attjer horta narta of true/pure lineage, miro narta honkar
baro my family is big; Romani narodo people, from Skt. nara- man,
pl people, alt. Serbcr. narod people;
nárvalo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; 1. fattig, 2. dårlig, skrøpelig, ussel; 1. poor,
2. bad, frail, lousy; ghana honkar narvaloa, dova kammar tji voddro
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the people are poor, they have no car; Romani nasvalo, nasul poor,
miserable, meager; Iv nàrvalo, nàrvano;
nàschta, nàshta, nàchta, nàsta, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v, aux; 1. (v) orka,
klara, 2. (aux) ska, kan; 1. (v) muster, manage, 2. (auxiliary) will, can;
Iv nàsjta, nàsjla;
nasja; Etz; v; springa, skynda, rymma; run, hurry, escape; cf. nacha;
nasjapri; Rib; uttr; gå løs på; go for (attack);
nasjen; Etz; s; i uttr. pre nasjen på flykt, på rymmarstråt; in expr. pre
nasjen on the run; cf. nacha;
nasjipan; Rib; s, def; flukten; the escape, the getaway;
nasjta; Etz; v; hjälpa; help;
nàsjta; Iv; v; måtte; have to, must;
násvalo, nàsvalo; Iv; adj; sjuk; sick, ill; cf. narvalo;
nater, pl natar; Etz; s; släkting; relative;
nàti; Iv; adj; gjerrig, knipen; greedy, stingy;
nav, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; namn; name; Romani nav name, from Skt.
nāman- name;
navlo; KIH; adj; oskyldig, naiv, godtrogen; innocent, naive; Romani
(Sinte) narvalo, narbalo foolish, stupid, from Gm. Narr fool;
nåntis; Etz; pron; någon; somebody, anybody;
nåsjlo, nåsjalo; Etz, Rib; adj; 1. dålig, 2. beskjeden, nedtrykt, sørgmodig;
1. bad, 2. unassuming, oppressed, melancholy; cf. narvalo;
nå̀ sjalo, nǻsjalo; Iv; adj; ille til mote, lei (for); sad, depressed, sorry for
(something); cf. narvalo;
nägglo; Etz; s; igelkott; hedgehog;
närsto; Etz; adv; nära; near;
nèvo-rub; Iv; s, n, m; nysølv; German silver, nickel silver;
nèvo-tudd; Iv; s, f; nysilt mjølk, egl. nymjølk; unskimmed milk, lit. new-
milk;
négus; Iv; s, m; negl; nail (on the body); cf. naj;
neita; KIH, Iv; v; gifta sig; marry;
néjta, níta, nèjta, nèjtja, nä̀ jtja, -(n), pl nèjter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; smula,
bit; crumb, bit; dova dokka tji mander jekh nejta gla mengrepat to
mander they didn’t give me so much as crumb for my work; nejtan
the garden plot;
nèkkra, nä̀ kkra -(de), -t; LDj; v; neka; deny; from Sw. neka deny;
nèrride, nèrrider, nä̀ rrider; LDj; adv; nära, vid, närmare; close, by,
closer;
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nérvalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; nervsjuk, nervös; neurotic, nervous; cf. narvalo,
also influenced by Sw. nervsjuk neurotic;
névo, névro, -t, -a; LDj, Rib, Iv; adj; 1. ny, 2. fersk; 1. new, 2. fresh;
tjinna diro dova nevoa voddro? did you buy the new car? lattjot nevot
basht! happy New Year!; Romani nevo new, from Skt. nava- new;
nèvo-basht, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; nyår; New Year; Iv nèvo-bærsj;
niga; Etz; adv; nära; near, close to;
níi; LDj; adv; nu; now; cf. ninna;
níjal, nílja, -en, -er -erna; LDj; s, r; sommar; summer; Romani milaj
summer, from Skt. nidāgha- heat;
níkli, níklia, níklos; LDj; adv; borta, ner, nere; off, away, down; likely
from Romani nikjovel to go out, from Skt. *niṣkal- come out;
nìkli-besja; Iv; v; bortsette (særlig barn på en gård); put out to lodge and
board (esp. children on a farm);
nìkli-leia; Iv; adj (pst ptc); bortskjemt; indulged, spoiled;
nìnna; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; prep, adv, konj; 1. (prep, adv) med, 2. (conj)
men, 3. (adv) hit, här, 4. (adv) nu, 5. (prep, adv) till, 6. da, 7. straks; 1.
(prep, adv) with, 2. (conj) but 3. (adv) here, 4. (adv) now, 5. (prep,
adv) to, 6. then, 7. soon; 1. tjingra ninna tjuro! cut with the knife!, 2.
mander ster andre ninna miro phral ster avri ta biddrar pre mander
I’m standing inside, but my brother is outside waiting for me; Romani
(Sinte) nina also; na now, well, from Gr. nun now;
nìtja, nìta, nèjta, -a(n), pl nìtjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; 1. fält, åker, 2.
mark, 3. äng; 1. field, tilled field, 2. grounds 3. meadow; Etz nita,
nitan;
nòbba, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; neka; deny; Etz noba; from Rotw. nobis
nothing;
Nor-temmen; Iv; name; Nordland; Nordland;
nøkka; KIH, Rib; ta; take;
nubli; KIH; s; hora, prostituerad; whore, prostitute; cf. lubbni;
núkko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; barn, unge; child, kid; nukkon golar
gla li kammar tji tudd the child is screaming because she’s not getting
any milk; Etz nycko; from Fi. nuke doll;
nukkoske-kàben, -; LDj; s, r; barnmat; baby food;
nùtta, nùttja, -(n), pl nùtter, -(n)a; LDj, KIH; s, r; tröja, kofta; sweater,
cardigan; from Fi. nuttu sweater, cardigan;
nutters, nuttis; Etz; adv; nu; now; from Sw. nu now;

O
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ồbahi, ồbakk; LDj; uninfl; s.; otur; bad luck;

ồbahitalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; olycklig.; miserable, unlucky;
ókto, òkto, òkhto, òhto; LDj, Rib; num; åtta; eight; Rib åkta; Romani
oxto eight, from Gr. oktṓ;
ongslo; Etz; adj; ung; young; from Sw. ung young;
ồlattjano, ồloschano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; olycklig; miserable;
ồlattjo, ồlascho, -t, -a; LDj; adj; otrevlig; unpleasant, unfriendly;
òppre; LDj; adv; upp, uppe; up(ward), up; from Sw. upp up;
oppreál; LDj; prep/adv; utanpå, uppepå; outside, up on;
óppri, óppre, òppri, òppre, ùppri uninfl; LDj, KIH, Iv, Etz, Rib; 1.
(adv) upp, uppe, 2. (vpart) upp 3. (adj) åpen; 1. (adv) up, 2. (vpart) up,
3. (adj) open; cf. oppre;
òppri-ledd; LDj; pst ptc; upptagen, uppdragen; busy, pulled up;
òppri-nakkad; LDj; adj; uppnäst; snobby; mander honkar oppri-nakkad
I am snobby;
oválsje; Etz; s; satan, den lede (äv. bildl. jäkel e.d.); satan, the Evil One
(also fig. devil or the likes);
ồmâla, ồmāla LDj, Rib; s/adj uninfl; ovän, osams, i vissa uttr.; enemy
(lit. un-friend), at odds with, in some expr.;
onka; Rib; v/pron; er, denne; is, this;
ồpattjano, ồpattjalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; misstrogen, otrogen; mistrustful,
unfaithful;
ồpekkrad; LDj; pst ptc; ostekt, ej genomstekt; uncooked, under-cooked;
ồushli, -t, -a; LDj; adj; oskyldig; innocent;
öfters; Etz; prep; över; over;
ösjter; Etz; prep; över; over;

P
pabb, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Etz; s, n; äpple; apple; Etz pl pabbar; Romani
phabaj apple, from Skt. phala- fruit;
pabbe; Rib, Iv; s; potet; potato; Iv pabb, babb; cf. pabb;
pabbeske-mö́ rkli, -n; LDj; s, r; äpplekaka; apple cake;
pàcha; LDj; adv; bredvid; beside; cf. paschi;
pàcha, pàscha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lägga, ligga, sätta, hänga; lay, lie, put,
hang; Romani pašljol lie, from paš;
pagger; Rib; adj; sunt; broken; cf. pagra;
paggri; Rib; s; brekking, bryting; shattering, breaking;
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pàggring, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; 1. fängelse, häkte, 2. förstöring,

inbrott; 1. jail, custody, 2. destruction, housebreaking, burglary; cf.
pagra;
pàgo-mors; Iv; s, m; en som har vært på slaveriet; one who has been to a
federal prison;
págo, pággo; Iv, Etz; s, m; fengsel; prison; Etz defsg paggen; cf. pagra;
pàgra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH, Etz; v; 1. förstöra, fördärva, 2. bøye, 3.
veksle (penger); 1. destroy, wreck, 2. bend, 3. change (money); tjavon
pagra valit the bouy broke the window; Romani phagarel break,
destroy, crack, from Skt. bhajya- destroy;
pagritjingrad; Etz; adj; sönderskuren; cut apart;
págro, pággro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; förstörd, krossad; destroyed, crushed;
Romani phago broken;
pajk, -en, -ar, -arna; pájko, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; 1. lapp, same, 2.
lapp, bit, stycke; 1. lapp, Sami, 2. patch, bit, piece; from Fi. paik
piece, patch;
Pàjko-them, Pajkoske-thém uninfl; LDj; namn; Lappland; Lapland;
pàkkra, pàrkra, pàrkla, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; 1. tacka, 2. bukke; 1.
thank, 2. bow; KIH pærka; Romani parikerel thank, from Skt. prati-
kar- give back;
pàkkrepa uninfl; LDj; s; tack; thanks, thank you; pakkrepa gla sas
mander ledde attjer ersnos miros romanoa mala! thank you for
everything I got from you, my Travelling friends! cf. pakkra;
pákksno, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; tjock; fat; Etz paksno, pakso; Romani
pako mature, grown up, Skt. pakva- cooked, mature;
pal; Iv; s, n; brett; tray;
pal, pale, pali, palo; Etz; adv; igen, tillbaka, till slut; again, back,
eventually; cf. pala;
pàla; Iv; adv, prep; 1. igjen (med verb som lukke, stenge), 2. etter; 1.
to(with verbs such as shut, close and the like), 2. after; Romani pala
behind, after, for, from Skt. pare later;
pàlal; Iv; adv; bak; behind; cf. pala;
pàlal-piro; Iv; s, m; bakfot; hind foot;
pàle; Iv; prep, adv; 1. (prep, adv) bak, 2. (adv) tilbake, igjen; 1. (prep,
adv) behind, 2. (adv) back; cf. pala;
pàli, páli; Iv; adv; tilbake; back;
pàlla; Iv; v; strikke; knit;
pàlla, pálo, pấle, páli; LDj, Etz; adv, subj, prep; 1. (adv) kvar, 2. (subj)
om, ifall, 3. (prep) om, mot, 4. palo i förbindelse med tô tillbaka, 5.
 216

efter, 6. genom; 1. (adv) left, 2. (subj) if, in case, 3. (prep) if, toward,
4. palo in connection with tô back, 5. after, 6. through; 1. ste palo kaj
remain behind (here), kammar diro palo loverna? do you have any
money left?, 2. palla diro voltrar if you want to, 3. puscha palla
loddni! Ask about shelter! dikka palla tjeri! look toward the sky!; Etz
palla, pallan, pallar, palle; cf. pala;
palla-díves, palleske-dìves; uninfl; LDj, Iv; s, adv; 1. (s) eftermiddag, 2.
(adv) i eftermiddag; 1. (s) afternoon, 2. (adv) this afternoon; Iv pàllar-
dives;
pàllar, pállar, pàllal, pállal; Iv; prep, adv; 1. (prep) etter, 2. (adv)
etterpå; 1. (prep) after, 2. (adv) afterwards;
páltan, pálto; Iv; s, m; (blod)klubb; (type of) black-pudding; from Sw.
palt, from MLG palt piece of meat;
pàni-kjibba, pàni-kjibban; Iv; s, m; vassbøtte; water-pail;
pàni-mommali; Iv; s, f; petroleum, egl. vass-lys; petroleum, petrol, lit.
water-light;
pànda, pàndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; 1. binda, knyta, stänga, 2. stänga, 3.
strikke, hekle, 4. lukke; 1. bind, tie, close, 2. close, 3. knit, crochet, 4.
close; 1. panda tji diro, honkar obahi don’t bind yourself, it means
bad luck, 2. pandra budan to hispan, tjavo close the door to the house,
boy, pandra mojen! shut your mouth! (=be quiet!); Iv pànla, pàndla,
pàlla; Romani phandel bind, bond, enchain, lock, from Skt bandh-;
pàndare, pàndrarle, -n, -, def pl pandarna; LDj; s, m; bindare,
binderska (person som binder korgar, kvastar och dylikt);
basketmaker, broommaker; cf. panda;
pándel; Iv; s, n; bind; bandage;
pandlipà; Rib; s; binding, festing, hekling, stenging, strikking; binding,
fastening, crocheting, closing, knitting; cf. panda;
pángro, bángro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; fånge; prisoner; cf. panda;
pàni, -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; 1. vatten, 2. innsjø, elv, bekk, dogg; 1. water,
2. lake, river, brook, dew; pi butt ninna pani savi diro bliddrar sasto
drink lots of water and you’ll get well; Etz pania, Iv pàni (f, rarely
m); Romani pani, from Skt. pānīya- water;
pania; Rib; s, def; elva; the river;
Pánian; Iv; namn; Romsdalen; Romsdalen;
pani-sani; Rib; s; vass-suppe, vass-velling; water soup, water gruel;
paniske-tjáro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj; s, r; vattenkanna; watering
can, water jug;
pànja, -(de), -t; v; vattna; water;
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pànlar, pàndlar; Iv; s, m; spiker, egl. binder; (spike) nail, lit. binder;
pànlebangro; Iv; s, m; strikkepinne; knitting needle;
pánnilkja, pánnika, -(n), pl pánilkjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; panna,
stekpanna; pan, frying pan; Etz pannélika, Iv panílke (f);
pansh, pansch, pransh; LDj, Iv; num; fem; five; Iv pangs; Romani
pandž five, from Skt. panca five;
pànsha, pànscha, pànja, -(n), pl pànsher, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; femma,
femkronorssedel; five kronor bill; kammar diro jekh panscha to gullo-
tjakk? do you have a five (krona bill) for some candy?; cf. pansh;
pànshare, -n, -, def pl pànsharna; LDj, Etz; s, r; en femma; a fiver, five
kronor; cf. pansh;
pànsj-dings, pánsj-dings; Iv; s, m; femkroneseddel, femmer; five-krona
bill, fiver;
pansj-énja-jak; Iv; s, m; femogtjue-øring; twenty-five øre (cents);
pànsj-lilar, pánsj-lilar; Iv; s, pl; femkronesedler; five-krona bills;
pansjo; Etz; s; rolig, skojig person; funny, amusing person;
páppni, páppani, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; gås; goose; Iv papína;
Romani papin goose, from Gr. papi duck;
par, parr, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; mage; stomach; Romani peř
stomach, from Pkt. peṭṭa- stomach;
paralo, paraslo; Etz; s; sabel; saber;
pardo; Etz; adj; full; full;
pári uninfl; LDj, Rib; adj; 1. (adj) med barn, gravid, dräktig, 2. (s) gravid
kvinna, fölmärr, 3. fruktsommelig; 1. (adj) with child, pregnant, 2. (s)
pregnant woman, pregnant mare, 3. fertile; devel, sass honkar tjattjot
lattjot, miro romnia honkar pari! heavens, everything is great, my
wife is pregnant!; cf. par;
paríkkipa; Iv; s, m; takk; thanks;
parko, parkro, -ar; Etz; s; lapp, revers, i pl äv. papper, handlingar; note,
promissory note, in pl also papers, documents;
pàrkra, pàrkla; pàkkra;
parmíssa, -n, pl parmísser, -na; LDj; s, r; berättelse; story; rakkra palla
jekh parmissa, miro dad, gla vorsnos tjavoar! tell a story, father, to us
boys!; Romani paramiči story, narrative, saga, tale, fable, from Gr.
paramýthi;
párno, pérno, pä́ rno, pérlo, pä́ rlo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; vit, ljus; white,
light, fair; Iv pǽrno blek; pale; Romani parno white, pale, from Skt.
pāṇḍu- yellowish, brown;
pàrra; Iv; s, m; bør, byrde; burden, load;
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pàrra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; byta, 2. handle; 1. trade, 2. deal (in); Iv
pàrra, pàra; Romani pařuvel exchange, trade, deal, from Skt. pāraya-
bring forth;
pàrrar, pàrar; Iv; s, m; kramkar, skreppehandler; huckster, pedlar;
pàrrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; byte, byteshandel; trade,
barter; Etz paropa, Rib parripà, Iv párripa, páripa;
parreske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; magvärk, ont i magen; stomach ache,
stomach pains;
parreske-mósch, pàrrar-mosch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, m;
byteshandlare, en som säljer och köper allt; trader, one who sells and
buys everything; Iv pàrrar-mosj, pàrar-mosj kramkar,
skreppehandler; huckster, pedlar;
pàrrika, pàrka, pæ̀rka; Iv; v; takke; thank; cf. pakkra;
Párriko-themm uninfl; LDj; namn; Finland äv. Finnmarken; Finland,
also Finnmark;
pasch, pash, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; 1. halv, 2. dum, tokig, 3. itu, trasig; 1.
half, 2. stupid, crazy, 3. apart, broken; Romani paš half, broken, (some
dialects) crazy, from Skt. pārśva- side;
páschalo, paschelín, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; knäpp, tokig; loopy, crazy; Etz
pasjano; cf. pasch;
pàschi, pàschig, -t, -a; LDj; adj; trasig, dåligt klädd; torn, badly dressed;
cf. pasch;
pàsch-rabbi(k), -t, -a; LDj; adj; halvtokig; half crazy; dova honkar
tjattjot pasch-rabbi it is clearly half crazy;
pàsch-sleng, pàsh-sleng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; femtiokronorssedel;
fifty kronor bill;
pàsj-vaver; Iv; num; halvannen; one and a half;
pasja; Etz, Rib; v; 1. ha sönder, växla (pengar), 2. dele; 1. break, change
(money), 2. split, part; cf. pasch;
pàsja, pàssa; Iv, Rib; v; tro; believe; cf. pattja;
pásjano; Iv; adj; pålitelig; trustworthy;
pasjanokeren; Etz; s, def; dårhuset; the lunatic asylum, the mental
hospital;
pasjanot; Etz; adj, infl; trasigt; broken;
pasjar; Rib; s; tillit; trust; cf. pasja;
pasjar, pasjerar; KIH, Iv; spl; mynt; coins; Iv pàsjar (m) skilling;
halfpenny; pasjérar (pl) småpenger, slanter; small change, coppers;
pasj-barolill; Rib; s; femti-kroning (=halvstor seddel); fifty-kronor bill
(=half big bill);
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pasj-énja; Iv; num; ti, egl. half tjue; ten, lit. half twenty;
pásjipa, pássipa, pássiba; Iv; s, m; tro, tillit; belief, trust, confidence; cf.
pattja;
pasjváro; Iv; s, m; sida; side;
passja; Etz; v; ligga, lägga (sig), ställa, sätta; lie, lie (oneself) down, put,
set; Romani pašljol lie, sleep; cf. pasch;
passjano; Etz; adj; sömnig; sleepy; cf. pasch;
passtara; Etz; v; passa; fit; from Sw. passa fit;
patrejàl; Rib; s; merke; sign, signum, rations coupon;
pátria, pàtri, pátri, pátron; Iv; s, m, f, m; sign on the road(side), used in
order to give certain pieces of information to Travellers who were
following later on; Romani patrin leaf, letter, banknote, from Skt
pattra- wing, feather;
patrín uninfl; LDj; s, r; skylt, sida; sign, side; KIH patria; cf. patria;
patteràska, raska; Rib; s; skjære (fugl); magpie; cf. kakkaraska;
pattja; Etz; v; tro, tänka; believe, think;
pàttja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tro; believe; Romani paćal beleive, from Skt.
pratiāya-;
pàttjano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; religiös, troende; religious, of faith;
páttjasi, páttjesi, pàttersi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; altare; altar;
pàva, -n, pl pàver, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; flaska; bottle; Etz pavani, Iv
pavvanì; cf. pani;
pàvali, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; ölflaska; beer bottle; Iv pàvvali,
pàvvani, pavaní flaska; bottle;
pavellmanger; Etz; s, pl; tändstickor; matches;
på̀ drar; Iv; s,m; belg (i smie); bellows (in a forge);
påpplo; Etz; s, coll; folk; people;
pårda; Etz; s; kvickdrag hos häst; broken wind in a horse; heaves;
pårga; Etz; s; port; gate;
påsjitta-kjår; Rib; s; lomme-tjuv; pick-pocket;
på̀ stil; Iv; s, m; bibel; bible;
pått, påttisa; Etz; s; flaska; bottle;
påvipa; Etz, Iv; s; spådom, spådomskonst; fortune telling, art of fortune
telling; Iv pǻvipa (m);
pæ̀na; Iv; s, m; søster; sister;
pärda; Etz; v; följa; follow;
pærdi-a-beng; KIH; adj; elak, listig; evil, wily, lit. full of the devil;
 220

pærdi-a-béng; Iv; adj; vanskelig å omgås, strid; ogs. falsk, lønsk, egl.
full av djevelen; hard to deal with, obstinate; also false, clandestine,
lit. full of the devil;
pärdobäng; Etz; adj; full av fan, elak, illmarig; mean, mischievous (lit.
full devil);
pärdolackt; Etz; adj; elak, illmarig; mean, mischievous;
pärgel, pärjel; Etz; s; gyckel, spektakel, förtret; jesting, spectacle,
annoyance;
pærkenellik, pærkenikkel, pærkenilk; KIH; s; stock, pinne; log, stick;
pärnoklir; Etz; s; vetebröd; white (wheat) bread;
pärnot uninfl; LDj; s; arsenik (eg. vitt); arsenic (lit. smth. white);
pä̀ rrepa, -t; LDj, Etz; s, n; sällskap; company;
péripa; Iv; s, m; følgje; company, companionship;
peíko; Iv; s, m; lapp, fille; patch, rag; cf. pajk;
peikra; KIH, Iv; v; 1. patch, 2. lodde (metall); 1. patch, 2. solder; Iv
peìkra lappe, bøte, ogs. lodde (metall); patch, mend, also solder; cf.
pajk;
pejkoa, päjkoa; Etz; s, pl; kläder; clothes; cf. pajk;
pejor; Etz; s, pl; kläder; clothes;
pèkkari; Iv; s, f; steikepanne; frying pan;
pekkipà; Rib; s; steking; frying;
pèkkra, pä̀ kkra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. steka, 2. bake; 1. roast, fry,
2. bake; ninna honkar tjerva ballvaset pekkrat! the boiled pork is now
roasted!; Etz päcka, Iv pèkka, píkka, píkja; Romani pekel fry, roast,
bake, from Skt. pac-;
pèkkrare, -n, -, def pl pèkkrarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; bagare; baker; Iv
pìkkar; cf. pekkra;
pekkre-pánnika, pèkkre-pannika, -(n), pl pànniker, -(n)a; LDj; s, r;
stekpanna; frying pan;
pèkkta, pèjkta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; spela instrument, spela kort; play an
instrument, play cards;
pèkktepa uninfl; LDj; s; spel (av olika slag); games (of different kinds);
péko, -t; LDj; s, n; lapp, papper, brev; note, paper, letter;
pelar, pälar, peloar, päloar; Etz; s, pl; testiklar; testicles;
pellus; Rib; s; hatt; hat;
pénja, pènja, pénji, -n, pl pènjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, f; syster; sister;
pen, pena; Romani phen sister, cousin, from Skt. bhaginī- sister;
penn; KIH; s; boende, logi, hotell; accomodation, lodging, hotel;
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pènna, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; 1. säga, tala, 2. fortelle; 1. say, speak,
2. tell; pänna, pena; Romani phenel speak, say, talk, tell, from Skt.
bhan- call aloud, speak;
penndri; Rib; s; hus; house;
pennisser; Rib; s; kjaerestepar; lover couple;
penring, pänring; Etz; s; logi, plats där resande får logi; lodging, place
where Travellers are given lodging;
pènta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stänga; close;
pera; Etz; v; 1. falla, släppa, 2. växla, 3. fria; 1. fall, let go, 2. change
(money), 3. propose; Romani perel fall, perish, from Skt. pat-;
peraloduckepa; Etz; s; fallandesot (epilepsi); falling sickness (epilepsy);
perd; KIH, Iv; s; stomach; stomach; Iv pærd;
pèrda, pä̀ rda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; fylla; fill; Romani pherel fill, scoop; cf.
perdo;
pèrdo, pä́ rdo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; adj; 1. full, fylld, 2. svanger; 1.
full, filled, 2. pregnant; alit asha perdot ninna pani the glass was half
filled with water, perda oppri buttider savo dova bliddrar perdot pour
some more in so it’s filled; Etz pärdit, Rib perdi, Iv pæ̀rdi; Romani
pherdo full, filled, from Skt. bhar- carry;
perkenikkel; KIH, Iv; s; log, stick; log, stick; Iv pæ̀rkenikkel,
pæ̀rkenilk, pærkenéllik;
perníssa, pèrnisa, pernísha, pä́ rnisa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; dyna,
kudde; cushion, pillow; Romani pernítsa pillow, feather bed, cushion;
pèrnissa, pä́ rnisha, -(n), pl pèrnisser, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; kudde,
dyna; pillow, cushion; Etz pärnísa, pærníssa, pærnísa, pæ̀ærnisa,
pä́ rnisa (m), panísse (f); Romani (Sinte) pernica pillow, feather bed,
cushion, fromRomanian pernă pillow;
perr, pärr, -en; s, r; mage; stomach;
pèrra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; ramla, falla; fall; Iv pèra, pæ̀rra, pæ̀rta; cf.
pera;
péttlo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Etz; s, r; hästsko; horseshoe; gräjpettlo;
Romani petalo horseshoe, from Gr. pétalo;
phral, pral, prahl, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, m; bror; brother; Rib
bral; Romani phral brother, (even) mate, from Skt. bhrātṛ-;
phúri, phúria, púri, -/-n; LDj, Etz; s, f; gumma, gammal kvinna; sweet
old woman, old woman; Etz puria; cf. puro;
phuv, puj, -a/-en/-et/phúvanet; pu, -et; LDj; s, r/n; jord, mark, golv;
earth, ground, floor; sutta dre phuv tjakke jekh mulot lie in the dirt like
a corpse; Romani phuv earth, ground, land, soil, from Skt. bhūmi-;
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phùva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; begrava; bury; cf. phuv;

phùvanopa, -t; LDj; s, n; begravning; burial;
pi, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; sup; shot (of spirits), schnaps; dela
miro jekh pi, honkar diro malano! give me a shot, please!; Iv pi (m)
dram; dram, drink of brandy; cf. pi (v);
pi, -dde, -tt; pila, -(de), -t; LDj; v; dricka, supa; drink, drink booze;
Romani pijel drink, from Skt. pib-;
pìanes; Iv; s, (uninfl); brennevin; brandy;
pìar-baskro; Iv; s, m; fyllefant; guzzler, drunkard;
pìas-pani; Iv; s, f; drikkevatn; drinking water;
pìne; Iv; s, f; grime (til hest); halter (for horses);
pìra; Iv; v; fri til; propose to;
pìri, píri; Iv, Etz; s, f; gryte; kasseroll; (cooking) pot; kettle; casserole,
stew-pot; Etz piri, piria;
píriba; Iv; s, m; friing; proposal; courtship;
pia; Rib; v; drikke; drink; cf. pi;
pia-hisspa; Rib; s; drikke-stue (restaurant); drinking house (restaurant);
piar-bangro; Rib; s; dranker, drikkfeldig, drukken-bolt; drunkard,
guzzler, someone prone to drinking;
pìare, -n, -, def pl pìarna; LDj, Iv; s, m; fyllerist, alkoholist; drunkard,
alcoholic; Iv pìar;
píben uninfl; LDj; s; öl, sprit; beer, spirits; cf. pi;
pibeneske-stéddo, pibena-stéddo, -n,/-; LDj, Etz; s, r; krog, ölservering;
inn, beerhouse; Etz píbenastädo;
pìbing, pìling, pìving, pìing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; öl, vin, dricka;
beer, wine, drink;
pibligavo; Etz; s; änkeman; widower;
pìepa, pìlepa, -t; LDj, Etz; s, n; 1. dryckesslag, 2. fylleri; 1. drink off
(competition), 2. (offense of) drunkenness; cf. pi;
pikjanéllika; Iv; s, m; steikepanne; frying pan;
pìkkari; Iv; s, n; bakeri; baker’s trade; bake-house;
pikkorì; Rib; s; panne; pan, tile;
pìkra; Iv; v; bake; bake, make bread;
pilla; Etz; s; mössa; cap, hat;
pílo, píalo, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; full, berusad; drunk, inebriated; cf. pi;
pilo-dúkk, pílo-dukk, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fyllsjuk; hung over; pilo-dukk
mande ashar! I’m so hung over!;
pìngle; Iv; s, f; bjølle; bell;
pìnja, pìnsa; Iv; v; kjenne; know; feel; Romani prindžanel know;
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pìnsla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; växla (pengar); change (money);

pínsno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; svettig; sweaty;
pipalon; KIH; s; sjukdom av ett husdjur; sickness of a pet;
pira; KIH; adj; fri; free, free (to);
piranokangling; Etz; s; finkam (eg. benkam); fine comb (lit. bone
comb);
piri; Rib; v, s; følge; 1. follow, 2. company, crew; Iv pèri, pìri sällskap,
kamratskap; company, companionship;
pirka; Etz; s; mössa; cap, hat;
píro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; fot, ben; foot, leg; Iv péro; Romani
punřo, from Skt. piṇḍa- clod, calf;
pirsling, -ar; Etz; s; fot; foot;
pivérta, pìverta, -(n), pl piverter, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; krog,
gästgivargård, ölservering; inn, hostelry, beerhouse; cf. pi;
pivli; KIH, Iv; s; änka; widow; Iv píbli;
pìvli-gaje; Iv; s, f; enke, egl. enke-kone; widow, lit. widow-wife;
pìvli-gao, pìvli-gavo; Iv; s, m; änkling; widower;
pivlo; KIH, Iv; s; änkling; widower; Iv píblo;
pjuska; KIH; v; skjuta; shoot;
plàkkta, -(n), pl plàkkter, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; lakan; sheet; devel, gla
fysha suta dre dova kaloa ratti, isarna kandrar ta plakktana honkar
kaloa! heavens, to sleep in the dark night, the clothes smell and the
sheets are black; KIH blakstran; Romani plaxta (Sinte) sheet, linen
(sheet), canvas, carpet, from Pol. płaszcz;
plastra; Etz; s; kappa; coat; Romani (Sinte) plasta coat; cf. plakkta;
plastra; Etz; v; springa, rymma; run, run away;
plastrepa; Etz; s; flykt, rymning; escape;
plattfínker; Etz; s, pl; gäss; geese;
plàttra, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; tidning; newspaper; from Gm. Blatt, MLG
Blat leaf, paper, Sw. bläddra turn over pages;
plit; Etz; s; kniv; knife;
plitt; Iv; s; blod; blood;
plìtta; Iv; v; blø; bleed;
plómotar; Etz; s, pl; äpplen; apples;
plym, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; börs, portmonnä; purse;
póffrik, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; pistol; pistol, gun; from Gm. Puffer
gun;
pòffring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; revolver; revolver;
pòggra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; blåsa; blow; cf. pordra;
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pokkel, pokkelman; KIH; s; gammal man, pensionär; old man, retiree;

pòkktan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; 1. tyg 2. lerret, linnet, tøy; 1.
fabric, 2. linen, hemp, clothes; KIH pokti carpet Etz påktan, Iv pǻkti
teppe; rug, carpet; Romani poxtan fabric, canvas, linen cloth,
barracan, cloth, from Pers. paxte;
pokl; KIH, Iv; s; gammal kvinna; old lady; Iv pòkle;
pord; KIH; s; fjord; fiord;
pòrda, pòrdra; Iv; v; sprenge (en hest); work (a horse) to death, break
the wind of (a horse), kill (a horse);
pordabaskro; KIH, Iv; s; segla; sail; Iv pordebáskro;
pordar; KIH; s; vind; wind;
pórdipa; Iv; s, m; storm; storm;
pòrdra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; blåsa; blow; Iv pòrda; Romani phurdel
blow, puff, aspirate something, from Skt. phūt-kṛ- blow;
pòrga, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; port; gate; penta porgan! close the gate!
most likely from Gm. Pforte gate;
pórija, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; svans, rumpa; tail, rear; Etz
poria; Romani pori tail, from Skt pūta- back;
porr, -en, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; bro; bridge; Romani (Sinte) phort bridge,
from Gm. Pforte, gate;
porr, por, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; 1. tagel, 2. fjäder, 3. skägg; 1. horsehair, 2.
feather, 3. beard; Etz por; cf. porija;
pòrsti, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; skinnfäll; fur, pelt, fur-rug; suta
porstia an bankusen! put the fur-rug on the couch! Iv pǻsjtin, pǻstin,
på̀ stil; Romani poštin fur, fur coat, fur blanket, from Pers. pōst skin;
póshika, pósitta, pósta, póttjika, -n, pl póshiker, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r;
ficka; pocket; Rib påsjitta, Iv pǻssita, på̀ åtisa (m); Romani poski
bag, pocket, from Skt. prasiti band;
posjta; Etz; adj; illmarig; knowing, cunning, mischievous;
possik; KIH, Iv; s; mage; stomach; Iv pǻssika;
postíll, póstil, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; fotsäck (till släde); Rib
skinn, skinnfell; foot cover for sled pelt, fell; cf. porsti;
póto, pótto; LDj; adv; bestämt; decided;
pòvva, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; spå; tell fortunes; Iv på̀ va (also) trolla;
charm, conjure;
prala; Rib; s, sg; bukse; pants;
pràmma, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. ge kredit, borga, 2. lura, 3. ta på kredit; 1.
grant credit, buy or sell on credit, 2. trick, 3. buy on credit, buy on
tick;
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pramning; Etz; s; borgning; borgen; (personal) guarantee, security,

warrant;
pràschta, pràstra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; springa; run; Iv pràsta, pràsjta
(also) jaga, köra; chase, drive; Romani prastel go, run, haste, jump,
flee, from Skt. prati-sthā- stand up, break up;
prasjtare; Etz; s, pl; 1. löpare, skidor, 2. skridskor; 1. runners, 2. skis, ice
skates;
pràsjtrar; Iv; s, m; sykkel, egl. springer, jager; bicycle, lit. runner,
chaser;
prastripàn; Rib; s, def; spranget; the leap, the spring;
pre, prej, präj; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; prep/adv; på, ovanpå, upp, till; on, on
top of, up, to; pre nashen on the run, pre dromen on the road, tjavon
tradra pre'n ta puscha the boy went to him and asked; Rib pri, Iv pre;
emphatically pre, pri; på; on, at, in; Romani pre up, upward, aloft,
above, on the top, upstairs;
preál, preáll; LDj; prep/adv; över, genom, ovanpå, runt, upp, uppe; over,
through, on top of, around, up (direction), up (loc); cf. pre;
préde, prédde; LDj, Iv; adv/prep; genom, mellan; through, between;
daden tradra prede jekh vesh ta ava kaj father went through a forest
and came here; Iv préder, prédder;
prejs, -et; LDj; s, n; betalning; payment; Romani (Sinte) prajskrel pay;
plajsrêpen payment, pay, salary from Gm. Preis price;;
prèjsa, prä̀ jsa -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; betala; pay; Iv preìsa, prèssa, prìssa;
Romani prajskrel pay, from Gm. Preis price;
prèjsepa, -n/-t, -r, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r/n; betalning; payment; Rib
preisipà, Iv preísipa, préssiba, príssiba; cf. prejsa;
préle; LDj; adv; emellan; between; cf. pre;
prépassja; Etz; v; pålägga; impose;
pri-gåla; Rib; v; på-skreket, anropt; cried-on, called on, addressed;
prim, primo; Etz; s; portmonnä; purse;
pri-nasja; Rib; adj anfalt; attacked;
prìnja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; känna, känna igen; know, recognize;
prinsja; Romani prindžanel know, recognize, get to know, form Skt.
pratyabhijānā-;
prínjano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; känd, ökänd; famous, infamous; cf. prinja;
prínshano, prínshalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; bekant; acquainted/acquiantance;
honkar dova prinshanoa to diro? are they acquainted with you?/are
they acquaintances of yours?; cf. prinja;
próshono, próshno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; högfärdig; self-conceited, stuck up;
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pùsemangrar; Iv; s, pl; lopper; fleas;

pùffra -(n), pl pùffrer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; bössa; rifle;
pùffra, pòffra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; skjuta; shoot; Iv pùffa;
pùffrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; skottlossning, skjutning; gunfire, shooting; kaj
kammar honkat jekh puffrepa there has been a shooting here; cf.
poffrik;
púffrik, -et, pùffring, -en; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n/r; revolver; revolver; Etz
puffrek, Iv púffert;
puj, pùjan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz; s, n; 1. golv, mark, 2. jord, socken; 1.
floor, ground, 2. earth, parish; mander bescha dova pre pujanet I put it
on the floor; KIH pul, puna, punae, pur; Etz pu, defsg puen, pujen,
puat, puanet; cf. phuv;
pùkka, -(de), -t; LDj; ; säga, fråga; tell, ask; Romani phučel, from Skt.
pṛcch-;
pul, pui, pur, pùna; Iv, Rib; s, m; golv; floor; Rib puja;
pùnta, -(n); pùntan, -, pl pùnter, -(n)a; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; börs,
portmonnä; purse; Rib ponnta; Iv pónta; maybe from Sw.Dial. pung
purse;
pur; Etz; s; bakdel; rear;
púrane (uninfl); LDj; adv, adj pl, komp; 1. (adv) gammalt, 2. (adjpl)
gamla, 3. (comp) äldre; 1. (adv) old, 2. (adjpl) old, 3. (comp) older; cf.
puro;
púrano, -t, -a; LDj, Rib, Iv; adj; gammal; old; Rib purranò; Iv pùrrano,
pèrrano;
puranò-dad; Rib; s; gamle-far; grandfather lit. old-father; Iv pùrrano-
dad (m);
puranò-dakri; Rib, Iv; s; gamle-mor; grandmother lit. old-mother; Iv
pùrrano-dakri (f);

púrjanet uninfl; LDj; s, defsg; golvet; the floor; mander suta pre
purjanet dre ratti I lay on the floor last night;
puro; Etz; adj; gammal; old;
púro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; gammal man, gubbe; old man; Romani
phuro old, from Skt. vṛddha-;
púron, púrien; LDj; s, defsg; gamlingen; the old man; cf. puro;
pùrrano-keral; Iv; s, m; gammalost; Norwegian old-milk cheese, lit. old-
cheese;
pursjta, pusjta; Etz; adj; sprängd (om häst); wind broken, heaving
(about horses), a breathing disorder in horses;
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pùscha, pùcha, pùchka, pùsha, pùttja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; fråga; ask; cf.
pukka;
púscher, pùchema, pùsher, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, pl; loppor; fleas; Etz
pussjemåll, Iv púsjimar; Romani pišum flea, from Skt. pluṣi-;
pùsjika; Iv; s, m; skinnfell; skin rug, pelt rug;
púsjka, pjúska; Iv; s, m; børse, gevær; gun, musket, rifle;
puska; Etz; s; bössa; rifle;
puss, pusch, -en; LDj, Iv; s, r; halm, hö; straw, hay; Iv pus (n); Romani
phus straw, (less common) hey, from Skt. busa-;
pussja; Etz; v; blåsa; blow;
pusskar; Rib; v, pres; skyter; shoot(s);
pùssmo-jaarje, -n, -, def pl -jaarna; LDj; s, r; loppa; flea;
pö̀ rdat uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; 1. lungsot, 2. kvarka hos häst; 1. tuberculosis,
2. strangles (lung disease in horses cause by a bacterial infection);
Romani phurdel blow, puff, aspirate something, from Skt. phūt-kṛ-;

R
rabba; Etz; s, coll; brännvin; brandy, home distilled spirits;
rábbik, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; tokig; crazy; Rib: rar; crazy; odd;
rada; Etz; adv; bra, väl; good, well; Romani radosno happily, merrily,
from Serbcr. radosno;
ràda; LDj; adv; bara; only, just;
ràffa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; hälla, koka; pour, boil; Etz råffa;
rafla; Rib; s; fil, rive; file, rip;
ràggra, rìggra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; dra, hålla; pull, hold; Rib rikkra;
ragúshta, ragústa, ràgusta, ràgursta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; trolla, spå; do
magic, tell fortunes; ja andre hispa ta ragushta! go into the house and
tell a fortune!;
ragùstare, ràgustare, ràgurstare, -n, -, def pl ragùstarna; LDj; s, m;
trollkarl; wizard;
ragusteske-drább, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; naturmedicin; naturopathy
(using natural herbs, vitamins, etc. to treat disease);
ragustning; Etz; s; trolldom, trolldomskonster; sourcery, witchcraft;
ragustra; Etz, Iv; s; trolldom, förtrollning; witchcraft, enchantment,
spell; Iv ragúsjta;
raj, rej, -en, -ar, -arna; rajo, -n; LDj, Etz; s, m; herre, förnäm herre,
herrskapsman; gentleman, distinguished gentleman; Romani raj, from
Skt. rājan- king;
raja, -n; KIH; s; sticka; fila; prick; file;
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ràkka, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; akta; Rib: passe, pleie, rökte; be careful,
take caution; watch, tend to, mind, take care of; rakka diro, dova
honkar daranot! be careful, that’s dangerous!; Romani arakhel
protect, from Skt. rakṣ-;
rákkli, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; flicka (icke-resande); girl (non-
Traveller); cf. rakklo;
rákklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; pojke (icke resande); boy (non-
Traveller); Romani raklo boy (non-gypsy), from Skt. laḍḍika- child;
ràkkra, ràkkla -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; tala, säga; speak, say; Romani
vaćarel say, speak, from Skt. vākya- word;
rakkrar-tav; Rib, Iv; s; snakke-tråd (telefon); talking-wire (telephone);
Iv ràkra-tav;
ràkkrepa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; språk, prat, tal; language, talk, speech; rada
rakkra buttier pre vorsnos rakkrepa romani speak only more in our
language, Romani; Iv ráklipa;
ràkrar; Iv; s, m; telefon, egl. taler; telephone, lit. speaker;
ràla, rála, -t, -; LDj; adj; hygglig, trevlig; friendly, nice, decent;
rambána, rambánia, -(n), pl rambáner, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; såg, rasp;
saw, rasp;
ràmpe; Iv; s, f; kålrot; nepe; Swedish turnip, turnip-cabbage, turnip;
ràmsa, ràmsla, -(n), pl ràmser, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; klänning; dress; cf.
ràndjsa;
ran, rana; Etz; s, coll; kvister; twigs, brushwood, birching;
randa; Etz; v; riva, klia; scratch, scratch (an itch);
ràndjsa; Iv; v; kle av seg; undress; Romani (Sinte) randžel dress;
ràndra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; skriva; write; Etz randa, Iv ràndra
skrapa, skriva; scrape, write; Romani řandel scratch, cut, dig;
ràndra-pani; Iv; s, f; blekk, egl. skrive-vatn; ink, lit. writing-water;
ràndrar; Iv; s, m; dommer, egl. skriver (det folkelige no. navn på
sorenskriveren); judge, lit. writer (the popular Norw. word for the
local magistrate);
randrar-baskro; Rib; s; sorenskriver, skriver; lower judge in the
countryside, circuit judge;
ràndrar-dings; Iv; s, m; penn, egl. skrivegreie; pen, lit. writing utensil;
ràndrar-låddipa; Iv; s, m; blekkhus, egl. skrivehus; ink-bottle, ink stand,
lit. writing-house;
ràndrar-mosch, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, m; skrivare, eg. skrivkarl;
writer, journalist, lit. writer-man; Iv ràndrar-mosj (m) local
magistrate;
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ràndrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, n; skrivelse, brev, brevskrivning;
letter, letter writing; Rib randripà, Iv rándripa (m) skrivning, skrift;
writing, script;
ráni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; dam, förnäm kvinna, herrskapsfru;
lady, distinguished woman, noblewoman; cf. Romani rani queen,
from Skt. rājñī-;
rànja; Iv; s, m; buske/buskar, ris, ogs. stav; bush(es), scrub, also staff,
stick;
rànja; Iv; v; denge, jule; bang, lick, thrash;
ránkano; Iv; s, m; fornem herre, storkar; distinguished gentleman,
important man;
ránkano, ránkno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; förnäm; distinguished, noble; cf. raj;
rankanoker; Etz; s; herrgård; mansion;
ran-nucko; Etz; s; risbarn; barn som har engelska sjukan; child with
rachitis;
ráno, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; herrn, fin karl; Sir, gentleman; honkar
ranon mala ninna krajon? is the gentleman friends with the King? cf.
rani;
ràno-kher -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; herrgård; mansion; manor;
ráppen; Iv; s, m uninfl); båt; boat;
ráshia, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, f; kvinnlig präst; female priest;
rásho, ráshio, ráscho, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, m; präst; priest; rashon
rakkra to ghanat palla Devel ta Jesus the priest spoke to the people
about God and Jesus; Romani rašaj, from Skt. ṛṣi- seer;
rashoske-khér, rásho-kher, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; prästgård;
parsonage;
ràsjo-lil; Iv; s, m; præsteattest; clergyman’s certificate;
ràsjonere; Iv; v; confirmere; confirm;
ratt, -en/-et; LDj; s, r/n; blod; blood; romano ratt Romani (Traveller)
blood, lollo rattet the red blood; Romani rat, from Skt rakta- red;
ràtta, ràttra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; blöda; Rib: blø, dryppe, lekk; bleed;
drip, leak; lo ratta an mul he bled to death; cf. ratt;
rattalò; Rib; adj; blodig, blodete; bloody, bloodied;
rattan; KIH, Iv; s; sykkel; bicycle; Iv ráttan (m) 1. (eldre) rokk; (older)
spinning wheel, 2. (yngre) sykkel; (younger) bicycle;
rattan; KIH; s; kappa; coat;
rattan; Rib; adj; blodete; bloodied;
rátti, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; natt; night; helko rattia asha mander
jangno I was awake the whole night, ninna honkar ratti kaloa, karna
 230

avar nilja? the nights are black now, when is summer coming?;
Romani rat, from Skt rātrī-;
ràttig, -t, -a; LDj; adj; blodig; bloody;
ràtti-kibb, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; potta, nattkärl; chamber pot;
rattiske-gøy; Rib, Iv; s; blod-pølse; black pudding (blood pudding); Iv
ràtteske-gøye;
rattitjaro; Etz; s; nattkärl; chamber pot;
ràtt-maro, -n; LDj; s, r; paltbröd; blood bread;
ravásta; Etz; v; stjäla; steal;
rå̀ dra; Iv; v; eie; own, possess;
rådrepa; Etz; s; expr kamma rådrepa ha råd; be able to afford;
råvv; Etz; s; gråt; crying;
räcka; Etz; v; hjälpa; help;
rä̀ tsa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; anka; duck; jurar diro rätsan? do you see
the duck?;
reia; KIH; s; stav; pole;
Reìa; Iv; namn; name; Lars; Lawrence;
rèkkla, ràkkla, -(n), pl rèkkler, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; rock, kavaj;
coat, (suit) jacket; Etz rickla, räckla, Iv rékla (m) 1. ytterfrakk;
overcoat, 2. genser; guernsey; 3. skjørt; petticoat; from MLG rok
overcoat;
rèkkra, rèkkla, rä̀ kkla, rìkkla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; hålla, räcka,
behålla; hold, reach out/give (a hand), keep; rekkra mander diro
vashta give me your hand! rekkra kaj, miro mala! hold here, my
friend!; Etz rickra, räckra; from Sw. räcka reach;
rèkling; Iv; s, m; ulltrøye, genser; guernsey (frock);
reppanì; Rib; s; kålrabi, kålrot, nepe, turnips; kohlrabi, swede, turnip-
cabbage, turnip; Iv ràppani, rèppani; from Gr. rapáni radish;
rèp-pani, -t, -ar; LDj; s, n; rotfrukt; root-vegetable;
rèvel, -n, pl rèvlar, -na; LDj; s, r; revers; promissory note, IOU;
rido; Rib; adj; solid, stilig; solid, stylish, tasteful;
rìdra; Iv; v; rida; ride;
rìdra; Iv; v; riva; tear;
rigg, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; sida; side; Iv rigg kant; edge; Romani
rig side, from Skt. *ḍhigga- side, direction;
rìggeske; LDj; adv/prep; bredvid, vid sidan om; beside, next to;
riggra; Etz, Iv; v; bära; carry; Iv rìgra løfte; lift; Romani rikerel hold;
rìlle; Iv; s, f; brille; a pair of spectacles;
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rìnta, rìntla, -(n), pl rìnter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; bröst; chest; from Fi. rinta
chest;
rìssa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skaka, skälva, ruska; shake, shiver, tremble;
Romani irisarel turn, from Gk. gurizo;
rits, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; räkning; bill;
roáska; Etz; s; piska; whip;
ròddra, ròdra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; leta, undersöka; search, look for
investigate; roddra kaj riggeske mander! search here to the side of
me!; Romani rodel investigate, from Skt. ḍhūnḍh- search;
rodrepa; Etz; s; letande; search;
roj, röj, -en, -ar, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; sked; spoon; Romani řoj,
from Pkt. ḍova-;
ròkkan, -(en); LDj; s, r; råg; rye; from MHG rocke rye;
rom, romm, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, m; resandeman; Traveller man;
Romani man; jekh purano horta rom an old genuine Traveller man,
dova romm honkar jengad ninna jekh schukkard romni that Romani
man is married to a beautiful Romani woman; Romani řom, from
Skt./Pkt. ḍomba-;
rómani, rómmani, -n; LDj, Iv; s, r; resandefolkets språk; Romani
language; rakkra rommani speak Romani; Iv rom (n); cf. rom;
romani-mànusch, romano-mànusch, -et; LDj; s, n; resandefolk,
romanifolk; Travelling people; Romani people; tjattjot romano-
manusch real Romani people;
romanitjej; Etz; s; resandeflicka; Traveller girl;
ròmano, ròmmano; Iv; s, m; tater; Romany;
rómano, rómmano, rómani, rómmani, -n, -a(r), -a(r)na; LDj; s, m;
resande (allmänt); travellers (general); horta romano genuine
traveller, dova honkar butt tjattjot lattjot romano-manusch they are
very good Travelling people; cf. rom;
rómano, rómmano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; resande, av romanisläkt; Traveller,
of Romani heritage; romano narta ninna romani ratt Travelling
people with Romani blood; cf. rom;
romano-bókko, romano-bö́ kko, -n; LDj; s, r; piska (ett vapen och
verktyg, som användes av Rosengrenarna i Västergötland. Det var en
dryg meter långt med ringar samt med en blyklump i handtaget, lindat
i skinn och med en blykula längst ut); whip (a weapon and tool, used
by the Rosengren family in Västergötland. It was a bit over 40 inches
long with rings and with a lump of lead in the handle, wrapped in
leather and with a lead ball on the end);
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romano-dróm, -en; LDj; s, r; resandeväg, romani-resa; traveller road,

Romani journey;
romanoracklo; Etz; s; resandepojke; traveller boy;
rómanot, rómmanot; LDj; adv; resandeaktigt, på resandesätt; traveller-
wise; the traveller way; dova honkar tji romanot that is not the
Traveller way (=Travellers don’t do that); cf. rom;
ròmidint, ròmmidint, romidínt; Iv; adj; gift; married;
ròmmani-sæl; Iv; s, m; tater; Romany;
ròmmedina, ròmmedinta; Iv, Rib; v; gifte seg; to get married; Rib
rommandìnte;
rómni, -n/a, -ar/-er, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, f; resandekvinna,
resandehustru; traveller woman, traveller wife; romnierna honka
kokkaroa khere, the (Romani) women were home alone; Etz råmni, Iv
rómni kvinna; woman; cf. rom;
roskopp; KIH; s; falsk armklocka; false brand watch;
ròta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tala romani, prata; speak Romani, talk; mander
rotar tji ninna dova an dives I’m not speaking with him there today,
rotar diro? can you speak romani?; cf. rota(s);
ròta; Iv; s., (uninfl); taterspråk, rommani; language of the Romanies,
Romany; from Gm./Rotw. Rot(t) beggar;
rota; Iv; s, m; krok; hook, crook;
ròtepa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; tal, prat, språk; speech, talk, language; romani
ashar vorsnos rotepa romani is our language; Iv ròtipa, ròtepa (m) 2.
taterspråk; language of the Romanies;
rotfara; Etz; v; tala; speak;
ròva, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; gråta; cry, weep; Etz råvva; Romani rovel
cry, weep, from Skt. rod-;
rö̀ ddra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; röra; stir; röddra palla kabenet to stir the food;
røyipà; Rib; s; røyking; smoking;
rùbban, -, -, -a; LDj; s, n/r; träd; tree; cf. rukk;
rubbdanj; Etz; s; guldtand; gold tooth;
rùbberske-gustri, rùbbeske-gustri; Iv; s, m; sølvring; silver ring;
rùbberskevere; Iv; v; forsølve; silver(-plate);
rubbiskevère; Rib; v; forsølve; silver-plate;
rubbiske-verranì; Rib; s; sølvkjede; silver chain;
rùbb-kerrar; Iv; s, m; sølvsmed, egl. sølvarbeider; silversmith, lit.
silver-worker;
rubbmåfti; Etz; s; silver snusdosa; silver snuff box;
rubbsörmis; Etz; s; guldring; gold ring;
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rukk, -et/-anet/-a, -/-er -e(r)na; LDj, Etz; s, n; träd; tree; tjirklon, miro
nukko, ashar phuvad telal rukkanet the bird, my child, is buried under
the tree; Etz ruckan; Romani ruk, form Skt. vṛkṣa-;
rukkeske-bùda, rukkeske-vùrda, -n/-, pl -bùder, -na; LDj; s, r; trädörr;
wooden door;
rukkeske-hìspa, -n, pl hìsper, -na; LDj; s, r; trähus; wooden house;
rukkeske-léddik, -an; LDj; s, r; trälåda; wooden box;
rukkeske-rój, -en, -ar, -arna/-er(n)a; LDj; s, r; träsked; wooden spoon;
rukkeske-stámlo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; trästol; wooden chair;
rukkeske-tjúro, rùkk-tjuro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; Iv; träskniv;
wooden knife;
rukkeske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; rukkeske-vòddring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s,
r; trävagn, lådbil; wooden cart, soapbox (car);
rùlla, -(n), pl rùller, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; kärra, dragkärra; cart, barrow;
from Sw. rulla to roll;
rúllik, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; dragkärra med två hjul; handcart with
two wheels; cf. rulla;
rulta, rultra; Etz; v; köra, åka; drive, ride;
rumtan; Etz; s; rum; room;
rumtla; Etz; v; rum; room.
rupovíno; Iv; s, m; brennevin; spirits, brandy;
rupp, rubb, robb, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; silver (kan även vara guld); silver
(can also be gold); Romani rup silver, from Skt. rūpya- beautiful,
silver;
ruppeske-kambána, rùbb-kambana, -n, pl -kambaner, -na; rùppeske-
kamban; LDj; s, r; silverklocka; silver watch;
ruppeske-kréstos, rùpp-krestos, -; LDj; s, r; silverkors; silver cross;
devel, savot schukkrano ruppeske-krestos! heavens, what a beautiful
silver cross!;
ruppeske-mìnka, rùbb-minka, -n, pl -minker, -na; LDj; s, r;
silverklocka; silver watch;
ruppeske-mòffti, rùbb-moffti, -n/-a, -mofftier, -(n)a; LDj; s, r;
silverdosa, snusdosa av silver; silver box, snus box of silver;
ruppeske-rój, rùbb-roj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; silversked;
silver spoon; Iv rùbberske-røy, rùbbeske-røy (f);
ruppeske-smítto, rùbb-smitto, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, m; silversmed,
guldsmed; silversmith, goldsmith; savo kammar ruppeske-smitton
siros spekkaria? where is the goldsmith’s store?;
 234

ruppeske-stámlo, rùpp-stamlo, -n/-a, pl -stamler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r;

silverstol; silver chair;
ruppeske-sö̀ rming, rùbb-sörming, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; silverring;
silver ring;
ruppeske-táv, rùbb-tav, -a/-en; LDj; s, r; silvertråd, silvertelefon; silver
thread, silver telephone; tjinna ruppeske-tav to miro tjej liskris ashar
te sivra nevroa isar! buy silver thread for my girl, she’s ging to sew
some new clothes!;
ruppeske-tjáro, rùpp-tjaro, -t/-et, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; silverfat,
silverskål; silver plate, silver bowl;
ruppeske-tjòkkla, rùbb-tjokkla, -/net; LDj; s, n; silverkjol; silver skirt;
ruppeske-tjúro, rubbeske-tjúro, rùpp-tjuro, -a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r;
silverkniv; silver knife;
ruppeske-vóddro, rùpp-voddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s; silvervagn silverbil;
silver cart, silver car;
rúshto, -t, -a; LDj, Rib, Iv; adj; arg; angry, malicious; mande ledde jekh
rushto jykklo pre miro dumm I got an angry dog on my back; Rib
rusjdo sint, vred; wrath; Iv rúsjto, rústo arg; angry; Romani rušto,
from Skt. ruṣṭa-;
rusjtepa; Etz, Rib, Iv; s; elakhet, ilska; malice, anger; Rib rusjdopà; Iv
rúsjtipa, rúsjtepa, rústiba;
ruv, ruf, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Iv; s, r; varg; wolf; doj boddrar dolle ruv a
wolf lives there, Iv ruff (m); Romani ruv, from Skt. vṛka-;
rýso, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; trasa; rag;
rýssno, rýsso, rýso, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; matta; carpet;
ryso; Etz; s; trasa; rag;

S
sa, -dde, -tt; LDj; v; skratta; laugh; Romani asal, from Skt. has-;
sabốria, -n, pl sabốrier, -na; LDj; s, f; prinsessa; princess; diro dikkas
tjakke jekh saboria you look like a princess, schukkard tjakkes
vorsnos saboria beautiful like our princess;
saddra; KIH, Iv; v; segla; sail; Iv sàdra;
saddra; KIH, Iv; v; droppa; drip;
sáffis, -et/-en; LDj; s, n./r; såpa; soft soap; from Gm. Seife soap;
saiba; KIH; s; skratt; laughter;
saipa; Rib; s; fliring, leing, skratting; tittering, laughing, guffawing;
sakers; Etz; adv; så, så här; like this, like that;
sakus; KIH; adj; lik; similar;
 235

sákus; Iv; pron; slik; such as, as, like;

Sàls-fåron; Iv; namn; Halden; Halden;
salváris, selvális, sálvaris, sávalis, sális, -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; betsel (till
hästar); bridle; Iv salvária, sávvaris; Romani savari bridle;
sàmbuna, sámbuna, -(n), pl sàmbuner, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r; 1.
tobakspipa, 2. skorstein; 1. tobacco pipe, 2. chimney; Etz sambúna, Iv
sambúne, sàmbune (f) tobakkspipe, snadde; tobacco-pipe, cutty (-
pipe);
sammeten; Etz; s, def; församlingen; the assembly, the congregation, the
parish;
sáni, -n/-a; LDj; s, r; välling, soppa; gruel, soup;
sani-bèda; Rib; s; suppe-fat (egtl. suppe-kjel); soup plate (lit. soup
kettle);
sáno, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; fin, ren, bra, snyggt klädd; nice, clean, good,
nicely dressed; Iv sáno tynn, fin, grann; thin, slender, fine; Romani
sano thin, fine, from Skt. ślakṣṇa-;
sapala; KIH; s; tält; tent;
sapp, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; orm; snake; Iv sapp (m) (hugg)orm;
viper, snake; Romani sap, from Skt. sarpa-;
sàpp-jakkad; LDj; pst ptc; ormögd, ser elak ut; snake-eyed, looks mean;
sàpp-jakker; LDj; spl; ormögon, elak blick; snake eyes, mean gaze;
rakklon jura pre mander ninna siros sapp-jakker the boy stared at me
with his snake eyes;
sapúnja, -n; LDj, Etz; s, r; såpa, diskmedel, tvättmedel; soft soap,
dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent; Etz supunja; Romani sapuj,
from Gr. sapoúni;
sarga, sarja, sargan; Etz, Rib, Iv; s; 1. täcke, 2. telt; 1. cover, quilt, 2.
tent; Rib sarrga; Iv sárga, sǽrga, sæ̀rja (m), sárgan, sǽrgan (m) 1.
teppe; blanket, 2. tält; tent; Romani cara, from Serbkr. čerga;
sárgan, sérga, -et, -(en)a; LDj; s, n; täcke, tält; duvet, tent;
sarla; KIH; v; ro, dra; row, pull;
saro, sarho; Rib; all; all; Romani sa all, from Skt sarva-;
sáro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; hel; whole, intact; cf. saro;
sároe; LDj; adv; hela; whole; entire; saroe miro the whole of me, lester
kade oppri saroe pabbet he ate the whole apple;
sáros; Iv; pron; slik; such as, as, like; cf. saro;
sárrali, sárali, -n/-a; LDj; s, r; ull, bomull; wool, cotton;
sarralieske-hùbba, -n; LDj; s, r; yllemössa; wool hat;
sarralì-ising; Rib; s; ull-teppe; woolen carpet, woolen blanket;
 236

sàrrali-menger, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; yllekläder, yllelump; woolen clothing,

woolen rags;
sarrali-nùtta, sarralieseke-nùtta, -n; LDj; s, r; ylletröja, bomullströja;
jersey; sweater, wool sweater;
sầrstil, sàstot; LDj; adv; 1. alltid, 2 allt, allting; 1. always, 2. all,
everything; cf. saro;
sarvanesse; Rib; s; huelaget (til hest);
sàrvani; Iv; s, f; urkjede; watch-chain;
sarvi; KIH; s; horn; horn;
sárvis, -en, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; älg, ren, horn; moose, reindeer, horn;
Romani (Sinte) servo stag, deer, from Romanian cerb;
sass, sàssar uninfl; LDj; pron; all, allt, alla, hela; all, everything,
everyone, whole, entire; sass romnier bescha andre hispan ta rakkra
sinsimaskro palla sass fann tjeri to phuv all of the women sat in the
house and talked mutually about everything from earth to sky;
sássaro uninfl; LDj, Iv; pron; alla, allt, alltsammans, allihop; all,
everything, all (of it), everyone; Iv sàssaro, sássaro, så̀ ssaro, sǻssaro,
såsáro;
sássaroa; LDj; pron pl; allihop, allesammans; everyone, all (of them);
sàste; LDj; v, pret; skulle; would, was going to (pst of will); saste diro
kerra dolle? were you gonna do that?;
sàstepa, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; hälsa; health; Iv sástipa (m); Romani sastipe;
cf. sasto;
sáster, sástjer, defsg sástret, pl sáster, -na; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; järn,
kedja, boja; iron, chain, shackle; miro vashter an sastjer my hands
(are) in shackles; Etz sjaster, Rib def pl sasstrane; Iv sáster (n) 1.
jern, blikk, iron, sheet-iron, 2. handjern (således alltid i pl sastrar),
handcuff, manacle (thus always in pl sastrar), 3. anker; anchor;
Romani sastri, from Skt. śastra- instrument for cutting, iron;
sàster-buda, -n; LDj; s, r; järndörr; iron door;
sàster-dori; Iv; s, f; kjetting, vaier, egl. jerntau; chain, wire, lit. iron rope;
sàster-drom, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; järnväg; railway (lit. iron-
road); Etz sjasterdråm;
sàster-kjerar; Iv; s, m; blikkenslager, egl. (jern el.) blikkarbeider;
whitesmith, lit. (iron or) tinworker;
sàster-mengare, -n, -, def pl -mengarna; LDj; s, m; smed; (black)smith;
sàster-tjirkli, -tjirklo, -t; LDj; s, n; flygplan; air plane;
sásto, -t, -a; LDj; adj; frisk; healthy; Romani sasto, from Skt. svastha-;
 237

sàstra, sồstra, sòstra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; sätta på handbojor, sätta i
handfängsel; handcuff, put in handcuffs; Iv sàstra arrestera, gripa;
arrest;
sàstra-beng; Iv; s, m; används som emfatiskt uttryck, starkare än bara
beng, ungefär som fan i helvete! eller liknande; used as an emphatic
expression, stronger than the simple beng, about the same as damnit to
hell! or the like;
sàstrar, -na; LDj; s, pl; bojor, handbojor; shackles, handcuffs;
sàstripar; Iv; s, pl; (et par) handjern; (a pair of) handcuffs;
sástro; Iv; adj; klok; prudent, wise; cf. sasto;
sástro, -t, -a; LDj; adj; i uttr. sastroa bengar järnskodda djävlar; in expr
sastroa bengar ironshod bastards;
sàvo, sàste; adv; var, vart; where, where (to); savo boddrar diro? where
do you live?; Romani savo which;
sàvo, sávo, -t, -a, f sàvi; LDj; dem pron; sådan, vilken; such (a), what (a)
which;
sàvrige; adv; samma, detsamma; same, the same;
sǻrralo, sárralo; Iv; adj; sterk, beisk; strong, bitter;
såmbrédo; Iv; s, m; hatt; hat;
såmmadacken, såmmadackon; Etz; s, def; sommaren; Summer;
såmmarónomen; Etz; s, def; sommaren; Summer;
sä̀ ffja, -(n), pl sä̀ ffjer, -(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; smedja; smithy; Etz säffa;
sæl; KIH, Iv; s; människor (tatere), man people (tatere), man;
sæla; KIH; s; luffare; hobo;
særd; Iv; s, n; segel; sail;
sæ̀rda; Iv; v; 1. dra, trekke, 2. ro, 3. segle; 1. draw, pull, 2. row 3. sail;
Romani crdel pull;
sæ̀rdrar; Iv; s, m; åre (til båt), egl. roer; oar, lit. rower;
særja, særlat; KIH; s; gryningens röda ljus; red light of dawn;
schàla, shàlla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kyssa, smöra, fjäska; kiss, butter up, suck
up to, brown nose; devel, dova nashtar schala! heavens, he can brown
nose!; from Ru. tselovat’ kiss;
scháro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; sabel, lie; sabre, scythe; Iv sjáro (m)
svärd, bayonet; sword, bayonet; Romani xanři, from Skt. *khaṇḍaka-;
schéro, chéro, shéro, -t, -(n)/-ar, -na/-arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, n; huvud;
head; Etz sjöro; Iv sjéro (m) (also) kål (denne tyd. er bare notert fra
Vestl.); cabbage (this sense is only recorded from theWestern
country); Romani šero, from Skt. śiras-;
schèro-dukk, scheroske-dúkk uninfl; LDj; s; huvudvärk; headache;
 238

schìnra, shìnra, -n; LDj; s, r; sol; sun;

schoìschoi, schốscho, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; hare; hare; Romani
šošoj, from Skt. śaśa-;
schònna, schỳnna, shỳnna, shùnna, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; höra, lyssna;
hear, listen; Iv sjùnna, sjúna; (sj.) skjønne; (more rarely) understand;
Romani ašunel, from Skt. śṛṇu-;
schònnas; LDj; v, pass; höras; be heard, hear from one another;
schồrnan, schòrnan, -, -, a; LDj, Iv; s, r; ladugård; barn; mander
kammar beschat voddron dre schornan palla jivet avar teli I’ve put
the car in the barn in case it snows (the snow comes down); Iv sjorna
(m), sjonan, sjúnnan (m); from MLG schûne barn;
schốschali, -n; s, r; hare; hare; cf. schoischoi;
schùmba, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; kulle; hill; jekh chocha praschtar pre
schumba a hare is running on the hill; Romani (Sinte) domba, from
Gr. túmbos;
schùnjer, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; öron; ears;
schúnlo, -n, -a, na; LDj, Etz; s, r; öra; ear; Etz sjönlo;
schýnslo, schúnslo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, r; öra; ear; Rib sjullo,
Iv pl sjỳloar;
sebúno, -n; s, r; väst; vest, waistcoat;
sedder; Etz; adv; sedan; then;
sederst; Etz; adj; sist; last;
sèffarle, -n, -, def pl sèfflarna; LDj; s, r; smed; (black)smith;
sèla, -t, -; LDj; adj; tidig; early; sela teijsa fysher vorsnos ja oppri we
have to get up early in the morning;
sellváni, séllvani, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, f; sill; herring; kar diro
sellvani ta proler? do you eat herring and potatoes?; Iv sèrvani,
sérvani, selvaní, sévvani (f); from Sw. sill hering;
sempe, seppani; KIH, Rib, Iv; s; tvål; soap; Rib sebbanì, Iv sàppanis,
sápanis;
sènjla, -(n), pl sènjler, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; sele; horse collar, harness,
reins; grejen honka ilsmat honka bongit te le pre senjla the horse was
being unruly (and it) was hard to get on the reins; Etz sinja, sinjan; Iv
sénja, sínja; from MLG sêne sinew of a bow;
sénslo, sḗnslo; LDj; adv; sedan, sen, senare; then, late, later;
serdra; Rib; v, s; 1. (v) dra, skysse, 2. (s) skyss; 1. (v) pull, push, 2. (s)
lift;
serdripà; Rib; s; skjutsning; giving s.b. a lift;
sérga, -t, pl serger, -na; LDj; s, n; tält, täcke; tent, duvet;
 239

sèrla, -t, -; LDj, Iv; adj; tidig; early; Iv sǽrlat, séla, sélat, sǽrja (adv)
tidlig (om morgonen); early (in the morning); cf. sela;
séro, séros, síros,; LDj; poss pron; sin, sitt, sina; his, her, its, their;
séro, síro; LDj; refl pron; sig själv; oneself; himself, herself, itself;
sérvo, svérske; LDj; adj; vänster; left; tradra pre servo rigg tji pre tjattjo
rigg attjer drommen drive on the left side, not on the right side of the
road;
setålka; Etz; s; bogträ på sele; horse collar;
sévri, svèri, -t, -a; LDj; adj; vass, skarp; sharp;
sévro, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj hård, skarp; hard, sharp;
sevvanì; Rib; s; silke; silk;
shồnla, schồnla, shòrna, shòrnla, -(n), pl shònler, -(n)a; shonn uninfl;
LDj, Etz; s, r; lada, loge; barn; cf. schôrnan;
shốppa, schốppa, shòpa, schòpa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Etz; s, r; port; gate;
from MLG schuppen barn, shed;
shàddra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; 1. kräka, spy, 2. riva, klia, gräva; 1. vomit,
throw up, 2. scratch, dig; 2. shaddra mande pre sherot ta dynkra palla
vavert (I) scratched my head and thought about something else;
Romani čhadel, from Skt. chardaya- give up;
shàffra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; 1. skaffa, 2. tigga; 1. get, acquire, 2. beg
for; from Gm. schaffen;
shàra, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib; v; smickra, berömma, skryta; flatter, praise,
brag; shara tji savi butt! don’t brag so much!; Rib kjara; Romani
ašarel, from Skt. ucchar-;
sháro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; lie, äv. sabel (gjord av lie), kårde,
sverd; scythe, sabre (made from a scythe), rapier, sword; Rib sjaro;
cf. scharo;
shèfflan, schèfflan, -et; LDj, Etz; s, n; skåp; cupboard; Etz sjaffan,
sjaffran, sjappran; from MLG scheffer organiser, person who
organises, from schaffen fix, organize, cf. Sw. loanword skafferi
cupboard (from MLG);
shúkkar, schúkkar, schúkker, -t, pl schúkkra; schúkkrano, -t, -a;
LDj, Iv; adj; vacker; beautiful; Iv sjúkar, sjúkkar, sjókkar; Romani
šukar, from Skt. śukra-;
shúkker, schúkker, -t, pl shukkra, schúkkrano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; fin;
nice;
shúkklo, schúkklo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; sur, skämd; sour, bad (ex.
milk); dikka tjiron pre tudden savi dova nani ashar shukklo check the
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date (time) on the milk in case it’s bad; Etz sjucklu, sucklu; Iv sútlo,
sjúkkalo; Romani šuklo, šut, from Skt. śukta- sour;
shỳlndrano, shöldrano -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; kall; cold; dolle honkar
shylndranot avri nii it’s cold out now; Iv sjèlano, sjèllano; Romani šil
coldness, from Skt. śīta-;
sía, -n, pl sìer, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; själ; soul; an sia ta truppo ashar
mander loschano with my body and sould, I am in love; Romani ogi,
from Arm. ogi;
sickepáskria; Etz; s; lampa; lamp;
sickran; Etz; s,def; spegeln; the mirror;
sigg; Rib; adj, adv; fort, kjapp, rapp, rask, snar, straks; quickly, fast,
snappy, brisk, soon; Romani sigo quick, quickly, from Skt. śīgra-;
sigga; Rib; v; nøyte, raske, snare; hurry, dash;
sígga, síggo, siggro, síkka; LDj, Etz; adv; fort, genast; quickly,
immediately; Etz sickt;
sìggra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; skynda; hurry; Etz sigga, sjickra;
sìggrepa, -t; LDj; s, n; snabbhet, fart; velocity, speed;
síi, sía, -t; LDj; s, r; hjärta, även i överförd bemärkelse, själ; heart, also
transferred: soul; miro sii dabbar gla diro my heart beats for you; cf.
sia;
sìkja; Iv; v; undervise, lære (fra seg); teach;
sìkka; Iv; v; 1. vise, syne fram, 2. bevise; 1. show, exhibit, 2. prove;
Romani sikavel, from Skt. śīkṣ-;
síkklo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; lik; similar;
sikko-dìves; LDj; expr; god dag! hej!;good day!, hello!;
sìkkra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; visa; show; sikkrar diro drommen gla
mander? will you show me the way?; cf. sikka;
sìkkrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz; s; 1. lyse, lampa, 2. vittne, vittnesbörd;
1. light, lamp, 2. witness, testimony; cf. sikka;
sìkkrepa, -t, -n; LDj; s, n; vittne, vittesbörd; witness (person), witness
(act); butt ninna sikkrepan ava many witnesses came;
sìkrar; Iv; s, m; viser (på ur eller klokke); hands of a watch or clock;
sila; KIH; s; kärlek; love;
silja; KIH; s; sele; harness;
simando, simmalo; KIH, Iv; s; löfte; pledge; Iv simándo, símmalo (m)
pant; pawn, pledge;
símlo, -t, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, n; snöre, mask; string, worm;
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sìmmali, -n/a, -a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; (avtalat) möte, träff;
(arranged) meeting, date; avar diro pre simmali dre belven? are you
coming to the meeting tonight?; Iv símmani (f);
símmalo, símalo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; löfte; pledge; pawn;
simpar, sippar; KIH; s; smed; smith;
sìmpar-hispa; Iv; s, m; smie, egl. smed-stue; smithy, lit. smith-room;
sìmpe; Iv; s, f; smie; smithy;
simpe, sippe; KIH; s; smedja, järnverk; smithy, forge;
sìna, sína, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; get; goat;
sinkers; Etz; adv; sent; late;
sínkus; LDj, Etz; num; sex; six; Etz sink, sinkes;
sinsemásker, sìnsimasker, sìnsimaskar; LDj; adv; oss emellan,
sinsemellan; between us, between one another; from Sw. sinsemellan
between us;
sinsimáskron; Etz; adv; sinsemellan; between one another;
síppa, síppan; Iv; s, m; smie; smithy;
sírkel; Iv; s, m; passer; divider, compasses;
síro; séro; refl pron;
síro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; sjö, fjord, sund; lake, fiord,
channel, strait; Etz sirum, Rib siro; Romani (Sinte) zero lake, from
Ru. osero;
siro, sirus; Etz, Iv; pers pron, poss pron; sig, sin; himself, herself, his,
hers; Iv síros, síros;
sískroe devel!; Iv; expr; Gud i himmelen! eller liknande; expression of
excitement, corresponding to good heavens! or the like;
sìssa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; klippa; cut (with scissors);
sìssla, sissik, sìkksla, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; sax; scissors;
Etz sissa; Iv sìssar (m), sìsse (f), síssika (m); from Sw.Dial. sisa to
cut;
sìvar-gajia, -(n), pl -gajier, -(n)a; LDj; s, f; sömmerska; seamstress;
sìvar-tav, sìvar-tavv, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; sytråd; sewing thread;
siverske-rákkli, -(n), -er, -er(n)a; s, f; sömmerska; seamstress;
sìvra, sìva, -(de), -t; LDj, Rib, Iv; v; sy; sew; Rib sivvra; Iv sỳvra,
sùvra, sùra; Romani sivel, from Skt. sīvya-;
sivrare; Etz, Iv; s; skräddare; tailor; Iv sìvrar (m);
sivreske råmni; Etz; s; sömmerska; seamstress;
sjàsa-kakni; Iv; s, f; sjøfugl, egl. sjø-høne; seabird, lit. sea-hen;
sjàsa-mosj; Iv; s, m; sjømann; sailor, lit. sea-man;
sjapina, sjupala; KIH; s; tält; tent; Iv sjapála;
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sjas, -a; KIH, Iv; s; sjö, hav; sea, ocean, lake, small lake; Iv sjásja (m);
sjåka; KIH; s; kind; cheek;
sjå̀ ka; Iv; s, m; kind; cheek;
sjärvebarn; Etz; s; barn som har engelska sjukan; child with rachitis;
sjärven; Etz; s; engelska sjukan (rakitis); rachitis;
sjères-diklo; Iv; s, m; halstørkle, egl. hodetørkle; neckerchief, lit. head-
kerchief;
sjèro-sutan; Iv; s, m; pute, egl. hodeligger; cushion, pillow, lit. head-lier;
sjobaring; Etz; s; tolvskilling, 25-öring; twelve-skilling, 25 öre coin;
sjörtanet; Etz; s,def; förklädet; def; the apron;
sjtar-enja-dívesar; Iv; s, pl; 24 dager; 24 days (nearly the same function
as the word month, used of terms, or time limits, appointments, etc);
sjucker, sjycker; Etz; adj; vacker, fin, hygglig; beautiful, nice, decent;
sjúkli; Iv; s, f; myse, egl. (den) sure (mjølk); whey, lit. (the) sour (milk);
sjunfara; Etz; v; höra; hear;
sjutsjo; Rib; s; patte; teat, nipple, breast;
sjyldroar; Etz; s, pl; öron; ears;
sjylla; Etz; v; sopa; sweep;
sjýtran; Iv; s, m; sky; cloud;
skali, skani; KIH, Etz; s; skål, kopp, tallrik, fat; bowl, cup, plate;
skámin, -, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; stol; chair; Romani skamin, from Gr.
skámni;
skåjónare; Etz; s; resande; traveller;
skå̀ nglar; Iv; s, pl; skjæker; shafts of a carriage;
skånti(g); Etz; adj; smutsig; dirty;
skåntpenneri; Etz; s; avträde; latrine;
skåpan; KIH; s; skåp; cupboard;
skåplanet; Etz; s, def; skåpet; the cupboard;
skå̀ rjar; Iv; s, l; 1. skaftestøvler, 2. sko; 1. high boots, 2. shoes;
skåsse; KIH; s; fil; file;
skíro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; polis, vakt; police, guard;
skiroske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; polisbil; police car;
skòffa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; vara tyst, vara lugn; be quiet, be calm;
skåffa;
skójna, skònja, -n, pl skòjner, -na; LDj; s, r; sko; shoe; from Sw. sko;
skòllta, -(n), pl skòllter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; skorsten; chimney;
skont, skunt; KIH; s; skit, smuts, avföring; shit, dirt, excrement;
skonta, skunta; KIH; v; skita; shit;
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skòrnjer, skòrner, -na; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, pl; skor; shoes; so sanoa skornjer
diro kammar! what nice shoes you have!; Etz skånner, skånjer,
skårner; sg skårrno Iv skorn stövel; boot;
skrabba; KIH; v; fila; file;
skrabbe; KIH; s; fila; file;
skraj, -en, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; filt, sjal; blanket, scarf;
skríppika, skrìpka, -n, pl skrìpker, -na; LDj; s, r; fiol; violin; from Ru.
skrípka violin;
skrå̀ sse; Iv; s, f; rasp; rasp(er), grater;
skräjdo; Etz; s; hare; hare;
skrùva, -(de) -t; LDj; v; ha samlag; have intercourse;
slåffra; Etz; v; låsa; lock;
sleng, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; hundralapp; hundred Kronor bill;
Romani šelengi hundred-dinar-note, Romani šel hundred, from Skt.
śata-;
slíngert, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; orm; snake;
slìntla, slìnta, slìttra, -(n), pl slìntler, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; släde;
sled; sleigh; sledge; Etz slitta; Iv slíttan, slínta (m); from MHG slite
sledge;
slo; KIH; s; sällskap, en grupp av fantefolk; company, company of fante-
people;
slutfara; Etz; v; sluta; stop;
smèkkra, smä̀ kkra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; smaka; taste; smekkra kaj nii!
kava kabanet honkar lattjot! taste this now! this food is good!; Iv
smìkra, smìgra; from Gm. schmecken to taste;
smeltàna, smèltana, smìltana, smä̀ ntanja, smä̀ ltare, -(n); LDj, Etz,
Rib, Iv; s, r; 1. grädde, 2. rømme; 1. cream, 2. soured cream; Etz
smintána, smältána, smältina, Rib smintàna, Iv smíttina, smíntina,
smintána (m); Romani (Sinte) šmentana, fromRomanian smântână;
smíttan; Iv; s, m; smie; smithy;
smítto, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s,r; smed; smith; Iv smítjo; from MLG
smit;
smonkert; Etz; s; fett, flott; fat, grease;
snå̀ lla, snǻllan; Iv; s, m; svepesnert; lash (of a whip);
snàdjare, snàjdare, -n, -, def pl snàjdarna; snàjdert, -en, -ar, -arna;
LDj, Etz; s, r; skräddare; tailor; Etz snäjdare, snäjder; from Gm
Schneider;
snálo, snárvalo, snávalo, -, -a; LDj, Etz, Rib; adj; snål, gjerrig; stingy,
greedy; snalo diro honkar! you’re so greedy!; from Sw. snål greedy;
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snålla; Etz; s; piska; whip;

snìkka; Iv; s, m; dekksfartøy; decked vessel;
sno, -dde, -tt; LDj; v; 1. stjäla, ta, 2. gripa, häkta; 1. steal, take, 2. arrest,
place in custody; 1. siggra diro te sno gullepat to mander! hurry up
and take the sugar for me!, 2. snodde tjoron an dives (they) arrested
the thief today;
snöllan; Etz; s; kedja över huvud taget; chain in general;
sồlis, sồlus uninfl; LDj, Etz; adj; ensam, själv; alone, by oneself; honkar
diro solus khere? are you home alone? ehe, mander boddrar solis yes,
I live by myself; from Romanian solitar;
sốlo uninfl; LDj; adj; själv; alone;
sốsti, sósti, sóste; LDj; adv; varför; why;
solónomen; Etz; s, best; solen; def; the sun;
somføy, somføyl; KIH; s; sommar; summer;
sómtis; LDj; conj; som; like, as; kerra tjakke mande, kerra nani somtis lo
do as I do, not like him; from Sw. som;
sónneka, sónnika, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; guld; gold; Iv svánnakei, svánnika,
sǻnnakei, sǻnnak; Romani sumnakaj, from Skt. suvarṇa-;
sonnekáeske-krestos, -; LDj; s; guldkors; golden cross;
sonnekáeske-moffti, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; gulddosa; golden
box/small container;
sonnekáeske-tav, -en; LDj; s, r; guldtråd; golden thread;
sonnekáeske-tjuro, -n; LDj; s, r; guldkniv; golden knife; dokka miro
dova sonnekaeske-tjuro tjakke miro dadeske-dad kerrte give me that
golden knife that my grandfather made!;
sòralopa, sòrdalopa, -n; LDj; s, r; styrka; strength; sordalopa ta
mukkepa styrka och frihet;
sórralo, sóralo, sórdalo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; stark; strong; kettanes honkar
vorsnos soraloa together we are strong, devel, savo soralo romni te
nashtar ninna sasar siros narta ta sassarot vavert! heavens, what a
strong woman that can handle her whole family and everything!;
Romani zuralo;
sö́ rmis, sö̀ rming, -en/-a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; ring; ring;
sörpa; Etz; s; hus, stuga; house, cottage;
sötta; Etz; v; sova; sleep;
span, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; stöld; theft;
spàna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stjäla; steal; spana tji, dova honkar tji romanot!
don’t steal, it’s not traveller-like!; from Rotw. spannen look at;
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spékkari, spékkri, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; butik, handelsbod,

affär; store, shop; Iv spekarí, spèkkari, spìkkari (n, rarely m) 1.
stabbur; outhouse on pillars, 2. butik; shop; from MLG spiker
stockroom, warehouse;
spèkkra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; spela ett instrument, spela kort; play an
instrument, play cards; spekkra ta gija miro penji schonnas schukkart!
play and sing my sister, (it) sounds beautiful! voltrar diro spekkra lant
ninna mander nii rakklo? do you want to play cards with me now
boy?; Etz späckra, späckta;
spìkka, spíkkan; Iv; s, m; skåp; cupboard;
spilla; Rib; v; stikke; stick, poke, sting;
spínsja; Iv; s, m; skåp; cupboard;
spìta uninfl; LDj, Etz; s; i uttr. kerra spita göra narr av; in expr: kerra
spita make a fool of/make fun of;
splítta; Iv; s, m; spegel; mirror;
stàda, stàdra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lura, bedra; trick, deceive; stada nani
ghanat! don’t trick people!;
staddripà; Rib; s; bedrageri, jukseri; fraud, nonsense;
stàdi, stàdia, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; hatt, keps; hat, cap; romano tjavo
kammar stadia pre scherot the traveller-man has the hat on his head;
Romani stadik, from Gr. skiádi;
stádripa; Iv; s, m; fengsel; prison;
stàkkra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; sparka; kick; Romani (Sinte) štakêrel to walk
over;
stàkkran LDj; uninfl; s, defsg; sparkstöttingen; the kick-sled;
stámlo, stámmo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r; stol,
skammel; chair, stool, treadle; Etz stamming, stamni; Rib stamlon;
Iv skámlon, stámlo (m) benk, stol, krakk, skammel; bench, chair,
stool, foot-stool; Romani (Sinte) štampo, from Gr. skamní;
stànja, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stalla; stable;
stànjan, -et, -, -(en)a; stànja, -/stánjet, pl stànjer, -na; LDj; s, n; stall;
stable; Romani (Sinte) stanja stable, from Serbcr. staja;
stànsa, -(de), -t; LDj; v; stanna; stay;
star, schtar; num; fyra; four; Romani štar;
starda; Etz; v; draga; bedraga, lura; pull; deceive, trick, pull;
stàrda, stàda -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; lura, narra; trick, to make a fool of;
puria starda ghana pre sas the woman tricked the people for
everything they had; Iv stæ̀rda, stæ̀rdra, stèldra lure, snyte; cheat,
diddle;
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stardogae; Etz; s; fjärdingsman; (parish constable);

staris; Etz; adj, adv; ensam, själv; alone, by oneself;
starrabeng; Iv; s, m; fengsel; prison;
stàrr-nashare, -n, -, def pl nasharna; LDj, Etz; s, r; bil (=en som går på
fyra); car (lit. one that walks on four); starr-nascharen diro kammar
jar butt lattchot, nane bongit? the car you have, does (it) work,
nothing wrong?;
stársman, stàrman, -en, -s, -s; LDj; s, m; björn; bear; baroa starmans
dova honkar kaj andre Tjellano-them! (what) big bears they have here
in Norrland!; from Sw.Dial. starsk man strong man;
stàrto, -n, -ar, -arna; stàrto-mosch, -en; LDj; s, r; polis; police; Romani
astarel to seize, catch;
stàrto-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; polisstation; police station;
stattoske-vóddro, -n, -s, -s; LDj; s, r; polisbil; police car;
stàttra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; skåla; skåla för, skåla med; toast (drink),
propose a toast to, drink to; moscharna stattra the men toasted;
stǻppina; Iv; s, m; 1. krus, 2. liter, 3. måleredskap (alenstokk, meterband
o. l.); 1. jug, mug, 2. liter, 3. gauge (ell-wand etc.);
ste, -dde, -tt; stèddra, -(de), -tt; LDj; v; 1. stå, 2. stå, vara skrivet; 1.
stand, 2. be written; from Gm. stehen stand;
stédo, stä́ do, -t, -(n), -na; LDj; s, n; stuga, ställe, plats; cottage,
homestead, place; cf. ste;
steldra; KIH; v; fuska, lura; cheat, deceive, trick;
steldripa; KIH, Iv; s; bedrägeri, fusk; deceit, cheating; Iv stéldripa (m)
bedrageri; fraud;
stènass, stèna, stèra, -en, pl stèner, -na; LDj, Etz; s, r; katt; cat;
stenassen honkar but mijak pre jukklon the cat is angry at the dog; Etz
stärran; Romani (Sinte) štirna;
stetan; KIH; s; huse, plats; house, place, location;
stéttan; Iv; s, m; (smed) städ; anvil;
stil; KIH; s; stol; chair;
stìla, stìlla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; lugna, tysta; calm, quiet; from Gm. stillen;
stilipà-baskro, stillipà-baskro; Rib; s; fengsels-direktør; prison warden;
stìlla, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; gripa, häkta; arrest, place in custody; Iv stìla;
stìllebangro, stìllipa-bangro; Iv; s, m; fånge; prisoner;
stillepangro; Etz; s; fånge; prisoner;
stìllfara, stìlfara, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vara tyst, vara lugn; be quiet, be calm;
stìllipa-baskro; Iv; s, m; slåsskjempe; fighter;
stíllo, -t, -n, -na; LDj; s, n; fängelse; jail;
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stillo-bángro, stillo-páskro, -n, -ar, -arna; stìllo-farare, -n, -, def pl -

fararna; LDj, Rib; s, r; fängelsekund, återfallsförbrytare; jailbird,
recidivist; Rib stillipà-bangro, stilipà-bangro; Iv stìlebaskro (m)
forbryter; criminal;
stìllopa, -t, -n, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, n; fängelse; prison; Rib (s def)
stilipàn, stillipàn; Iv stílliba, stilipá, stílpa, stilipan, stìlapano,
stílopen (m);
stimíro; Etz; adj; gnidig, prutsam; stingy, prone to haggling;
stòdi, stàrdi, stàdi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; hatt, mössa, keps; hat,
touque, cap; cf. stadi;
stoppina; KIH; s; målarverktyg; painting tool(s);
strå̀ ta; Iv; v; idømme (fengsels)straff; prison sentence;
strå̀ ta, strǻtan; Iv; s, m; (fengsels)straff; prison sentence;
stråta-bangro; Rib; s; straff-fange; convict;
strå̀ ta-låddipa; Iv; s, m; fengsel, egl. straffehus; prison, lit. punishing-
house;
strǻtipa; Iv; s, m; straff; punishment;
strä̀ kklan, strèkkan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj; s, n; 1. tåg, 2. tak; 1. train, 2.
roof;
sträckali; Etz; s; tåg; train;
strékkan, strékan; Iv; s, m; 1. loft, 2. kammers (vel egl. loftkammers,
kvist); 1. loft, 2. closet (probably originally used of the upper room);
strèkkling, strä̀ kkling, -en, -ar/-er, -arna/-a/-er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r;
strumpa; sock; Etz pl stricklingar; from Rotw. Streifling sock;
stròta, -(de), -t; LDj; v; häkta; place in custody;
stròtan, stràtan, -et uninfl; LDj, Iv; s, def; gatan; the street; tradra pre
strotan drive on the street; Iv stráttan (m); from MLG strate street;
stylta; Etz; v; lura, narra; trick, make fun of;
stärno, stärnus; Etz; s; katt; cat;
sùtar; Iv; s, m; stol, egl. (en) sitter; chair, lit. (a) sitter;
suj, soj, söj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; sùjing, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Etz; s, r;
nål, synål; needle, sewing needle; pl sujar, suning; Romani suv, from
Skt. sūcī-;
sùmma, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. spå, äv. trolla, 2. bedra; 1. tell
fortunes, do magic, 2. deceive; Etz summa, sömma; Iv sùmma 1. øve
trolldom, hekse; practice witchcraft, conjure, 2. spå; foretell, 3.
doktorere, kurere; doctor, cure;
summalò; Rib; v; pantsette; pledge, pawn;
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súmmano; Iv; s, m; trollmann, heksemester; enchanter, sorcerer,

conjurer;
summar-gaije; Rib; s; signe-kjerring; female fortune teller;
sùmmepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, n; 1. spådom, trolldom, trolleri,. 2.
bedrägeri; 1. fortune telling; divination, witchcraft, magic tricks, 2.
deception;
súmmina, súmmani, súmmeni; Iv, Etz; s, m, f; soppa; soup; Etz summi,
sumni välling; gruel; cf. suni;
sùni, -n; LDj, Etz; s, r; soppa, köttsoppa; soup, meath broth, beef soup;
Romani (Sinte) džumi from Gr. zoumí;
sùnna, sùna, -(de), -t; LDj; v; drömma; dream; cf. suta;
sunnepar; Etz; s, pl; fjäderkläder, sängkläder; eiderdown, bedding;
surar; KIH; s; skräddare; tailor;
súrmis, sùrmus, sòrmis, sö̀ rmis, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; ring,
bröllopsring, förlovningsring; ring, wedding ring, engagement ring; Iv
sö́ rmus, súrbus from Fi. sormus;
súrpo, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Etz; s, n; torp, stuga; crofter’s holding, cottage;
surra; KIH, Etz; v; sy; sew; Etz suvra;
sùta, sùtta, sòtta -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; 1. ligga, 2. lägga, lägga sig, 3.
sova, somna; 1. lie, 2. put, lie down, 3. sleep, fall asleep; 1. suta kaj
miro mala! lie here my friend!, 2. suta dova pre boven put it on the
stove, mander suta klisningarna andre diro voddro I put the keys in
your car; Etz suta; Iv sùta also: være, bli (=oppholde seg); be (=stay);
Romani sovel, from Skt. svap-;
sùtare, -n, -, def pl sùtarna; LDj; s, m; en som ligger; lazybones,
someone who lies around sleeping (lit. one who lies down);
sútlo; Iv; s, m; eddik; vinegar;
súttano, sùte-lakk, sùtte-lakk, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; sömnig; sleepy;
suvreske rackli; Etz; s; sömmerska; seamstress;
svadd; Rib; s; äpple; apple;
svàddar, -na; LDj; s, pl; päron; pears;
svákko uninfl; LDj, Etz; pron; varje, all, -a; every, each, all;
svànnika-kerrar; Iv; s, m; gullsmed, egl. gull-arbeider; goldsmith, lit.
gold-worker;
svardara; Etz; v; svara; answer;
svæ̀rtingar; Iv; s, pl; kol; coal;
svèding; Iv; s, m; svenske; Swede;
svèdings-mosj; Iv; s, m; svenske, egl. svenske-mann; Swede, lit. Swede-
man;
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Svédin; Iv; namn; Sverige; Sweden;

svedenáris; Iv; s, m; svenske; Swede;
Svèdo-them, Svèddiske-them, Svèddingen uninfl; LDj, Etz, Iv; namn;
Sverige; Sweden; ashi, mander avar fann Svedo-them why yes, I do
come from Sweden; Etz Svedingen; Iv Svèdik-temmen; from Gm.
Schweden;
sveivus; KIH; borr; drill;
svèjarist, svä́ jsaris, -en, -er, -erna, svèjsare, -n, -, def pl svèjsarna;
LDj, Etz; s, r; hammare; hammer; mande ledde jekh svejsare ta dabba
uppri budan I took a hammer and hit open the door; Etz vässari;
Romani sfiri, from Gr. sphurí;
svekkus; KIH, Iv; s; svensk; Swede; Iv svékus;
svenarus; KIH, Iv; s; svensk; Swede; Iv svenár, svenárus (m) 2. svensk
loffer; (later) Swedish loafer;
swéschter, shwéster, -, -, -na; swèssla, -n, -, -(n)a; LDj; s, f syster;
sister; from Gm. Schwester;

T
ta; LDj; conj; och; and; Romani ta and;
tàveske-summipa; Iv; s, m; magic art of witchcraft by means of thread;
tàbbra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tända; light (on fire); tabbra kaj! light here!;
Romani thabarel to light, from Skt. dah-;
tabbremánger, tàbbrer, tàbbremanger, -na; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, pl;
tändstickor; matches; Rib sg tabbre-mang; Iv tàbrar;
tábbrik, tabblík -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; tändsticka, tändare;
match, lighter;
tacklanet; Etz; s, def; taket; the roof;
tàffla; tàfflan, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; bord; table; from MLG taf(e)le
table;
támlo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; 1. mörk, 2. snäll, bra, god; 1. dark, 2. kind, nice,
good; Romani (Sinte) tamlo dark, from Skt. tamas- darkness;
tamloske-tìa, tàmlo-tia, tamloske-tjíro, -n; tàmlo-them, -en; LDj; s, r;
höst; autumn;
tàmlo-trach; LDj, Etz; adj; mörkrädd; afraid of the dark; honkar diro
tamlo-trach? are you afraid of the dark?;
tan; KIH; s; plats; place;
tangla, tangta; Etz; s; tång; pliers;
tarus; KIH; s; tak; roof;
tatti; Etz; s; spatt; spavin (joint affliction in horses);
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tátto, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; varm; warm, hot; Etz tattro; Iv táto;
Romani tato, from Skt. tapta-;
tattomanusjet; Etz; s, coll, def; värmlänningarna; the people from
Värmland (historical province);
tattopà; Rib, Iv; s; varme; warmth; Iv táttipa (m);
Tattoske-thémm, Tàtto-themm, -en; LDj, Etz; name; Värmland;
Värmland (historical province); Etz Tattranotämmen;
tattoske-tìa, tattoske-tjíro, tàtto-tia, -n; LDj; s, r; sommar; Summer;
tattotämmingar; Etz; s, pl; värmlänningar; people from Värmland
(historical province);
tattra; Etz; v; värma, bränna; warm, burn; cf. tatto;
tav, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; tråd, streng; thread, string, telephone
wire; telefon; Rib streng, tråd; Romani thav, from Skt. *dhāgga-;
tàva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; ringa; call;
taveske-jínn, -et, -, -erna; LDj; s, n; telefonnummer; phone number;
tàvring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; en benämning på resande som förr i
tiden var straffångar på trådhusen och fick benämningen tråddragare.
Benämning på tuffare/hårdare resande; a name for travellers who used
to be convicts in the (threadhouses) and got the nick-name
threadpullers. Name for tougher travellers; cf. tav;
tàvrings-krajo; Iv; s, m; bygdevekter, egl. tater-konge; parish beadle, lit.
Romany king;
tålvbädda; Etz; s; tolvskilling, 25-öring; twelve-skilling, 25-öre coin;
tårso; KIH; adj; torr; dry;
tåsjno, tåsno; Etz, Rib; adj; 1. torr; mager, 2. smal, tynn; 1. dry; meager,
2. skinny, thin; Rib tåso; Iv tǻso, tå̀ so, tǻrso;
tå̀ sa-diklo; Iv; s, m; håndkle, egl. tørke-kle; towel, lit. drying kerchief;
tåsto; Etz; adj; torr; dry;
tǻvipa; Iv; s, m; bad; bath;
tåvra; KIH, Rib; v; hugge, skära; hew, cut;
tåvver; Rib; s; øks; axe;
tärno; Etz; adj; ung; young;
te; LDj; conj; att; to; Romani te subjunctive part;
te; Rib; prep; til; to, for, in, of; Romani te by, at, in;
te ável, te avél; LDj; v, inf; att vara, att bli; to be, to become;
tèli-besja; Iv; v; bosette seg, egl. nedsette seg; settle, lit. set one’s self
down;
tèsha, -n, -ner, -nerna; tèshan, -, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; morgon; morning;
lattjo tesha! good morning!; Romani tehara, form Gr. taxiá;
 251

téde; LDj; adv; direkt, omedelbart; immediately, at once; kerra tede do it

at once;
téde; LDj; adj;
tèijsa, tajsá, tìsha, -(n), pl teijser, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; morgon; morning;
Iv teìsan, teìsar;
tèjta, -(n), pl tejter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; lus; louse; from Fi. tei louse;
teláll; LDj, Etz, Iv; prep/adv; under; under, below; Etz tella; Iv (prep)
tèlar;
telé-hoffser, teláll-hoffser; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, pl; underbyxor, kalsonger,
trosor; underwear, briefs, knickers; tova miro telall-hoffser! wash my
underwear!; Etz tellahåffser; Iv tèlar-håfsa (m);
tèle-jakkad; LDj; pst ptc; närsynt; near-sighted;
telé-nutta, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; undertröja, linne, T-shirt;
undershirt, T-shirt; Etz tellanutta; Iv tèlar-nutta (m) undertrøye,
buserull; under-jacket, Garibaldi shirt;
telí, telé, tilí, téli, téle; LDj; adv; ner, nere; downwards, down; Romani
tele down, from Skt. tala- floor;
tella-beng; Rib; s; under-faen (telefon); under-devil (telephone);
tella-gad; Rib, Iv; s; under-trøye; undershirt; Iv tèlar-gad;
tellan; Etz; adv; till; to;
tell-jast; Rib; adv; nederst; at the bottom, farthest down;
télo; Iv; adj; tidlig; early;
templane; Rib; s, def; loftet; the loft;
te-pali; Rib; adv; igen, på ny, til-bake; again, anew, back;
térno, téno, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; ung; young; Iv tǽrno; Romani terno
young, from Skt. taruṇa-;
térnopa, -t; LDj; s, n; ungdom; youth; romano ternopa resande ungdom,
dre miro ternopa tradra mander duri drommar in my youth I travelled
long roads;
téro, téde, -t, -a; LDj; adj; nödig; in need to urinate or defecate; mander
honkar muttre-tero I need to piss, fule-tero I need to shit;
testar; LDj; v; klappa; pet;
themm, tem, temm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Rib; s, r; land, bygd, trakt;
land, district, parts, region; fann kava themm avar vorsnos narta,
tekknoa tjavo our family comes from these parts, little boy; Rib defsg
temman; Romani them, from Gr. thema;
tì-dingsar; Iv; s, m; tikroneseddel; ten krona bill;
tìa, tìja LDj; uninfl; s; tid; time; maybe from Sw. tid time;
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tìavars LDj, Etz; uninfl; s, pl; galoscher, skor; galoshes, shoes; tíkkno,
tékkno, -t, -a; LDj, Rib; adj; liten, kort; small, little, short; Romani
tikno, from Skt. tīkṣṇa- sharp;
Tikknoske-thémm, Tìkkno-themm, -en; LDj; s, r; Småland; Småland
(Smolandia);
tìkno-lil; Iv; s, m; 50-kroneseddel, egl. liten seddel, i motsetn. til baro-lil
stor-seddel, dvs. 100-kroneseddel; 50 krona bill, lit. small note, the
opposite of baro-lil large note, i. e. 100 krona bill;
tìkno-maro; Iv; s, m; bakkels, kaker, egl. småbrød; pastry, cakes, lit.
small cakes;
tìkno-sjas; Iv; s, m; lavvanne, fjæra sjø, egl. liten sjø; low tide, lit. small
sea;
tìkno-vandring; Iv; s, m; fant, mjöltråver, egl. småvandrer, småreisende;
vagabond, sort of tinker (one who goes begging for flour), lit. small-
traveller;
timtarar; KIH; s; timme; hour;
tinn; Iv; num; ti; ten;
tirak-fakkar; Rib; s; sko-arbeider (skomaker); shoemaker;
tírakk, -a, pl tirákker, -erna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; stövel, sko; boot, shoe;
Etz pl tírackar; Iv týrak; Romani tirax shoe;
tirakkeske-spékkaria, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; skoaffär; shoe shop;
tirak-makkipà; Rib; s; sko-smøring; shoe shining;
tìssa, -n, -r, -rna; tìsing, tìssing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; tia; ten
Kronor bill; from Sw. tia ten Kronor bill;
tjồra, tjòra, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; stjäla; steal; KIH kjåra; Romani
čorel, from Skt. coraya-;
tjồrepa, tjòrepa, -t, -(n), -na; LDj, Rib, KIH; s, n; stöld; theft; KIH
kjaariba;
tjacksjöro; Etz; s; kålhuvud; head of cabbage;
tjàddra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; spy, kräkas; vomit, throw up; Etz tjadda;
tjak, tjakes; Etz; adv; så, på så sätt, huru; so, in such a way, how;
tjakk; LDj, Etz; uninfl s, coll; 1. småhandelsvaror, saker, 2. kål; 1. small
merchandise, things, 2. cabbage; from Rotw. schachern deal, from
Jiddisch;
tjakk, tjàkkes; LDj; conj; så; how, so;
tjàkke; LDj; subj; som; as;
tjàkke, tjàkkes LDj; uninfl; rel pron, part; 1. (rel pron) som, 2. partikel
som ersätter temporalt hjälverb; 1. (rel pron) that 2. particle replacing
temporal auxiliary;
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tjall; Etz; s; det förh. att något, som man vill dölja (t. ex. ett brott) blivit
anmält el. upptäckt; the circumstance that something you want to hide
(e.g. a crime) is reported or discovered; Romani xalxalo greedy, bad;
tjàlla, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; anmäla, ange, förråda; report (s.th. to the
police), turn (s.b.) in, tell on s.b., betray s.b; Iv kjàla sladre, angi; tell
tales, report; cf. tjall;
tjallfara; Etz; v; anmäla, förråda; report (to the police), betray;
tjálo, kjálo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; mätt; full; fed; Romani xalo, from Skt.
khādita-;
tjàlopa, -t; LDj; s, r; mätthet; fullness, something filling (food);
tjàmla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; tugga, slicka; chew, lick;
tjamlepa; Etz; s; tuggande, tuggning; chewing;
tjang, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; knä; knee; Romani čang, from Skt.
jaṅghā-;
tjànga, -(de), -t; LDj; v; få spatt, gå ryckigt (känd ledsjukdom hos
hästar); have spavin, be spavined (joint affliction in horses);
tjáro, -n/-t, -ar/-(n), -arna/-na; LDj, Etz; s, r/n; fat, skål, kärl; plate,
bowl, container; Romani čaro, from Skt. cāṭṭa-;
tjarr, tjar, -et; LDj; s, n; gräs; grass;
tjáttjo, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; riktig, sann; real, true; KIH kjakjo
sandferdig, sandru, sandt, ekte; honest, reliable, true, authentic;
Romani čačo, from Skt. satya-;
tjàttjopa, -n/-t, -(n), -ner; LDj, Etz, KIH; s, r; 1. sanning, 2. ting,
rättegång, 3. domstol, 4. rannsakning; 1. truth, 2. court session, trial, 3.
court, 4. examination, hearing; 1. rakkra tjattjopa to liskris tell her the
truth; 2. asha pre tjattjopa (I) was at court; KIH kjakkjeba forhøret;
(the) hearing;
tjaváskro; Etz; s; bra, hygglig person (synes ha smeknamnskaraktär);
good, decent person (appears to have nickname quality);
tjávo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; 1. pojke (resande), 2. lite, barn,
unge; 1. boy (traveller), 2. little child, kid; KIH kjao, kjavo; Iv kjávo,
kjào (m); Romani čhavo, from Pkt. chāva- young animal;
tjàvo-dillon LDj; uninfl; s, defsg; pojkstackarn; the poor boy;
tjàvo-kaben, -en; LDj; s, r; barnmat; baby food;
tjávsko, tjàvasko, -t, -a; LDj; adj; bra, hygglig; good, decent;
tjåckisar; Etz; s, pl; käkar; jaws;
tjår, tjårare; Etz; s; tjuv; thief; Iv kjå̀ rar;
tjårakova; Etz, Rib; s; tjuvgods; stolen goods; Rib kjårar-kova;
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tjä̀ rva, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; koka; boil; tjärva morsta to vorsnus miro
romni honkar diro malano! make (boil) some coffee for us please, my
woman! tjärva mass an dives! boil meat today!; KIH kjerva; Romani
kiravel, from Skt. kvath-;
tjej, tjäj, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; flicka, dotter, ung kvinna
(resande); girl, daughter, young woman (traveller); bescha nani ninna
vorsnos tjavoar, ja ta rakkla ninna dova vavre tjejer! don’t sit here
with us young men, go and speak with the other girls!; Romani čhej, f
of čhavo;
tjelváni, tjèlvina, tjä̀ lvina, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz; s, r; källare;
cellar, basement; teli an tjelvania kammar vorsnos butt ninna tjakk
paschanes we have lots of wares lying in the cellar; from Sw. källare
basement;
tjèrmo, kjèrmo, kérmo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Iv, KIH; s, r; mask;
worm; KIH kjærmlo, kjærmo, jermo orm; snake; Iv kjǽrmo,
kjǽrmlo; Romani kermo worm, caterpillar, from Skt. kṛmi-;
tjérri, tjéri, -n, -os, -os; LDj; s, r; himmel, himlen; sky, heaven; Romani
čeri, fromRomanian cer;
tjèrvepa, tjä̀ rviba, -(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; kokplats, kök;
kitchenette, kitchen;
tji; LDj, KIH; uninfl interj., adv, pron; 1. (interj) nej, 2. (adv) inte, 3.
(pron) ingen, inget, inga; 1. (interj) no 2. (adv) not 3. (pron) nobody,
nothing, none; 1. tji tjavo! no, young man!, tji, ja tji no, don’t go, 2.
mander janar tji I don’t know; ja tji ifann mande! don’t walk away
from me!, 3. rakkra tji pala dova, don’t talk about it, lester honkar tji
khere he is not home; KIH ki ikke, intett, slutt, nei; not, nothing,
finished, at an end, used up, no; Romani či, from Arm. oč;
tjibb, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; 1. tunga, 2. språk, modersmål
(tungomål); 1. tongue, 2. language, mother tongue; 1. tjibb, moj, jakk,
nakk ta bal tongue, mouth, ear, nose and hair, 2. romani-tjibb mother-
tongue; Romani čhib, from Skt. jīhva-;
tjibbi; Etz; adj; bra, god; good;
tjill, tjìlla LDj; uninfl; v; är, vara; is, be; motjill! be quiet! be still!; tjilla
akaj to be here, dova tjill jekh terno jukklo! that was a young dog!;
tjímlo, -t, -a; LDj; adj; otrevlig, obehaglig; unkind, unpleasant, rude;
tjíndo, tjíno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; våt, blöt; wet; Romani kingo, from Skt.
timita-;
tjing, -et, -er, -era; LDj; s, n; knivhugg, skärsår; knife wound, gash;
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tjìngra, kìngra, tjìnra, tjìnga, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH, Etz; v; skära, fäkta;
cut, fence; tjingra maro cut bread; KIH kingra skades med kniv; be
injured by knife; Etz tjinna, tjinra, tjingra; Romani čhinel, from Skt.
chind-;
tjìngrepa, -t, -(n), -ner; LDj; s, n; knivslagsmål; knife brawl, knife fight;
puranoa romanoa sikkra siros soralopa ninna tjuro tjingrepa
sinsimaskro old travellers used to show their strength by having knife
fights with each other;
tjingropa; Etz; s; knivskärning; slicing;
tjinn, tjing, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; skåra, skärsår; score, notch, groove,
gash;
tjìnna, -(de), -t; LDj, KIH; v; köpa; buy; KIH kjenna; Romani kinel,
from Skt. krī-nā-;
tjinna, tjinra, tjingra; Etz; v; skära; cut; cf. tjingra;
tjìnnepa, -n, -r, -rna; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. marknad, 2. kjøp (förmodligen bara
i frasen lakjo kjinnipa); 1. market, 2. buying, purchase (probably only
in the phrase lakjo kjinnipa =cheap, lit. good buying); Iv kjínnipa;
tjíno, tjínno, -t, -a; LDj; adj; trött, matt, sliten; tired, faint, worn (out);
Romani khino, from Skt. khinna-;
tjirklo; Etz; s; hare, kanin; hare, rabbit;
tjírklo, kírklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj, Etz, Rib; s, r; fågel; bird;
schonna pre tjirkloarna, dova gijar schukkranot! listen to the birds,
they’re singing beautifully!; Etz tjirko, Rib kjerklo; cf. cirklo;
tjíro, -n; LDj; s; tid; time; Romani (Sinte) čiro time, wheather;
tjìum; LDj; adv; i uttr. tjium jekhum inte ett dugg; in expr: tjium jekhum
not one bit;
tjìvvra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kasta; throw; tjivvra avri fulet! throw that trash
away!; Romani čhivel, from Skt. kṣip-;
tjòkka, -a(n), -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; 1. kjol, 2. kjole; 1. skirt, 2. dress;
Iv kjǻkka; Romani čoxa, from Gr. tsoxa;
tjókkis, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; käke, haka; jaw, chin; nukkon dabba
andre tjokkisen dre tafflanet the child hit its chin on the table; from
MLG kake, keke jaw;
tjomm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; kyss; kiss; Etz tjymm; Romani
čum, from Skt. cumba-;
tjòmma, tjòmra, tjùmra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib; v; kyssa; kiss; cf.
tjomm;
tjònkra, tjòngra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; spotta; spit; Iv kjòngla; Romani
čhungarel;
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tjôr, tjor, -et, -, -ena; LDj; s, n; stöld; theft;

tjòralo-manusch, tjòrralo-manish, -et, -, -ena; LDj, Iv; s, n; fattigfolk;
poor people; Iv kjå̀ ro-manus;
tjóro, tjórro, -t, -a; LDj, KIH; adj; fattig; poor; KIH kjåro; Romani
čořo;
tjórralo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz, KIH; adj; fattig; poor; Etz tjåralo; KIH
kjårano; stackars; poor (unfortunate); cf. tjoro;
tjórro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; stackare, fattiglapp; poor fellow,
pauper, destitute person;
tjòrro-hispa, -(n), pl hìsper, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; fattighus; poorhouse;
tjórro-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; fattighus; poorhouse;
tjòva, -(de), -t; LDj; v; kasta; throw;
tjö̀ kkanet-buda, -(n), pl bùder, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; köksdörr; kitchen door;
tjö̀ kklan, tjö̀ kkan, kö̀ ö̀kklan, kö̀ kkan, kö̀ ttlan, -et, -, -(en)a; LDj, Etz;
s, r; kök; kitchen;from Sw. kök kitchen;
tjúkkni, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; piska; whip; tjukkniera
mander tjinna honka lattjoa the whips I bought were good; Etz
tjucknia, tjyckni; Iv kjúkni (f) ett slags vapen; a type of weapon;
Romani čhupni;
tjúro, tjúri, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv, KIH; s, r; kniv; knife; mander
voltrar dikka pre diro tjuro I want to look at your knife; Etz tjuring;
Iv kjuril, kjùro, kjúro; KIH kjuril; Romani čhuri, from Skt. kṣuri-;
tjurodáni, tjurodíni, tjurodíne, -t, -r, -rna; LDj; s, n; knivstick (det
dödande sticket); stabbing (fatal stab); dela moschen tjurodine! stab
the man! (give the man a fatal stab wound);
tjúttjo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; kvinnobröst, bröstvårta; female
breast, nipple; Iv kjúkji, kjúkjo, kjúkjon, pl kjùkjiar, kjùkjorer,
sjùsjoar, kjùrer; Romani čuči, from Pkt. cucuya-;
tjuttran; Etz; s; tjuder; tether;
tjỳllra, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv, KIH; v; frysa; freeze, be cold; Iv kjỳldra,
kjöldra; KIH kjøldra;
tjỳllri, -t, -a; LDj; adj; kall; cold, chilly;
tjỳvvra, tjìvvra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; kasta; throw; tjivvra dova to
mander! throw it to me! tjivvra tji! ashar ali jar an mul don’t throw it,
it’s glass that will break!; Etz kivra, tjivra, tjuvra, tjyvra, tjua; Iv
kjùva;
tjýllrano, tjýllmano, tjöldrano, tjéllano, shylndrano, shö́ ldrano, -t, -a;
LDj, Etz, Iv; adj; kall; cold; dolle honkar tjyllranot avri is it cold
outside?; Etz sjylanot, sjylarot, tjílmano, tjýlmano; Iv kjùldrano,
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kjỳllalo, kjỳllano, kjyllmano, kjìllalo; Romani šil coldness, from

Skt. śīta-;
tjylma; Etz; v; frysa; freeze; be cold;
tjylmert; Etz; adv; kallt; cold;
tô; LDj, Iv; prep, vpart; 1. till, 2. (vpart) till; 1. to, 2. (vpart); 1. dova
tradra to spekkarian they went to the store, 2. penn to palla diro
honkar bukkalo say to (tell me) if you’re hungry; Iv to 1. prep till; to,
2. adv åter, igen; once more, again; Romani to to;
tôpálo, tôpále; LDj, Etz; adv; tillbaka; back; karna avar diro topalo
khere fann tradrepan? when are you coming back from the trip?;
tòsa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; v; torka; dry, wipe; tosa jakkera ta rova
tji buttare miro nukko! dry your eyes, and don’t cry anymore my
child!; Etz tåsa, tåssa; Rib tåsdra; Iv tå̀ stra; Romani (Sinte) khosel
dry up, from Skt. ghṛṣ- rub, pound;
tòvepa, tòvvepa, -t; LDj; s, n; tvätt; laundry; sutta avri tovvepat! take
(put) out the laundry!;
tòving, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz; s, r; tvål; soap; Etz tåvving, tåvvis;
tovre; KIH, Iv; s; ox; ox; Iv tå̀ vre;
tồva, -(n), pl tồver, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; tusenlapp; thousand-kronor bill;
tòvva, tòva, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; tvätta; wash; Iv tå̀ va bada; bathe;
tovveske-híspa, tòvvar-hispa, -(n), pl -hisper, -(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r;
tvätthus, badhus; laundry, public baths; Iv tå̀ var-hispa (m) badstue;
steam room;
tovveske-ménger, -n, pl méngrar, -na; LDj; s, r; tvättrasa, disktrasa;
wash-cloth, dish-cloth;
tovveske-rýso, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; disktrasa, tvättsvamp; dish-cloth,
sponge;
tovveske-tjáro, tòvvar-tjaro, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; tvättfat;
washbasin; Iv tå̀ var-kjaro;
tö̀ ja, -(de), -t; LDj, Iv; v; röka; smoke; Iv tö̀ ya; cf. tya;
tö́ nnik, tö́ rnik, tö́ rnika; Iv; s, f, m; skjorte; shirt;
tørbus; KIH; s; portmonnä; purse;
tøy; Rib; s; røyk; smoke;
tö̀ ya; Iv; v; ryke; røyke; smoke;
tö̀ yar; Iv; s, m; cigarett; ogs. generelt om en røyk; cigarette; also
generally of a smoke;
tö́ yepa; Iv; s, m; ånga; steam;
tö́ rbus; Iv; s, m; pengepung; purse;
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trach, trash, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; rädd; frightened; Etz trassj; Romani
traš, from Pers. tras fear;
tràcha, tràsha, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; 1. skrämma, hota, 2. frukta; 1.
frighten, threaten, 2. fear;cf. trach;
tracht, trasht, tráschanot, tráshanot; LDj; adv; farligt; dangerous(ly);
honkar tracht kaj pre dova stedot attjer foron it is dangerous in this
part of town, rakka diro honkar trachanot! watch out, its dangerous!;
traddra-dromm; Rib; s; kjøre-veg; roadway, carriageway;
traddrare; Etz; s; körare, åkare; driver, wagoner;
tràdra; Iv; v; kjøre; drive; Romani tradel, from Skt. tard- split;
tràdrar-beng; Iv; s, m; jernbane, egl. kjøredjevel; railway, lit. driver-
devil;
tradrepa; Etz; s; farande, körande; bustling about, driving;
tragla; KIH; v; träda; tread;
tràkksa, -(n), pl tràkkser, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; barnmorska; midwife;
trànsuring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; tallrik; (dinner) plate; tovva
transuringarna! wash the dishes!; Etz transúring, Iv tránsarist,
tránsurus (m); Romani (Sinte) transuri, from Fr. tranchoir;
trasjipà; Rib, Iv; s; skremming, redsel; fright, scare, fear; Iv trásjipa (m)
redsel, skrekk; horror, terror;
trå̀ mo; Iv; adj; vanskelig, uvillig (f.eks. om en hest); tung, seig; difficult,
unwilling (e.g., a horse); heavy, dull, tough;
trétan; Iv; s, m; träd; tree;
trémmo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; förstuga; (entrance) hall,
passage; motjilla! shonn! honkar dolle ghana an tremmon? be quiet!
listen! are there people in the entrance hall?; Etz trämma; Iv trémmo
(m) gang (i hus); passage, corridor; Romani (Sinte) tremo doorway,
from Serbcr. trijem;
tríllert; Iv; s, m; hjul; wheel;
trin, trinn; LDj; num; tre; three; Romani trin, from Skt. trīṇi;
trínter, trìnter, -(n)a; LDj; s, pl; ärtor; peas;
trìnte-summina; Iv; s, m; ertesuppe; peasoup;
trìssa, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz, Iv; v; träffa, möta; encounter, meet; Etz rissja,
rissa, trissja; Iv drìssa, trisja; maybe Romani resel arrive;
trìssepa, -t, -na; LDj; s, n; möte, träff; meeting, date;
trománik; Etz; s; käpp, påk; cane, cudgel;
tròmma, trùmma, -(de), -t; LDj; v; våga; dare; Romani tromal, from Gr.
tolmõ;
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Trø̀ntus-fåron; Iv; name; Trondheim, egl. Trønder-byen; Trondheim, lit.

the Trønder City;
trø̀dra, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; resa, fara, åka, köra; travel, go, drive; Etz
traddra; cf. tradra;
trø̀drare, -n, -, def pl trø̀drarna; LDj; s, m; förare, chaufför; driver,
chauffeur;
trø̀drar-juling, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; cykel; bicycle;
trø̀drepa, -t; LDj; s, n; resa; journey;
trùdra; Iv; v tro, tru; believe;
trùlsing, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; docka; doll;
trúmmano, trúmano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; ensam; lonely;
trúmmo, trúmo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; lat; lazy; Etz tråmo;
trumo; Etz; adj; envis; stubborn;
trúppo, tróppo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; kropp; body; honkar sasto an
truppo my body is healthy; Romani trupo, fromRomanian trup;
trùsha, -(de), -t; LDj; v; törsta (efter); thirst (for);
trúshalo, tróshalo, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; törstig; thirsty; Iv trùsano,
túsjalo; Romani truš, from Skt. tṛṣya- be thirsty;
trä́ ttanet; Etz; s,def; trädet; the tree;
tscho, tschon, -en, -er, -erna; tuscho, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; månad;
month; Romani čhonut, from Skt. kaumudī-;
tschon, -en, -er, -erna; LDj, Iv; s, r; måne; moon; Iv sjon (m); cf. tscho;
tùlipa-gøye; Iv; s, f; fleskepølse; pork sausage;
tudd, -en/-a; LDj, Etz; s, r; mjölk; milk; Etz tödd; Romani thud, from
Skt. dugdha-;
tùdda, -(de), -t; LDj; v; mjölka; milk; cf. tudd;
tudda-gùrmi, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, f; mjölkko; milk-cow;
tudda-kóri, -n/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj; s, r; mjölkflaska; milk-bottle;
tuddiske-sani; Rib; s; mjølke-suppe; milk gruel;
tùdd-kippo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; mjölkkärl; milk-container;
túgalo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; sorg; mourning; Romani dukh, from Skt.
duḥkha-;
túgalo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; ledsen, sorgsen; sad, mournful; Etz týalo;
tùgalopa, -t; LDj; s, n; sorg; mourning;
túllano, -t, -a; LDj; adj; tjock; fat; cf. tullo;
tùllepa, -t; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, n; fett, flott, fetma; fat, lard, grease,
obesity; Etz tulopà; Iv tùlipa (m) flesk; pork;
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túllo, -t, -a; LDj, Etz; adj; tjock, kraftig, i grossess (gravid); fat, chubby,
pregnant; mander kammar bliddrat tullo I’ve gotten fat; Etz tullro,
tulo; Romani thulo, from Skt. sthūla-;
tusjalò; Rib; adj; tørst; thirsty;
túsjni; Iv; s, f; kanne; can;
tvalo; Etz; s; tvål; soap;
tviling; KIH, Iv; s; en bit tvål; piece of soap; Iv tvìlling (m);
tỳa, thỳja, thùja, -(de), -t; LDj, Etz; v; röka; smoke; Etz töja; Romani
thuv smoke, from Skt. dhūma-;
týali, tíali, tö́ jali, -t; LDj, Iv; s, n; tobak, cigaretter; tobacco, cigarettes;
Iv teali, tyalí, tỳöli;
tyali-kjammlo; Rib; s; tobakkskrå; tobacco law;
tyali-kjonker; Rib, Iv; s; tobakk-spytt, -ing; tobacco spit, -ting; Iv tỳöli-
kjonker;
tyepa, töjepa; Etz; s; rök, rökning; smoke, smoking;
tỳrak-kjerar; Iv; s, m; skomaker; shoemaker;
tytrom; KIH; s; syster; sister;

U
ula; KIH; v; mullra; grumble;
ulma; KIH, Iv; v; vägra; refuse; Iv ùlma trasse; mukke; be obstinate,
grumble;
uschál, -et, -er, -erna; LDj; s, n; skugga; shadow; Romani učal, from
Skt. *ava-chāda- covered;
ùshla, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vara skyldig (pengar); owe (money); cf. ushli;
ùshlepa, -t/-n; LDj, Rib, Iv; s, n./r; skuld; debt; Rib usjlipà; Iv úsjlipa;
ùshli, ỳshli, -t, -a; LDj, Iv; adj; skyldig; owing s.b., in debt; Iv úsjlo;
Romani udžile guilty, from Skt., Dard. ūsh guilt;
usjli, usjlo; Etz; adj; skyldig; owing;

V
vágerst, vágest; adv/adj; först; first; cf. vago;
vágerste LDj; uninfl; adj/adv; först; first;
vágo, váko; Iv; adv; 1. (adv) før, føre, 2. (adj, num) først, ogs. forrige; 1.
(adv) before, 2. (adj, num) first, also last (i.e. preceding); Romani
(Sinte) vago, from Skt. agra- tip;
vàgo-divisen; Iv, Rib; s, m, adv; gårdagen, mest brukt adverbielt = igår,
egl. forrige dagen; (the) yesterday, generally used adverbially, lit. the
last day; Rib vago-divis;
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váli; Iv; s, f; (drikke)glass; (drinking) glass; Romani valin window, from

Gr. gualí;
válo; Iv; s, m; lampeglass; glass lamp cover;
válgorna; Etz; adj; ljus, vitaktig; light, fair, whitish;
valmus; Rib; adj; ferdig; finished;
valsje; Etz; s; fan, djävulen; hell, the devil;
valsje; Etz; s; fransos, ett ord som används för att beteckna venerisk
sjukdom; Frenchman, a word used to refer to venereal disease;
vampe; KIH; s; tjocktröja; sweater;
vàndring; Iv; s, m; reisende, tater; traveller, Romany;
vàndrings-kjei; Iv; s, f; taterjente; Romany girl;
vant, vànta, -(n), pl vànter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; vägg; wall; from Gm.
Wand;
vanteske-díkklo, -n, -ar/-s, -arna/-s; LDj; s, r; tapet, gobeläng;
wallpaper, tapestry, Gobelin;
vanteske-jùva, vànta-juvja, -(n), pl -jùver, -(n)a; LDj, Etz, Rib, Iv; s, r;
vägglöss; bedbugs (lit. wall lice); Etz vantersjuver, Rib vannta-
ju(v)a; Iv vànta-juar;
vanteske-kambána, -n, pl kambáner, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; väggklocka; wall
clock;
vanteske-tèjta, vànta-tejta -(n), pl tèjter, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; vägglus;
bedbug (lit. wall louse);
vantra; Etz; s; skjul; shed;
vàntra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vilja; want; maybe from Skt. van- wish for sth.;
vàntra, -n, pl vantrer, -na; vàntrepa, -n/-t, -n, -na; LDj; s, r/n; vilja;
will;
vàrna; Iv; v; varna; warn;
váro, -t; s, n; LDj; mjöl; meal; flour; Romani ařo, from Skt. *ārta-;
vàro-mangar; Iv; s, m; lägre sorts resande, mycket lik en vandrande
kittelflickare, egl. mjøltigger; lower sort of traveller, much the same as
tramping (wandering/hiking) tinker, lit. flour-beggar;
varokingla; Etz; s; mjölkvarn; flour mill;
varsjia; Rib, Iv; v; regne; rain; Iv vàrsja; cf. brisha;
várvara, vàrvara LDj, Etz; uninfl; pron; 1. varandra, 2. annan; 1. each
other, 2. other; from Sw. varandra another;
vasht, -en/-a, -er, -er(n)a; LDj, Iv; s, r; hand, näve; hand, fist, handful; Iv
vasjt, vast, vas (m) hand, arm; hand, arm; Romani vast, from Skt.
hasta-;
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vashteske-díkklo, vàsht-dikklo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; handduk;

towel (lit. hand-kerchief; Iv vàsjta-diklo (m);
vashteske-léddika, vàsht-leddika, -n; LDj; s, r; handväska; handbag;
váver, -ert, pl vàvra; LDj, Iv; pron; annan; other, another; Iv váver,
vávro, vávri;
vaver-jekk; Rib; adv; annen-en; other than;
vavri; Rib; adj; andre; other;
vavrot; Etz; pron; annat; other, else;
våddroisar; Etz, Iv; s, pl; sängkläder; bedclothes; Iv vå̀ dro-isar, vǻdro-
isar;
vå̀ drar; Iv; s, m; eiermann; owner;
vårdinè; Rib; s; kjerre, vogn; cart, carriage;
vå̀ rföy; Iv; s, m; vår; Spring;
vå̀ ros, vǻros; Iv; poss pron; vår; our(s);
vǻdripa; Iv; s, m; eiendom; possession, property;
vǻdro; Iv, Etz; s, m; seng; bed; Etz våddrus;
vǻro, vå̀ ro; Iv; pron; vi; we;
väljfara, väljtara; Etz; v; välja; choose;
väntfara; Etz; v; vänta; wait;
värri; Etz; adj; röd; red;
væ̀rta-kjer; Iv; s, m; 1. (eldre) skyss-stasjon, 2. (nyere) jernbanestasjon;
1. (older) coach office, stage-house, 2. (more modern) railway station;
värtan; Etz; s; värd, gästgivare; host, inkeeper;
véro; Iv; adj; deilig; delicious;
véder, véders; LDj; adv; tillbaka; back;
veísan; Iv; s, m; sabel; sword;
veíster, veísta; Iv; s, m; kniv; knife;
vèjsta, vèjshla, -(n); vèjsting, véjsti LDj, Etz; uninfl; s, r; kniv; knife;
from Fi. veitsi knife;
vemling; KIH; s; tarmarna; the bowel(s);
verani, värani; Etz, Rib; s; kedja, klockkedja; chain, watch chain; Rib
verranì; Iv vèrani, væ̀rrani (f);
vèrta, -n, -r, -rna; LDj; s, r; krog, pub; bar, pub; from MLG wert
landlord;
vèrta-kher, -(e)n, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; gästgivaregård, krog; inn, pub;
vesh, vesch, -en/-an, -ar, -arna; LDj, Etz, Iv; s, r; skog, skogsbygd;
forest, woodland; Etz vissj, vässj; Iv vésja, vésjan, vǽrsa, vǽrsan
(m) 2. (sj.) ås; (rarely) redge; Romani veš forset, from Pers. veša;
 263

veshteske-dróm, vèsch-dromm, vèsh-dromm, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r;

skogsväg; forest trail;
veshteske-mèngare, vèsh-mengare, -n, -, def pl -mèngarna; LDj; s, m;
skogsarbetare; woodsman, lumberjack;
vesja-kev; Rib; s; skog-hull; forest gaps;
vèstring, véstus; Iv; s, m; vest; waistcoat;
vèttran, vä̀ ttran -et; LDj, Iv; s, n; väder; weather; dikkas pre tjeri ta
dolle bliddra kerjat vettra an dives you can see in the sky that it will
be bad weather today, vettranet bliddrar schukkart to teijsa it will be
nice weather tomorrow; Iv vétra, vétran; from Gm. Wetter;
vìna, vína; Iv; s, m; feil; error, fault; defect;
vidder; Etz; adv; igen, tillbaka; again, back;
vikting; KIH, Iv; s; butikägare; shopkeeper; Iv vìkting (m) handelsmann,
særl. landhandler merchant; esp. country-dealer;
vináta, vináshta, vìnata, vìnastja, -(n), pl vinater, -er(n)a; LDj, Etz,
Rib; s, r; vinter, jul; Winter, Christmas;Rib vinntak; from Gm.
Weinachten;
vinateske-bálo, -n; LDj; s, r; julgris; Christmas pig;
vinateske-kàben, -; LDj; s, r; julmat; Christmas food;
vinateske-vriál, -en; LDj; s, r; julgröt; Christmas porridge;
vìndfang; Iv; s, n; segl; sail;
vinlingen; Etz; s, def; vinden (i ett hus); the attic;
vinvána, varvara; Iv; s, m; ros; rose;
vinvana; KIH; v; prisa; praise;
vìra, -(n), pl vìrer, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; kedja; chain; Romani (Sinte) verklin
from Serbcr. veriga;
vírali; Etz; s; kedja, klockkedja; chain, watch chain;
vìronila, -(n), pl vìroniler, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; guldkedja; golden chain;
vìrra, -de, -t; LDj; v; viska; whisper;
vish, vich, -a/-en; LDj; s, r; landsbygd; countryside;
vislo, vislos, visnos; Etz; pers pron; vi; we;
vìstra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; visa; show;
vivan; KIH, Iv; adj; våt, rå; wet, raw; Iv vívan;
vòddring, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; vagn, husvagn; wagon, caravan;
vóddrish, vóldrish, vógglish, -en, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, n; säng, soffa; bed,
couch; from Ru. odr bed, also used in combinations meaning wagon;
voddrishke-ìser, -na; LDj; s pl; sängkläder; bedding, sheets;
vóddro, vóddo, -n, -s, -s; vóddri, -n; LDj; s, r; bil, vagn; car, wagon;
Romani (Sinte) vordin cart, caravan, wagon, cf. voddrish;
 264

vodra; KIH; v; äga; own;

vòggra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; väga; weigh; from Sw. våg;
vòggrepa, -t, -, -na; LDj; s, n; våg; scale;
vóldrish; vóddrish;
vòlta, -n, -er, -erna; LDj; s, r; gång; occasion (jekh volta one time, once);
vòltra, -(de), -t; LDj; v; vilja; want;
vórdo, -n, -ar, -arna; LDj, Iv; s, r; vagn, kärra, bil; wagon, cart, car; Iv
vǻrdi, vǻrdin, vårdíne, vårdýne (f), vårdína (m); cf. voddro;
vórsnos, vórsnus, vòrsnus; LDj, Etz, Iv; pers pron, poss pron; 1. (pers
pron) vi, oss, 2. (poss pron) vår, vårt, våra; 1. (pers pron) we, us 2.
(poss pron) our, ours; Etz vårsno, vårsnos, våssnos, vårsnus,
vårsnås; Iv vǻrsnus, vǻsjnus vi; we; from Sw/Norw. vår our;
vri; LDj, Etz; adv; ut, ute, utanför; out, outside, outside of;
vriál, -et/-en; LDj; s, n/r; gröt; porridge; from MLG brī porridge;
vripassjelse; Etz; s; utlägg (av pengar); outlay; expense;
vùda, vùrda, -(n), pl vùrder, vùrder, -(n)a; LDj; s, r; dörr; door;
Romani vudar, from Skt. dvāra-;
vurdi, vudding, vurdo, vårdi, vårding; Etz; s; kärra, vagn; barrow, cart,
carriage;
vusjta; Etz; s; förstuga; (entrance) hall; passage;
vust, -a, -ar, -arna; LDj; s, r; läpp; lip; Romani vušt, from Skt. oṣṭha-;

Y
yks; Etz; num; en, ett; one; from Fi. yksi;
 265

Appendix II, Texts

II.1 Trin phralarna
Fairy tale ”Three brothers”, translation by Lenny Lindell 2011

Dolle ach-a an jekh volta

there be-INF in one occasion

trin phral-as. Dova duj purano-a

three brother-PL the two old-PL

ach-a gasskano-a, abbo dova trintoske

be-INF wise-PL but the third

ach-a jekh bengalo. Pre sero

be-INF a madman on REFL

dad-s Muleskeboggro, karna lo sass-te

father-GEN deathbed when he will-PST

mul-a, penn-a lengro-s dad:

die-INF said-INF they-GEN father

-Nii fysh-er ersno-s sano-t ach-a

now will-PRS you-(PL)-GEN nice-ADV be-INF

jekh ratti riggeske miro mulo-phuv.

one night beside my funeral

Savo sut-a dova teli an

so lay-INF DEM down in

phuv, lengro-s dad, ta dova

earth thy-GEN father and the

phurano-aste fysh-te ja to mulokher-en.

old-SPL will-PST go.INF to churchyard-DEF

Dolle voltr-a lo tji kerr-a

then want-INF he not make-INF
 266

te dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv.

to sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth

Savo lo penn-a:
so he say-INF

-Bengalo, diro nast dombr-a pre

madman you can.PRS sleep-INF on

Phuv-en savo mander tji fysh-er

earth-DEF so I not have to-PRS

kerra dova? Pala diro kerr-ar

do DEM if you do-PRS

kava dokk-ar mander diro jekh

DEM give-PRS I you INDEF

nevoa skojn-er.
new shoe-PL

-Lattjot, penn-a bengalo-n le-dde pre

good say-INF madman-DEF take-PST on

sero-s pagrad-e gadd, le-dde jekh

REFL-GEN broken-DEF shirt take-PST INDEF

dori pala sero dor-a jekh

string around REFL string-DEF INDEF

jimmeske-dori pale sero, le-dde

leather-string around REFL take-PST

sero kilo ta ja-dde to

REFL cudgel and go-PST to

kangari-kher-en.
church-yard-DEF

Lo dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv

he sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth
 267

to senslo pre ratti-a, ta dolle

to late on night-DEF and then

ja-dde lo oppri ta agr-a

go-PST he up and start-INF

dabb-a pre dad-en-s phuv soralo-t.

beat-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth hard-ADV

Tjakkes phuv tjivvra-de-s vir abri

REL earth throw-PST-PASS out away

to himlo, dollo ava dad-en

to heaven then come father-DEF

oppri ta pusch-a:
up and ask-INF

-Honk-ar dova, miro purano-aste tjavo?

be-PRS DEM my old-SPL boy

-Tji, penn-a bengalo-n.

no say-INF madman-DEF

-Ach-ar dova miro masker-ste tjavo?

be-PRS DEM my middl- SPL boy

-Tji!
no

-Honk-ar dova diro bengalo-n?

be-PRS DEM you madman-DEF

-Ehe, dad!
yes father

Dad-en drej-a nikli jekh kalo-t

father-DEF pull-INF away INDEF black-NT

bal fann babb-et, porda pret

hair from beard-DEF blow on it

ta dikk-a, avri to nanit

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and see-INF out to/for nothing

ta doj av-a jekh butt

and there come-INF INDEF very

kalo grej ninna sonnikaeske-marpina.

black horse with gold-harness

Dad-en penn-a:
Father-DEF say-INF

-Mande denkr-a te dock-a vir

I think-INF to give-INF (away)

kava grej to miro purano-aste

DEM horse to my old-SPL

tjavo, abbo lo kamm-ar tji

boy but he have-PRS not

av-at, fysh-er diro le ninna

have-SUP get to-PRS you take.INF with

diro kava grej. Pala diro

you DEM horse if you

kamm-ar tedepa, fysh-er diro pord-a

have-PRS urgency shall-PRS you blow-INF

pre babb-bal-et, savo av-ar grashno

on beard hair-DEF so come-PRS stallion

to diro. Ta karna diro

to you and when you

le-r Doj-er-na, bliddr-ar diro jekh

take-PRS rein-PL-DEF become-PRS you INDEF

shukkard ta fedig morsh. Nii

beautiful and fine man now

fysh-er diro ja khere, tjavo.

shall-PRS you go.INF home boy
 269

Ta bengalo-n ja-dde khere. Pre

and madman-DEF go-PST home on

teijsa-n pusch-a Phral-ar-na:

morning-DEF ask-INF brother-PL-DEF

-So kamm-ar diro dikk-at? So

what have-PRS you see-SUP what

kamm-ar diro shonn-at?

have-PRS you hear-SUP

-Mander kamm-ar tji dikk-at ta

I have-PRS not see-SUP and

nani shonn-at savo butt, penn-a

not hear-SUP such much say-INF

bengalo-n.
madman-DEF

Into vavre ratti honk-a dova

next to other night be-INF DEM

maker-ste phral-en-s volta te ja

middl-est brother-DEF-POSS occasion to go.INF

to kangari-kher-en, ta lo
to church-yard-DEF and he

pusch-a bengalo-n:
ask-INF madman-DEF

-Ja diro to dadeske-phuv savo

go.IMP you to father-earth so

ach-ar te mander kerr-a nevoa

be-PRS to me make-INF new

skoinereske-dori to diro!
shoe-lace for you
 270

-Lattjo-t, penn-a bengalo-n le-dde pre

good-ADV say-INF madman-DEF take-PST on

sero-s pagrade gadd, le-dde jekh

REFL-GEN broken shirt take-PST INDEF

dori pala sero dor-a jekh

string around REFL string-def INDEF

jimmeske-dori pale sero, le-dde

leather-string around REFL take-PST

sero kilo ta ja-dde.

REFL cudgel and go-PST

Lo dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv

he sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth

to senslo pre ratti-a, ta

to late on night-DEF and

dolle ja-dde lo oppri ta

then go-PST he up and

agr-a dabb-a pre dad-en-s phuv

start -INF beat-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth

soralo-t. Tjakkes phuv tjivra-de-s vir

hard-ADV REL earth throw-PST-PASS out

to himlo, dollo av-a dad-en

to heaven then come- father-DEF
INF

oppri ta pusch-a:
up and ask-INF

-Honk-ar dova, miro purano-aste tjavo?

be-PRS DEM my old-SPL boy

-Tji, penn-a bengalo-n.

no say-INF madman-DEF
 271

-Ach-ar dova miro masker-ste tjavo?

be-PRS DEM my middle-SPL boy

-Tji!
no

-Honk-ar dova diro bengalo?

be-PRS DEM you madman

-Ehe, dad!
yes father

Dad-en drej-a avri jekh kalo-t

father-DEF pull-INF out one black-NT

bal fann babb-et, pord-a pre-t

hair from beard-DEF blow-INF on-it

ta dikk-a, avri to nani-t

and see-INF out to/for nothing-NT

ta doj av-a jekh herma

and there come-INF INDEF grey

grej ninna ruppeske dorj-er. Dad-en

horse with silvery rein-PL father-DEF

penn-a:
say-INF

-Mande denkr-a te dokk-a vir

I think-INF to give-INF away

kava grej to miro mekr-este

DEM horse to my middle-est

tjavo, abbo lo kamm-ar tji

boy but he have-PRS not

av-at, fysh-er diro le ninna

come-SUP get to-PRS you take.INF with

diro kava grej. Pala diro

 272

you DEM horse if you

kamm-ar tedepa, fysh-er diro pord-a

have-PRS urgency shall-PRS you blow-INF

pre babb-bal-et, savo av-ar grashno

on beard-hair-DEF such come-PRS stallion

to diro. Ta karna diro

to you and when you

le-r doj-er-na, bliddr-ar diro jekh

take-PRS reins-PL-DEF become-PRS you INDEF

shukkard ta fedig tjavo. Nii

beautiful and fine boy now

fysh-er diro ja khere, tjavo.

shall-PRS you go.INF home boy

Ta bengalo-n ja-dde khere. Pre

and madman-DEF go-PST home on

teijsa-n pusch-a phral-ar-na:

morning-DEF ask-INF brother-PL-DEF

-So kamm-ar diro dikk-at? So

what have-PRS you see-SUP what

kamm-ar diro shonn-at?

have-PRS you hear-SUP

-Mander kamm-ar tji dikk-at ta

I have-PRS not see-SUP and

nani shonn-at savo butt, penn-a

not hear-SUP such much say-INF

bengalo-n.
madman-DEF

Dova trinto belv-en bhiss-a phral-ar-na

the third night-DEF send-INF brother-PL-DEF
 273

an nikli.
in away

-Ja ni, diro fysh-er dombr-a

go.IMP now you shall-PRS sleep-INF

pre dadeske-phuv, penn-a dova.

on father-earth say-INF they

-Lattjo-t, penn-a Bengalo-n le-dde pre

good-ADV say-INF madman-DEF take-PST on

sero-s pagrad-e gadd, le-dde jekh

REFL-GEN broken-DEF shirt take-PST INDEF

dori pala sero dor-a jekh

string around REFL string-DEF one

jimmeske-dori pale sero, le-dde

leather-string around REFL take-PST

sero-s kilo ta ja-dde.

REFL-GEN cudgel and go-PST

Lo dombr-a pre dad-en-s phuv

he sleep-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth

to senslo pre ratti-a, ta

to late on night-DEF and

dolle ja-dde lo oppri ta

then go-PST he up and

agr-a dabb-a pre dad-en-s phuv

start-INF beat-INF on father-DEF-GEN earth

soralo-t. Dad-en sikkr-a tji sero.

hard-ADV father-DEF show-INF not REFL

Lo dabb-a jekh vavre volta,

he beat-INF one other occasion
 274

dad-en dikka-de-s tji vri. Dolle

father-DEF see-PST-PASS not out then

gol-a bengalo-n butt attjer sass

yell-INF madman-DEF much of all

lo nast-a gol-a:
he can-INF yell-INF

-Dad, kamle dad!

father dear father

Dolle av-a dad-en glan ta penn-a:

then come-INF father-DEF forward and say-INF

-Ajsi, bengalo-n, sosti jiddr-ar diro

all right madman-DEF why make noise-PRS you

savo? Diro fysh-er le diro-s

such you get to-PRS take.INF you-GEN

dokkepa fann diro dad! Dad-en

gift from your father father-DEF

drej-a nikli jekh perno bal

pull-INF away one white hair

fann babb-et, pord-a pre-t ta

from beard-DEF blow-INF on-it and

dikk-a, avri to nanit ta

see-INF out to/for nothing and

doj av-a jekh dukkalo-dummo balo

there come-INF INDEF ill-back pig

ninna dech-duj nukko-ar!

with twelve child-PL

-Akaj kamm-ar diro miro-s dokkepa,

here have-PRS you me-GEN gift

penn-a dad-en. Pala diro kamm-ar

 275

say-INF father-DEF if you have-PRS

tedepa, fysh-er diro pord-a pre

urgency shall-PRS you blow-INF on

babb-bal-et, savo av-ar balo-n ta

beard-hair-DEF so come-PRS pig-DEF and

hasht-ar diro. Kamm-at lattjot, tjavo.

help-PRS you have-SUP well boy

Ja khere nii!
go.IMP home now

-So kamm-ar diro dikk-at? So

what have-PRS you see-SUP what

kamm-ar diro shonn-at? pusch-a phral-er-na

have-PRS you hear-SUP asked-INF brother-PL.DEF

pre teijsa-n.
on morning-DEF

-Mander kamm-ar tji dikk-at ta

I have-PRS not see-SUP and

nani shonn-at savo butt, penn-a

not hear-SUP such much say-INF

bengalo-n, ta ja-dde oppri pre

madman-DEF and go-PST up on

bov-en ta sut-a sero te domr-a.

stove-DEF and lay-INF REFL to sleep-INF

Savo ja-dde dolle jekh ta

such go-PST there one and

senslo duj senslo trin bassjt.

then two then three year

Bengalo-n besch-a sass dives pre

madman- sit-INF all day on
 276

DEF

bov-en ta kerr-a sero to

stove-DEF and do-INF REFL to

te tji jan-a jekh dusta

that not know-INF INDEF mite

ta nani furste-de jekh dustus.

and not understand-PST INDEF mite

Jekh dives shonn-a lo phral-ar-na

one day hear-INF he brother-PL-DEF

rakkr-a pala krajjo-n fysh-te jeng-a

talk-INF about king-DEF will-PST marry-INF

vri sero terno-aste tjej ta

out REFL young-SPL daughter and

fysh-a kava tjakke jeng-ar sero

get to-INF DEM REL marry-PRS REFL

ninna liskri-s fysh-a bliddr-a krajjo

with her-GEN will-INF become-INF king

preal helko themm-en. Te dova

over all of land-DEF that DEM

tjakkes nast-ar le pre jekh

REL be able-PRS take.INF on one

summris fann saboria-s vasht karna

ring from princess-GEN hand when

li besch-a oppri an jekh

she sit-INF up in INDEF

vali butt duri oppri an

window very far up in

krajjoske-hisp-an fysh-te bliddr-a liskri-s

king-house-DEF will-PST become-INF her-GEN
 277

tjatto morsh.
true man

Phral-er-na rakkr-a te tradr-a to

brother-PL-DEF talk-INF that travel-INF to

krajjo-n ta fysh-a sero to

king-DEF and will-INF REFL to

le summris-en fann saboria-s vasht.

take.INF ring-DEF from princess-GEN hand

Ta pala tji dova nast-a

and about not DEM can-INF

kerr-a dova. Dikk-a pre vavert

do-INF DEM see-INF on other

manusch tjakke fysh-te sero pre

people REL will-PST REFL on

dova thugalo-a mengrepa, penn-a dova.

this sad-DEF job say-INF they

-Le ninna miro! penn-a bengalo-n.

take.INF with me say-INF madman-DEF

-Diro fysh-er tji jeng-a diro

you will-PRS not marry-INF yourself

ninna saboria? Sa-de phral-er-na.

with princess laugh-PST brother-PL-DEF

-Ehe, penn-a bengalo-n.

yes say-INF madman-DEF

-Le diro-s purano grashni, savo

take.INF(IMP you-GEN old mare so
?)

kerr-a vorsnos kettalo!

make-INF we together
 278

Phral-ar-na besch-a sero oppri pre

brother-PL-DEF sit-INF REFL up on

star-nach-ar-na pre sero-s grashno-s ta

car-PL-DEF on REFL-GEN stallion-PL and

bengalo-n ja-dde oppri pre sero-s

madman -DEF go-PST up on REFL-GEN

purano grej tjakkes tji nast

old horse REL not can

nast-a ja pre piro-ar-na, ta

can-INF go.INF on leg-PL-DEF and

savo kli-a dova avri Ghana

such ride-INF they away villagers

sa-de, karna dova jur-a bengalo-n,

laugh-PST when they see-INF madman-DEF

ta sa-de kerr-a phral-ar-na. Karna

and laugh-PST do-INF brother-PL-DEF when

dova tji nast-a sa buttider,

they not can-INF laugh.INF more

del-a dova vir jekh gol

give-INF they out INDEF yell

ta rada kli-a niklia, gla

and only ride-INF away for

tji bengalo-n tji sass-te nast-a

not madman-DEF not should-PST be able-INF

tradr-a ninna.
travel-INF with

Savo av-a bengalo-n glan to

such come-INF madman-DEF forward to
 279

jekh flusa. Lo kli-a pre,

INDEF river he ride-INF on

le-dde glan kava herma babb-bal-et

take-PST forward the grey beard-hair-DEF

ta pord-a pre-t. Dollo av-a

and blow-INF on-it then come-INF

dova herm-a grej ninna ruppeske-

the grey-DEF horse with silver-

marpina. Bengalo-n le-dde dorj-er-na ta

harness madman-DEF take-PST reins-PL-DEF and

bliddr-a jekh shukkard tjavo.

become-INF INDEF beautiful boy

Lo ach-a isa-d an jekh

he be-INF clad-PPT in INDEF

ruppeske-sivra-d rekkla, kamm-a perno-t

silver-sew-PPT coat have-INF white-NT

bal ta ach-a shukkard ta

hair and be-INF beautiful and

buno. Ta ach-a glaneske phral-ar-na

proud and be-INF before brother-PL-DEF

to krajjo-n-s hispa. Doj dikk-a

to king-DEF-GEN house there see-INF

lo saboria besch-a an vali-t.

he princess sit-INF in window-DEF

Ta pre liskri-s kuttia vasht

and on her-GEN small hand

kamm-a liskris sero-s kuttia summris.

have-INF she REFL-GEN small ring

Siggrano-a moschar sikkr-a sero-s bunopa

 280

quick-PL men show-INF REFL-GEN pride

ta kli-a trummanot pre sero-s

and ride-INF alone on REFL-GEN

grej-ar ta sass-te le summris-en

horse-PL and will-PST take.INF ring-DEF

fann saboria-s vasht, ta nani nane

from princess-GEN hand and not none

attjer dova nast-a kerr-a kava.

of them can-INF do-INF that

Bengalo-n ach-a soralo pre sero-s grasnho

madman- be-INF strong on REFL-GEN stallion
DEF

ninna ruppeske-marpina, lo kli-a siggro

with silver harness he ride-INF quickly

to vali-t ta sass-te le
to window-DEF and will-PST take.INF

summris-en fann vasht-en. Abbo lo

ring-DEF from hand-DEF but he

kamm-a obakkt ta nast-a tji

have-INF misfortune and can-INF not

le dova.
take.INF DEM

-Kon honk-ar lo? denkr-a krajjo-n.

who be-PRS he think-INF king-DEF

Tji jekh dova jan-a kon

not one DEM know-INF who

lester honk-a. Bengalo-n nasch-a nikkli.

he be-INF madman-DEF run-INF away

Lo kamm-a tradr-at khere. Avri

 281

he have-INF travell-SUP home outside

attjer ghav-en mukk-a lo grej-en

of village-DEF release-INF he horse-DEF

ta bliddr-a bengalo-n anvolta, karna

and become-INF madman-DEF again when

dova purano-a phral-ar-na av-a khere,

DEM old-PL brother-PL-DEF come-INF home

pusch-a bengalo-n fann sero steddo

ask-INF madman-DEF from REFL place

pre bov-en:
on stove-DEF

-Le-dde saboria jekh morsch?

get-PST princess INDEF man

-Tji, penn-a phral-ar-na, Tji nane

no say-INF brother-PL-DEF not nobody

nast-a le summris-a fann liskri-s

can-INF take.INF ring-DEF from she-GEN

vasht. Rada jekh butt shukkard

hand only INDEF very beautiful

ta soralo morsh le-dde nerdi

and strong man take-PST nearly

dova fann liskri-s vasht.

it from -GEN hand

-Ehe, dova honk-a mander, penn-te

yes that be-INF me say-PST

bengalo-n.
madman-DEF

-Ashi, dova pattj-ar vorsnso pre!

yes that believe-INF we on
 282

Sa-de phral-ar-na butt.

laugh-PST brothers-PL-DEF much

Vago dives kerr-a sero phral-ar-na

next day make-INF REFL brother-PL-DEF

fedig-a to tradr-a to krajjo-n-s-kher,

ready-PL to travel-INF to king-DEF-GEN-yard

ta bengalo-n kli-a-oppri pre sero

and madman-DEF ride-INF-up on REFL

dukkalo-a grasnhi. Phral-ar-na kli-a avri,

ill-DEF mare brother-PL-DEF ride-INF out

karna bengalo-n av-a glan to

when madman-DEF come-INF forward to

fluss-an –dollo mul-a lester-s grasnhi!

river-DEF then die-INF his-GEN mare

Lo pord-a pre kava kalo-a

he blow-INF on the black-DEF

babb-bal-et, ta glan kli-a dova

beard-hair-DEF and forward ride-INF the

baro-kalo-a grej-a ninna sonnekaske-marpina.

big-black- horse-DEF with gold-harness
DEF

Bengalo-n le-dde dorj-er-na ta bliddr-a

madman-DEF take-PST reins-PL-DEF and become-INF

jekh shukkard ta fedig morsh

INDEF beautiful and fine man

an sonnekaske- rekkla. Savo av-a

in gold- coat such come-INF

glan to krajjoske-kher-en, doj

forward to king-yard-DEF there
 283

kamm-a dova spekkrepa-t radat agr-at.

have-INF the show-DEF only begin-SUP

Bengalo-n tradr-a glan pre sero

madman-DEF travel-INF forward on REFL

kalo-a grasnho. Ta kli-a glan

black-DEF stallion and ride-INF forward

to saboria-s vali ta dabb-a

to princess-GEN window and hit-INF

pre kutti, kutti pre liskri-s

on little little on her-GEN

kutti-a vasht, abbo nast-a tji

little-DEF hand but can-INF not

le summris-en fan liskri-s vasht.

take.INF ring-DEF from her-GEN hand

-Kon ach-a lo? Pusch-a krajjo-n,

who be-INF he ask-INF king-DEF

nani nane jan-a kon dova

not nobody know-INF who the

shukkrano tjavo honk-a an sero

beautiful boy be-INF in REFL

sonnekeske- rekkla. Lo nasch-a nikkli

gold- coat he run-INF away

an vesh-en ta ghan-at jan-a

in forest-DEF and people-DEF know-INF

tji savo lo tradr-a to.

not which he travel-INF to

Rada jekh kalo uchal dikk-ade-s

only one black shadow see-PST-PASS
 284

affter lester-s soralo ta siggrano

of he-GEN strong and fast

kalo-a grasnho. Bengalo-n ja-dde avri

black-DEF stallion madman-DEF go-PST out

fann grej-en nerrdi ghav-en ta

from horse-DEF near village-DEF and

bliddr-a purano-a pargano-a bengalo-n. Karna

become-INF old-DEF broken-DEF madman-DEF when

kutti tjiro ja-tt av-a dova

little time pass-SUP come-INF the

purno phral-as, ta bengalo-n pusch-a

old brother-PL and madman-DEF ask-INF

fann sero-s steddo pre bov-en:

from REFL-GEN place on stove-DEF

-Fys-te saboria jekh morsh an dives?

get-PST princess a man in day

-Tji, penn-a Phral-ar-na, Nani nane

no say-INF brother-PL-DEF not nobody

nast-a le summris-en fann liskri-s

can-INF take.INF ring-DEF from her-GEN

vasht, jekh shukkrano ta fedig

hand INDEF beautiful and fine

morsch pre jekh kalo grasnho

man on INDEF black stallion

honk-a nerrdi pre kerra dova

be-INF near on do DEM

-lo dabb-a kutti-t pre liskri-s

he hit-INF little-ADV on her-GEN

vasht, abbo summris-en le-dde tji lo.

 285

hand but ring-DEF take-PST not he

-Dova honk-a mander, penn-te bengalo-n.

that be-INF me say-PST madman-DEF

-Diro, tjakke tji nast-ar ja

you REL not can-PRS go.INF

teli fann bov-en, sa-de phral-ar-na.

down from stove-DEF laugh-PST brother-PL-DEF

Dova trinto dives kli-a phral-ar-na

the third day ride-INF brother-PL-DEF

to krajjoeske-kher-en, bengalo-n ja-dde

to king-yard-DEF madman-DEF go-PST

pre piro-ar-na affter seros phral-as

on leg-PL-DEF after REFL-GEN brother-PL

karna lo le-dde glan to

when he get-PST forward to

fluss-an pordr-a lo pre kava

river-DEF blow-INF he on the

perno-a babb-bal-et ta glan av-a

white-DEF beard-hair-DEF and forward come-INF

dova kerji-a balon ninna sero-s

the ugly-DEF pig with REFL-GEN

dech-duj nuko-ar. Bengalo-n besch-a

twelve child-PL madman-DEF sit-INF

sero oppri pre balo-n-s dummo,

REFL up on pig-DEF-GEN back

ta butt siggro-t ach-a lo

and very quick-ADV be-INF he

avriglan krajjonske-kher-en, karna ghan-at

back king-yard-DEF when people-DEF
 286

jur-a bengalo-n pre balo-n-s dummo

see-INF madman-DEF on pig-DEF-GEN back

sa-dde sass-sassroa attjer dova, ehe,

laugh-PST everyone of them yes

krajjo-n ta krali sa-dde tjattjot

king-DEF and queen laugh-PST really

butt. Ta fann saboria-s vali

much and from princess-GEN window

shonn-ade-s jekh sa savo fedig-t

hear-PST-PASS INDEF laugh such fine-NT

ta sano-t tjakke jekh kambana

and clean-NT REL INDEF clock

attjer sonneka. Dova kerja balo-n

of gold the ugly pig-DEF

kli-a siggro-t glan to saboria-s

ride-INF quick-ADV forward to princess-GEN

vali ta bengalo-n le-dde summris-en

window and madman-DEF take-PST ring-DEF

fann saboria-s vasht. Krajjo-n ta

from princess-GEN hand king-DEF and

kralil besch-a sa-et an men-en,

queen sit-INF laugh-DEF in throat-DEF

karna nii dova fys-te steg

when now they have to-PST stand.INF

la sero lav ta dock-a

by REFL word and give-INF

saboria to bengalo-n tjakke sero-s

princess to madman-DEF REL REFL-GEN
 287

romni. Doj ste-de lo an

wife there stand-PST he in

sero pagr-ad-e gadd ta purano

his break-PPT- shirt and old
DEF

dori pale sero. Krajjo-n lakk,

string about REFL king-DEF angry

kralil basch-ade ta saboria ta

queen yell-PST and princess and

bengalo-n jenglo ta teli fann

madman-DEF married and down from

jakk-e-na av-a loschepa. Abbo liskri-s

eyes-PL-DEF come-INF love but her-GEN

purano-a penj-i ta kava-s morsch-ar

old-DEF sister-PL and they-GEN man-PL

sa-dde. Dolle ach-a nanit te

laugh-PST it be-INF nothing to

kerr-a ta jengepa bliddr-a dolle:

do-INF and wedding become-INF it

dolle bliddr-a jekh grekkalo jengepa!

that become-INF INDEF sinful wedding

Per-de fysh-te krajjo-n dova boddr-a

Propose-PST have to-PST king-INF they live-INF

an tatto-kammora, gla lo
in dark-room for he

ladj-adde-s te kamm-a dova pre

shame-PST-PASS to have-INF them on

krajjo-n-s-kher. Oppri an kher-en

king-DEF-GEN-yard up in yard-DEF
 288

ach-a jekh baro ghilo ninna

be-INF INDEF big feast with

sero-s narta. Abbo bengalo-n an

REFL-GEN kin but madman-DEF in

sero tatto-kammora le-dde tji

REFL dark-room get-PST not

jekh dustus tji kaben nani

one flour not food none

le-dde lo. Lo ta saboria

get-PST he he and princess

honk-a bukkalo-a. Ta rov-ande ja-dde

be-INF hungry-PL and cry-PRS.PTC go-INF

li to sero dad krajjo-n

she to REFL father king-DEF

ta penn-a:
and say-INF

-Kamle dad, ach-a lochano pale

dear father be-INF nice toward

mande ta miro morch ta

me and my husband and

fysh-a tji vorsnos ta boddr-a

get-INF not us and live-INF

doj an tatto-kammora ta tji

there in dark-room and not

fysh-a vorsnos bukka an mul!

get-INF us hunger in death

-Lattjot, penn-a krajo-n, mander penn-ar

good say-INF king-DEF I say-PRS

to miro tjejeske- morschar te

 289

to my daughter- men to

lattj-a glan dova shukkrano-a ta

search-INF for the beautiful-DEF and

sano tjavo ninna sero-s sonnekaske-

fine boy with REFL-GEN gold-

rekkla ta kalo grej ninna

coat and black horse with

sonnekaske-marpina. Dova avri ersno-s

gold-harness DEM of you-GEN

tjakke nast-ar kava le-r pache

REL can-PRS that get-PRS half

miro-s krajjoske-themm!
me-GEN king-land

Dollo purano-ste tradr-a abri ta

the old-est travel-INF away and

lattj-a grej-en ta sero klie-prasko.

search-INF horse-DEF and REFL rider

Dova makreste honka pre krajjo-n-s-kher

the middlest be-INF on king-DEF-GEN-yard

helko ratti ta pre teijs-an

all night and on morning-DEF

an vago dives tradr-a lo

in next day travel-INF he

abri ta hilpr-a to te
away to help to to

lattj-a dova. Saboria rakkr-a ta

find-INF it the princess talk-INF and

rakkl-a pre bengalo-n helko ratti-a

talk-INF on madman- all night-DEF
 290

DEF

ta helko vago dives, abbo

and all next day but

lo rada penn-te:
he only say-PST

-Mander stanns-ar akajj!

I stay-PRS here

Karna krajjo-n shonn-a te bengalo-n

when king-DEF hear-INF that madman-DEF

tji voltr-a hascht-a to an

not want-INF help-INF to in

lattjepa-t, bliddr-a lo butt lakk

search-DEF become-INF he very angry

ta ja-dde to bengalo-n ta penn-te:

and go-PST to madman-DEF and say-PST

-Savo diro shonn-ar tji pre

what you hear-PRS not on

diro-s krajj-oske lav? Mander kamm-a

you-GEN king-POSS word I have-INF

denkr-at te dock-a diro pache

think-SUP to give-INF you half

attjer miro themm to diro

of my land to you

pala diro lattj-a grasnho-n to

if you find-INF stallion-DEF for

mander, nii fysh-er diro ja

me now get-PRS you go-INF

to stilopa-t te bliddr-a jekh

to jail-DEF to become-INF INDEF
 291

bangro doj! Saboria rada gol-a

prisoner there princess only yell-INF

ta rov-a. Bengalo-n penn-a:

and cry-INF madman-DEF say-INF

-Dova honk-ar tji tjattjo-t, mander

DEM be-PRS not true-ADV I

shonn-ar pre diro lav. Mander

hear-PRS on your word I

kamm-ar lattj-at kava kalo-a grasnho!

have-PRS find-SUP the black-DEF stallion

-Savo ach-ar lo, savo ach-ar

where be-PRS he where be-PRS

lo? Pusch-a krajjo-n.

he ask-INF king-DEF

-An diro stanja, miro krajjo!

in your stable my king

Krajjo-n siggr-a sero doj te

king-DEF hurry-INF REFL there to

dikk-a, pala bengalo-n rakkl-a tjattjo-t.

see-INF if madman-DEF talk-INF true-ADV

Karna krajjo-n kerr-a kava, pord-a

when king-DEF do-INF DEM blow-INF

bengalo-n pre kava kalo-a

madman-DEF on the black-DEF

babb-bal-et, ta fann nani av-a

beard-hair-DEF and from nothing come-INF

dova kalo-a grej glan ta

the black-DEF horse forward and
 292

ste-dde doj an krajjo-n-s stanja.

stand-PST there in king-DEF-GEN stable

-Savo ach-ar dova shukkrano ta

where be-PRS the beautiful and

sano tjavo tjakkes kli-a pre

fine boy REL ride-INF on

grej-en? Pusch-a krajjo-n.

horse-DEF ask-INF king-DEF

-Dolle honk-a mander, penn-a bengalo-n,

it be-INF I say-INF madman-DEF

le-dde dova sonnekneske dorj-er-na ta

take-INF the gold- reins-PL-DEF and

bliddr-a to dova shukkrano-a ta

become-INF to the beautiful-DEF and

sano-a tjavo an sonnekaneske-rekkla.

fine-DEF boy in gold-coat

Krajjo-n bliddr-a butt lattjo ta

king-DEF become-INF much kind and

lester-s kralil bliddr-a loschano. Saboria

he-GEN queen become-INF happy princess

ta bengalo-n le-dde pache krajjoske-

and madman-DEF get-PST half king-

themm-en, ta dova kerr-te dova

land-DEF and DEM make-PST DEM

jekh nevot shukkar-t kher dova

INDEF new beautiful-NT mansion that

boddr-a bengalo-n ninna sero-s saboria.

live-INF madman-DEF with REFL-GEN princess-

Ta saboria-s penjiske-moschar honk-a

 293

and princess-GEN sister-men be-INF

butt avundukkalo-a pre bengalo-n ta

very jealous-PL on madman-DEF and

sero-s shukkrano-a saboria!

REFL-GEN beautiful-DEF princess
 294

The three brothers – a Russian folk tale 64

Once upon a time, there were three brothers. The older two were wise,
but the third was a tomfool. On his death bed, before he died, their father
commanded:
“Now you will, all in turn, spend one night by my grave.”
Then they buried the father, and the oldest had to go to the graveyard.
For this, he had no desire, so he said:
“Tomfool, can’t you sleep on the grave in my place? In return I will
wreathe a pair of birch bark shoes for you.”
“Good,” answered Tomfool, pulled on his torn blouse, tied a rope
around his waist, grabbed his oak cudgel and went to the graveyard. He
slept on the father’s grave until midnight, but then he rose and started to
strike at the grave with all his strength. Then the earth rent, the father
came out and asked:
“Is that you, my oldest son?”
“No,” answered Tomfool.
“Is that you, my middle son?”
“No!”
“Is that you, Tomfool?”
“Yes, father!”
The father then pulled out a black strand of beard, blew on it and
behold, out of nowhere came a coal black horse with golden reins. The
father said:
“I had intended to give the horse to my oldest son, but since he hasn’t
come, you may take the horse with you. If you are ever in distress, you
should blow on the strand of beard, and the horse will come to you. And
when you grasp the reins, you yourself will become as grand and fancy as
you never saw. But now you should go home, boy.”
And Tomfool went home. In the morning, the brothers asked:
“What have you seen? What have you heard?”
“I have seen nothing and heard nothing,” answered Tomfool.
The next night, it was the middle brother’s turn to go to the graveyard,
and he bad Tomfool:
“Spend the night in my place, and I will make new shoe laces for
you!”

64
Original text from Sagor från hela världen (1989, 1995) Botkyrka:
Mångkulturellt Centrum.
 295

“Good,” answered Tomfool. He dressed in his torn blouse, tied a rope

around his waist, grabbed his oak cudgel and went. He slept on the
graveyard until midnight, but then he got up and started striking and
hitting the grave with all his strength. Then the earth rent, the father came
out and asked:
“Is that you, my oldest son?”
“No!”
“Is that you, my middle son?”
“No!”
“Is that you, Tomfool?”
“Yes, it is.”
The father pulled out a gray strand of beard, blew on it, and behold,
there came a gray horse with silver reins. The father said:
“I had intended to give the horse to my middle son, but since he has
not come, the horse is yours. Take this strand of beard and blow on it, if
you ever are in distress, and soon the horse will come. And when you
grasp the reins, you yourself will become a young man, fine to behold.
But now you should go home, boy.”
When Tomfool had returned to the cottage, the brothers asked:
“What have you seen? What have you heard?”
“I have seen nothing and heard nothing,” answered Tomfool.
The third night, the brothers sent Tomfool off anew.
“Go now, it is your turn to sleep on the grave,” they said.
“Good,” answered Tomfool, took his torn blouse, tied a rope around
his waist, took his oak cudgel and went. He slept on the graveyard until
midnight, but then he rose and started striking and hitting with the oak
cudgel, but the father didn’t show himself. He struck another time, but
neither this time did the father show himself. Then Tomfool took to
shouting as loud as he could:
“Father, dear father!”
Then the earth rent, the father came out and said:
“There now, Tomfool, why are you making such a racket? You will
soon have your share of the inheritance!”
And he pulled out a white strand of beard, blew on it and behold, there
came a hunch-backed sow with twelve piglets!
“Here you have my parting gift,” said the father. “If you are ever in
distress, you should blow on the strand of beard, and the sow will come
to aid you. Farewell, boy. Go home now!”
 296

“What have you seen? What have you heard?” asked the brothers the
following morning.
“I have seen nothing and heard nothing,” answered Tomfool, climbed
up on the stove and lay down to sleep.
Thus a year went, and perhaps two, or even three. Tomfool sat all days
by the stove and made as though he knew nothing and understood
nothing. Then one day, he got to hear his brothers talk about the emperor
intending to marry off his youngest daughter, and that he had let it be
known across the whole kingdom, that the one who could take a ring
from the princess’s finger where she sat in the window of her chamber,
highest up in the castle, would be her husband.
The brothers now agreed to go to the castle and try their luck. And if
they themselves had no success, they could always look on as others
tried, they said.
“Take me with you!” pleaded Tomfool.
“You don’t possibly think about marrying the princess, do you?”
laughed his brothers.
“Yes,” said Tomfool.
“Then take your old mare, and join us!”
His brothers mounted their steeds and Tomfool crawled onto his old
beast of draught, that barely could move its feet, and they were off.
People laughed when they saw Tomfool, and so did his brothers. But
when they tired of laughing, they gave out a yell and took off galloping,
so that Tomfool wouldn’t keep up.
Then Tomfool came to a marsh. He dismounted, took out the gray
strand of beard and blew on it. Soon came the gray horse with silver
reins. Tomfool took the reins – and became a young man, fair to behold.
He was dressed in a silver sewn coat, had blond hair and was tall and
proud. He reached the emperor’s castle before his brothers. There he saw
the princess sitting in the window of her chamber at the highest point, and
on her little finger she wore a small ring.
Bold young men showed their courage and leapt with their horses up
to the window and tried to take the ring from the princess’ finger in flight,
but no one succeeded. Tomfool urged on his horse with the silver reins,
leapt up – and managed to reach the window with his hand, but could not
catch the ring.
“Who could that be?” the emperor wondered. But nobody could tell.
Tomfool disappeared before anyone could see where to, and went
 297

homeward. Outside the village, he let the gray horse go and was turned
back to Tomfool.
When the older brothers came home, Tomfool asked from his place on
the stove:
“Did the princess get a husband?”
“No,” answered his brothers, “no one succeeded in leaping all the way
up to the window, but one young man, fair to behold, managed to touch
the window with his hand.”
“Yes, that was me,” said Tomfool.
“Oh yes, we believe that!” laughed his brothers.
The following day, the brothers got ready once more to ride to the
castle, and Tomfool saddled his old mare. His brothers galloped ahead,
but Tomfool barely made it to the marsh – then the mare went down! He
blew on the black strand of beard, and up galloped the coal black horse
with golden reins. Tomfool took the reins and soon was turned into a
grand young man in black curls and gold-sewn coat. Then he arrived at
the emperor’s castle, where the contest had already begun.
Tomfool urged on his black steed, leapt up and reached the very tip of
the princess’s little finger, but he could not catch the ring.
“Who is he?” the emperor wondered, but no one recognized the grand
young man in the gold-sewn coat. He disappeared before anyone could
see where to. Only a cloud of dust showed where the coal black horse had
flown by. Tomfool let the horse go outside the village and was once more
the usual old tattered Tomfool. After a while, the older brothers arrived,
and Tomfool asked from his place by the stove:
“Did they find a husband for the princess today, then?”
“No,” answered his brothers, “no one succeeded in taking the ring. A
grand young man on a coal black horse well near succeeded – he graced
the princess’s finger, but he didn’t catch the ring.”
“That was me, that,” said Tomfool.
“You, who can’t come down from the stove!” the brothers laughed.
“You can’t jump to the princess!”
On the third day the brothers got ready once more to ride to the castle,
but Tomfool had to go to the marsh! There he blew on the white strand of
beard, and up came the hunch-backed sow with twelve piglets. Tomfool
took up to her back an before he had blinker three times with his eye, he
arrived at the emperor’s castle. People laughed when they saw Tomfool
at the back of the sow, and yes, the emperor and the empress laughed as
 298

well. And from the princess’ window came laughter, as clear and pure as
a little bell.

The hunch-backed sow took a run, jumped up – and Tomfool took the
ring from the princess’ finger. The laughter stuck in the emperor’s and
the empress’ throat but they had to keep their promise and give away the
princess in marriage to Tomfool. There he stood in his torn blouse, the
rope around his waist. The emperor frowned, the empress grumbled, and
the princess, Tomfool’s betrothed, burst into salt tears. But her older
sisters and their husbands smiled satisfied.
There was nothing to do about it and the wedding was held. It was a
sad feast! Afterwards, the emperor let them live in the sauna as he was
ashamed to have them at his castle.
Up in the castle, the emperor celebrated once again with his son-in-
laws but Tomfool in the sauna did not get a single bite. He was hungry
and so was the princess, too. In tears, she went to her father and said:
“Dear father, have mercy with my husband and do not let us live in
the sauna and do not let us starve!”
“Well, said the emperor, I order that my son-in-laws shall search for
the grand young man in the gold-sewn coat and buy his coal-black horse
with the golden reins. The son-of-law of mine which brings the horse to
me first, shall receive half of the empire!”
The oldest of the son-of-laws set out first to search for the horse and
its rider.
The second one spent the night at the castle and set out early in the
next morning.
The princess nagged at Tomfool the whole night and the whole next
day but he just said:
“I’m staying here!”
When the emperor got to hear that Tomfool refused to go out
searching, he was very angered, went to Tomfool and said:
“So you refuse to obey my imperial command? I had intended to give
you half the empire, if you brought the horse to me, but now you will go
to jail!”
Then the princess started crying again, but Tomfool said:
“It is not true as they say that I have not obeyed your command. For I
have found the coal black horse!”
“Where is it, where is it?” the emperor wondered.
“In the imperial stable, Your Majesty!”
 299

The emperor hurried off to see, if Tomfool had told the truth.
Meanwhile, Tomfool took out the black strand of beard, blew on it – and
out of thin air, the coal black horse came and stood there prancing outside
the stable.
“Where is the fine young man, who rode the horse?” asked the
emperor.
“Why, that was me, that,” answered Tomfool, took the golden reins
and soon turned into the fine young man in a gold-sewn coat. Then the
emperor rejoiced, and his empress and the princess too. Tomfool got half
the empire, let build a big castle for himself, where he then lived with the
princess merrily. But his brothers-in-law – they were jealous!
 300

II.2 Lollohubb

Fairytale “Red Riding Hood”, translated by Lenny Lindell 2011

An volta an tjiro-n ach-a
in occasion in time-DEF be-INF

jekh tikkno gullo tjej. Sass

INDEF little sweet girl all

tjakke jur-a liskris dynkr-a pale

REL know-INF her think-INF of

li. Pale buttider dynkr-a liskris

her of more think-INF her

dejeske-dej palo liskris. Jekh

grandmother of her one

volta dock-a li tjej-a jekh

occasion give-INF she girl-DEF INDEF

butt shukkard hubba attjer sano-t

very beautiful hat out of fine-NT

lolo-t pokktan. Dova ach-a butt

red-NT fabric DEM be-INF very

lattjo dynkr-a liskris, te liskros

good think-INF she and she

rada voltr-a kamm-a kava pre

only want-INF have-INF that on

sero, senslo kava dives fyss-te

REFL since DEM day get to-PST

li bjuss-a Lolohubb-an.
she be called-INF redhat-DEF
 301

Jekh teijsa penn-a liskris dejj

one morning sa-INF her mother

to li: "Av-a Lolohubba,

to her come-INF redhat

mander kamm-ar le-t teli an

I have-PRS bring-SUP down in

diro-s korba jekh pava moll

you-GEN basket INDEF bottle wine

ta je kutti bekk markli.

and INDEF small piece bread loaf

Ach-a malano ta ja to
be-INF kind and go.INF to

dejeske-dejj ninna kava. Li

grandmother with DEM she

honk-ar dukkalo ta tji sassto

is-PRS ill and not healthy

ta fys-er kamm-a kava te

and have to-PRS have-INF DEM to

bliddr-a soralo ta sassto. Ja

become-INF strong and healthy go.IMP

karna dolle tji bliddr-a gla

when it not become-INF too

tattot. Ta denkr-a pre nani

hot and think-IMP on not

ja avri fann dromm-en savo

go.INF away from road-DEF such
 302

diro tji perr-ar ta mul-ar

you not fall-PRS and ruin-PRS

pav-an nina moll savo dejeske-dejj

bottle-DEF with wine so grandmother

nani le-r nane. Ta Lolohubba

not get-PRS nothing and redhat

denkr-a hassta pre te diros

think-IMP also on that you

dikk-a pre dejeske-dejja karna

see-INF on grandmother (!) when

diro helstar-ar pre liskris sano-t."

you greet-PRS on her nice-ADV

Lolohubba koch-a pre-t ta penn-a:

redhat swear-INF on-it and say-INF

"Mander nast-ar kerr-a dova." Savo

I can-PRS do-INF DEM such

ja-de li an nikli.
go-PST she in away

Dejeske-dejja boddr-a avri an vesch-en,

grandmother live-INF out in forest-DEF

savo tji duri drom nikli

such not far road away

fann ghav-en. Karna Lolohubba-n

from village-DEF when redhat-DEF

av-a andre an vesch-en, triss-a

come-INF into in forest-DEF meet-INF
 303

li je ruv.
she INDEF wolf

"Lattjo dives, Lolohubba-n,” Penn-a

good day redhat-DEF say-INF

lo malano-t, "Savo ach-ar te

he friendly-ADV which be-PRS to

diro ja savo serla-t pre

you go.INF so early-ADV on

teijsa-n?" Lolohubba-n honk-a tji

morning-DEF redhat-DEF be-INF not

trach gla ruv-en. Li jan-a

afraid for wolf-DEF she know-INF

tji gla lo ach-a gla

not for he be-INF for

kerjat lester ach-a, li puch-a

evil he be-INF she ask-INF

stila-t: "Mander fys-er ja to

calm-ADV I will-PRS go.INF to

miro dejeske-dejj ninna moll

my grandmother with wine

ta jekh bekk markli.

and INDEF piece bread loaf

Dejeske-dejj honk-ar dukkalo ta fys-er

grandmother be-PRS ill and shall-PRS

bliddr-a sassto."
become-INF healthy
 304

"Savo boddr-ar diro dejeske-dejj?"

where lives-PRS your grandmother

pusch-a ruv-en.
asked-INF wolf-DEF

"Akajj honk-ar dolle tji savi

here be-PRS it not such

nikli vri fann to ja

away out from to go.INF

glan to liskris," penn-a Lolohubba-n

forward to her say-INF redhat-DEF

Nani-jan-ande. "Liskris stedo sut-ar an

not-know-PRS.PTC her cottage lie-PRS in

vesch-en, telal dolle masker trin

forest-DEF under it between three

baro-a rukk."
big-PL tree

"Aha ajsi," penn-a ruv-en malano-t.

ah I see say-INF wolf-INF friendly-ADV

Palo lo dinkr-a kerja-t gla

but he think-INF wicked-ADV for

sero: Kava tikkno-a tjej-a ach-ar

REFL DEM little-DEF girl-DEF be-PRS

je lattjo mass bekk. Lo

INDEF good meat piece he

kamm-ar ach-a tjattjo-t lattjo-are karna

have-PRS be-INF true-ADV good-CMP when
 305

dova puri-a gaja-n. Harr fys-er

the old-DEF woman-DEF How shall-PRS

mande kerr-a gla le dova

I do-INF for take.INF DEM

dujj? Stila-t ta fedig-t ja-de

two quiet-ADV and nice-ADV go-PST

lo riggeske Lolohubba-n. Senslo

he beside redhat-DEF then

penn-a lo ilmarig-t: "Kamm-ar diro

say-INF he cunning-ADV have-PRS you

dikk-at savo butt ninna shukk-rano-a

see- SUP how much with beautiful-PL-DEF

lollodjil, Lolohubba-n! Dikk pale

flower redhat-DEF look.IMP around

diro kutti!
yourself little

Ta shonn-ar diro savo shukkar-t

and hear-PRS you how beautiful-ADV

tjirklo-r-na gij-ar! Diro ja-r drom-en

bird-PL-DEF sing-PRS you go-PRS road-DEF

glan tjakke diro ach-a to

forward REL you be-INF to

drabbreskehispa-n. Dolle ach-ar savo

school-DEF there be-PRS such

butt akajj an vesch-en te

much here in forest-DEF to
 306

dikk-a ta jur-a!" Dolle dikk-a

see-INF and look-INF then see-INF

Lolohubba-n sero masker ta

redhat-DEF REFL between and

jur-a gla kham-en tradr-a sinsimaskro

look-INF for sunlight-DEF travel-INF between

rukk-e-na. Ta denkr-a, savo butt

tree-PL-DEF and think-INF how much

ninna shukkarno-a lollodjil-s dova ach-a

with beautiful-PL flower-PL DEM be-INF

akajj. Dejeskedejj sass-te bliddr-a loschano

here grandmother will-PST become-INF happy

pala liskris le-dde kutti ninna

if she get-PST little with

lollodjil-s. Ta dolle ach-a ju

flower-PL and it be-INF after all

serla-t pre dives-en. Lo ja-de

early-ADV on day-DEF he go-PST

fann dromm-en te le lollodjil-s.

from road-INF to take.INF flower-PL

Ta karna ste-dde liskris ta

and when stand-PST she and

le-dde lollodjil, karna li dikk-a

take-PST flower when she see-INF

savoa shukkarno-are little duri nikkli.

such beautiful.CMP kutti farther away
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Rada gla dova ja-de li

only for DEM go-PST she

duri ta duri andre an

farther and farther inside in

vesch-en. Preal liskris ja-de andre

forest-INF through she go-PST inside

an vesch nasch-a ruv-en to

in forest run-INF wolf-DEF to

dejeskedejj-s hispa. Lo dabb-a

grandmother-GEN house he beat-INF

pre buda-n.
on door-DEF

"Kon honk-ar doj!? Gol-a dejeske-dejj.

who be-PRS there yell-INF grandmother

"Lolohubba-n! Mander av-ar ninna

redhat-DEF I come-PRS with

markli-r ta moll to diro. Maloandri."

bread loaf-PL and wine for you let me in

"Kurr-a rada teli vaschtlear-en

hit-IMP only down handle-DEF

ta ja andre!" Gol-a dejeske-dejj.

and go.IMP inside yell-INF grandmother

"Mander ach-ar gla dukkalo te

I be-PRS too ill to

nast-a ja oppri!"
be able-INF go.INF up
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Dova oppr-a ruv-en buda-n ta

DEM open-INF wolf-DEF door-DEF and

ja-de andre an hispa-n. Dova

go-PST inside in house-DEF the

kerj-a ruv-en nasch-a siggro-t gla

wicked-DEF wolf-DEF run-INF quick-ADV forward

to vodrisch-en ta ka-de oppri

to bed-DEF and eat-PST up

dejeskedejja-n. Senslo le-dde lo

grandmother-DEF then take-PST he

pre puri-a-s iser ta besch-a

on old woman-DEF-GEN clothes and put-INF

pre liskris rattiske-hubba ta

on her nightcap and

sut-a teli andre vodrich-en. Telal

lay-INF down in bed-DEF under

tjiro-n kamma-de Lolohubba-n ja-tt

time-DEF have-PST redhat-DEF go-SUP

masker an vesch-en fann lollodjil

between in forest-DEF from flower

to lollodjil. Karna li tji

to flower when she not

nast-a le buttider av-a li

can-INF take.INF more come-INF she

te denkr-a pre dejeske-dejj.

to think-INF on grandmother
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Ta siggro-t ja-de to liskris.

and quick-ADV go-PST to her

Lolohubba-n bliddr-a kutti trach

redhat-DEF became-INF little afraid

preall buda-n ach-a tji pent-ad.

over door-DEF be-INF not close-PPT

Karna li ach-a andre dikka-de-s

when she be-INF inside look-PST-PASS

tji sass tjattjo-t sikklo-t khere

not all true-ADV similar-ADV at home

pale dejeske-dejj. Baro-t gol-a

of grandmother big-ADV yell-INF

Lolohubba-n: "Lattjo teijsa, dejeske-dejja!” Li

redhat-DEF good morning grandmother she

shonn-a tji dejeskedejj-a savo

hear-INF not grandmother-DEF

li ja-de shukkar-t glan to vodrich-en.

she go-PST neat-ADV forward to bed-DEF

Doj sut-a dejeske-dejj ninna

there lay-INF grandmother with

sero rattiske-hubba telal gla

REFL nightcap below for

lisjto-n. Li dikk-a nani sero

face-DEF she look-INF not REFL

sikklo vri. Dolle penn-a Lolohubba-n:

similar out then say-INF redhat-DEF
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"Dejeskedejj, savo baro-a shonnlo-ar

grandmother what big-PL ear-PL

diro kamm-ar!"
you have-PRS

"Dolle ach-ar gla mander honk-ar

it be-PRS for I be-PRS

te shonn-a diro lattjo-are," penn-a

to hear-INF you good-CMP say-PST

ruv-en.
wolf-DEF

"Dejeske-dejj, savo baro-a jakk-er

grandmother what big-PL eye-PL

diro kamm-ar!" penn-a Lolohubba-n.

you have-PRS say-INF redhat-DEF

"Dolle ach-ar gla mander honk-ar

it be-PRS for I be-PRS

te dikk-a diro lattjo-are."

to see-INF you good-CMP

"Dejeske-dejj," penn-a Lolohubba-n,

grandmother say-INF redhat-DEF

"savo baro-a vasht-ar diro kamm-ar!"

what big-PL hand-PL you have-PRS

"Dolle ach-ar gla mander honk-ar

it be-PRS for I be-PRS

te hikkr-a an diro."
to hold-INF in you
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"Dejeske-dejj, savo baro-a mojj

grandmother what big-DEF mouth

diro kamm-ar!"
you have-PRS

"Dolle ach-ar gla mander lattjo-are

it be-INF for I good-CMP

honk-ar te ka oppri diro!"

be-PRS to eat.INF up you

Ta siggro-t av-a ruv-en oppri

and quick-ADV come-INF wolf-DEF up

fann vodrich-en ta ka-de oppri

from bed-DEF and eat-PST up

grekkoste Lolohubba-n.
poor redhat-DEF

Senslo sut-a lo teli an

then lay-INF he down in

vodrich-en, ta domr-a dingstro-t te

bed-DEF and sleep-INF heavy-ADV and

dollo shonna-de-s butt fann ruve-n.

it hear-PST-PASS much from wolf-DEF

Dekkeprasko-n, tjakke ja-de glaneske

hunter-DEF REL go-PST before

dejeske-dejj-s kali, denkr-a sosti

grandmother-GEN cottage think-INF why

dova puri-a gaja-n dombr-a savot

DEM old-DEF woman-DEF sleep-INF so
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dingstro-t savo dollo shonna-de-s vri

heavy-ADV so it heard-PST-PASS out

an dives! Mander fyss-er dikk-a

in day I have to-PRS see-INF

to liskris. Karna lo av-a

to her when he come-INF

glan to vodrich-en. Jur-a lo

forward to bed-DEF see-INF he

te ruv-en sut-a an dova.

that wolf-DEF sleep-INF in DEM

Lo bliddr-a butt trasch. Glaneske

he become-INF very afraid for

lo pattj-a, te lo nast-a
he believe-INF that he can-INF

hilpr-a dejeskedejj-a avri ruv-en-s

help-INF grandmother-DEF out of wolf-DEF-GEN

belsing, savo poffr-a lo nani ruv-en.

belly such shot-INF he not wolf-DEF

Lo le-de glan sero kakkli

he take-PST for REFL scissors

ta kakkl-a oppri belsing-en pre

and cut-INF up belly-DEF on

lester. Affter lo kakkl-at jur-a

him after he cut-SUP see-INF

Dekkaskiro-n Lolohubba-n teli an ruv-en-s belsing.

hunter-DEF redhat-DEF down in wolf-DEF-GEN belly
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Ta Lolohubba-n nast-a le sero oppri

and redhat-DEF can-INF take REFL up

fann belsing-en ta gol-a vri

from belly-DEF and yell-INF out

"Åh, savo trach mander honk-a!

oh how afraid I be-INF

Dollo ach-a kalo-t ta tamlo-t

it be-INF dark-ADV and cold-ADV

an ruv-en-s belsing!" Senslo nast-a

in wolf-DEF-GEN belly then can-INF

puri-a dejeske-dejj hasst-a ja

old-DEF grandmother help-INF go.INF

oppri fann ruv-en-s belsing ta

up from wolf-DEF-GEN belly and

liskris ach-a an jibb-en.

she be-INF in life-DEF

Lolohubba-n nascha palamasker an stedo-t

redhat-DEF ran around in cottage-DEF

loschano-t. Senslo ann-a liskris dech

happy-ADV then fetch-INF she ten

baro-a barr ta le-dde teli

big-PL stone.PL and take-PST down

an ruv-en-s belsing ta sivr-a

in wolf-DEF-GEN belly and sew-INF

anhopri belsing-en.
together belly-DEF
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Karna lo ach-a jagno, dinkr-a

when he be-INF awake think-INF

lo siggro-t nasch-a niklo. Abbo

he quick-ADV run-INF away but

barr-en an belsing-en ach-a gla

stone.PL-DEF in belly-DEF be-INF too

dingstro-a, te lo perr-a teli

heavy-PL and he fall-INF down

mulo. Dolle bliddr-a sass trin lochano-a.

dead then become-INF all three happy-PL

Dekkaskiro-n jimm-a avri ruve-n ta

hunter-DEF skin-INF out wolf-DEF and

Lolohubba-n kel-a lochano-t, Dejeske-dejj-an ka-de

redhat-DEF dance-INF happy-ADV grandmother-DEF eat-PST

markli-er ta pi-de moll-et tjakke

bread loaf-PL and drink-PST wine-DEF REL

Lolohubba-n kamm-a ninna sero. Ta

redhat-DEF have-INF with REFL and

Dejeskedejj-a kansl-a sero lattjo-are ta

grandmother-DEF feel-INF REFL good-CMP and

sassto. Lolohubba-n denkr-a: Nani

healthy redhat-DEF think-INF not

fys-er mander ja fann drom-en

will-PRS I go.INF from road-DEF

an vesch-en kokkaro karna miro

in forest-DEF alone when my
 315

kamle dejj kamm-ar penn-at to

dear mother have-PRS say-SUP that

mander tji te kerr-a kava!

I not to do-INF DEM

Little Red Riding Hood (traditional Folk tale)

Once upon a time there was a sweet little girl. Everyone who saw her
was fond of her. But above all, her grandmother was fond of her. Once,
she gave the girl a very pretty hood out of red velvet. It suited her so well,
she didn’t want to wear anything else. That was why she later got to be
called Red Riding Hood.
One morning, her mother said to her: “Come, Red Riding Hood, I
have packed a bottle of wine and a piece of cake in a basket. Kindly bring
it to your grandmother. She’s ill and weak and needs something to
strengthen her. But go before it’s too hot. And above all, keep in mind not
to stray from the path, because then you might trip and fall, the bottle will
break and grandmother gets nothing.”
“And Red Riding Hood, keep in mind that you should look at
grandmother when you visit her.” Red Riding Hood promised to, and
said: “I think I shall manage that.” Then she went on her way. But
grandmother lived out in the woods, about half an hour’s way from the
village. When Red Riding Hood entered the woods, she met a wolf.
“Greetings, Red Riding Hood,” he said friendly. “Where are you going
this early?”
Red Riding Hood was not afraid of the wolf. She didn’t know what
kind of mean-spirited animal he was, therefore she calmly answered: “I
am going to my grandmother with whine and a piece of cake.
Grandmother is ill and needs something to strengthen her.”
“Where does your grandmother live, then?” asked the wolf.
“From here it takes well over a quarter of an hour to walk,” Red
Riding Hood answered unassumingly. “Her house is in the middle of the
woods, under the three big oaks.”
“Oh, really?” the wolf answered kindly. But to himself, he thought:
This little girl will be a treat. She will taste better than the old woman.
What should I do to get both of them? Calmly and peacefully, he walked
beside Red Riding Hood for a while. Then, he cunningly said: “Have you
seen how many beautiful flowers there are, Red Riding Hood? Take a
 316

look around! And can you hear how beautifully the birds sing? You walk
down the road as if you were going to school. There’s so much to
discover in these woods!”
Then, Red Riding Hood looked around herself and noticed how the
sunbeams gleamed between the tree trunks. And how many beautiful
flowers there were here. Grandmother would surely be happy if she got a
bouquet of flowers. And it was still early. She strayed from the path and
picked flowers. She had barely picked one before she discovered an even
more beautiful one farther away. That way, she got deeper and deeper
into the woods.
Meanwhile, the wolf ran straight to her grandmother’s cottage. He
knocked on the door.
“Who’s there?” asked Grandmother.
“Red Riding Hood! I come with cake and wine for you! Let me in.”
“Simply push down the handle and come in!” the grandmother called
out. “I’m too weak to get up!” Then the wolf pushed the handle down and
the door went open.
The sinister wolf rushed to the bed and devoured the grandmother.
Then he pulled on her clothes, put on her nightcap and crawled into the
bed.
Meanwhile, Red Riding Hood had run from one flower to the other.
Only when she could carry no more, she came to think of her
grandmother. Then she hurried to her. Red Riding Hood was surprised to
find the door open. As she stepped inside, she felt a little worried –she
who otherwise liked so much to be at her grandmother’s. Aloud Red
Riding Hood called: “Good morning, grandmother!” But she got no
answer. Then she pulled aside the curtains and tip-toed up to the bed.
There lay grandmother with the nightcap pulled down into her face.
She looked so peculiar. Then Red Riding Hood said: “But grandmother,
what big ears you have!”
“The better to hear you,” answered the wolf.
“But grandmother, what big eyes you have!” said Red Riding Hood.
“The better to see you.”
“But grandmother,” said Red Riding Hood, “what big hands you
have!”
“The better to hold you.”
“But grandmother, what an incredibly big mouth you have!”
“The better to eat you!” And in a wink, the wolf came out of the bed
and devoured poor Red Riding Hood.
 317

Then he crawled into bed again, fell asleep and snored so that the
walls shook. The hunter, just then passing by grandmother’s cottage, was
confounded: “How loud the old lady snores today! I have to check in on
her.” As he came up to the bed, he saw that the wolf lay in it.
He was very terrified. But since he thought he might be able to save
grandmother from the wolf’s belly, he didn’t shoot him. Instead, he took
a pair of scissors and cut up his belly. After just a couple of snips, he saw
Red Riding Hood’s red hood glow. Another few snips and Red Riding
Hood could crawl out, and she exclaimed: “Oh, how frightened I was! It
was so dark inside the wolf’s belly!” Then the old grandmother could
also crawl out, and she was still alive. Red Riding Hood merrily hopped
around the room.
But then she fetched a few big rocks. With them, they filled the wolf’s
belly, and then they stitched him up again. When he woke, he intended to
swiftly run away. But the rocks in his belly were so heavy, he fell down
dead. Then all three were happy and content. The hunter pulled the pelt
off the wolf and Red Riding Hood danced for joy.
Her grandmother ate of the cake and drank from the wine that Red
Riding Hood had brought, and she immediately felt better. But Red
Riding Hood thought to herself: “I will never, ever again leave the path
and run into the woods alone, when mother has forbidden it.”
THE END

1.6. LUKE.15.11-32 in 4 versions

LL=Lenny Lindell, KIH=Kåre-Ivan Holm, FLH=Fredrik Larsen
Hartmann (KIH and FLH published by permission from Oslo Universitet:
Det Historisk-Filosofiske Fakultet)
11
LL Ta lester penna: "jekh mosch kamma dy
tjavoar"

KIH Kava/lo rakla/rakra: “Jekk mors kamma dy raklo-kjavoár”

FLH Han rakra: “jik manus kamma dy rakloar”

FLH II Mino päio rakra: “jik manus kamma dy kjavoar”

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FLH III
Minno daln rakra: “Jikk mannusi kamma dy kjavoar”
Eng Jesus continued: “There was a man who had two sons.

12
LL Dolle ternoa avri dova penna to BaroDad. “BaroDad
docka
miro dolle beck avri barvalopan, tjakke perrar teli pre
miro lott” dolle parra lo barvalopan pere sinsimaskro
lengros.
KIH Dåva tærnoasterdåvane rakla to/te dadden: “Dad, dela
miro dåva kåtro avri vådripán savo perár pre/pri miros
kjavoár” Kava kjingra andri dy siros v¨dripa preder sirosé
raklo-kjavoár
FLH I Tærnoaste ninna pena dadoen: “De mander meros kova
som manders kammas” Dadoen para kovan Kjetanes
kjavoane.
FLH II
Onno daava tærnoaste af dem rakra nino dadoen: “Dado!
De mero daava parra af kovan, som mero nino kammas”
Onno päio parra kovan kettanes
FLH III
Onno dåva ternoaste pas vavre rakra nino dadoen: “Dado
de miro dåva delar pas kovan, so mero tinno kammas”
Onno daln parra kovan ketanes vavre.

Eng The younger one said to his father, ‘Father, give me my

share of the estate.’ So he divided his property between
them.

13
LL Ta nani duri tjiro senslo becha dova ternoa tjavon sas siros
pattjepa ta taradra duri niklos to jekh fremmslot themm,
Dojj jibba lester
an kerjat jibbepa ta dingla ta tjinna oppri sasarot avri siro
 319

barvalopa

KIH Kji butri divisar pallar lédde tærnoaste raklo-

kjavoen/rakloén sassarotén, jádde døi pallar nikli to/te
kavot tem durit niklít honka kádde honka pídde opri
sassaroé vådripán siros andri jikk bengalot jibén
FLH I Kji butte divisar döi pallar parra ledde rakloen tærnoe
raklo sassarot, jade nekli döi fremlandt tem dur nikli onnis
og kade og pide sassarot kovan opri I jik bengalodt giben.

FLH II Onno kji budtte divisar döipallar ledde daava tærnoaste

kjavo sas sarot onni sada avritems ninno jik tem durnikli.
Onni kjera döi sit kova i jik bengalodt gjiben.

FLH III
Onni kji bute divisar döipallar lede dåva ternoaste kjavo
sas-sarot. Onni sarda utems ninno jikk tem dur nikli, onni
sarda kae dli seros kova i jikk hiir jiben.
Eng Not long after that, the younger son got together all he
had, set off for a distant country and there squandered his
wealth in wild living.

14
LL Senslo penna lester kammar diro dinglat nilkos sas, ava
jekh baro. Bokkalopa preall dolle themm, ta lester fyste
jibba an nagnoapa.
KIH Men ninna kava kammáde kádd honka pídd opri sassaroé
vådripán I jikk bengalot jibén ava baro bokipa andri dåva
tem, honka lo jédde jikk keria jib.
FLH I Döi kammas kadopri sassarot sinna (seros) lovoar assjade
kik baro bokkipa i daava tem og kamma kji butare lovar at
 320

kjinna kaben for.

FLH II

Minno döi kamma vago opri sas daava pöio kamma ninna
FLH III jik baro bokkipa i illud daava tem onno pöio kjerrar at
bokka pöi.

Mino döi daln kamma kadopri sas dåva daln kamma ava
jik baro bokipa i dåva tem. Onni daln bokipa jade pas
barorankanoerna döi i tem.
Eng After he had spent everything, there was a severe famine
in that whole country, and he began to be in need.

15
LL Dolle jade lester nikli ta docka siro preall jekh beddo dojj
dre Themmen, ta tradra avri lester to siros themmar ta
veschar te
dikka Palla beddons balos.
KIH Kava jádde nikli honka rikra siros to/te jek avri manushé
andri dåva tem, honka lo mangán ja nikli pre puét siros
honka dikka pallar baloáne.
FLH I Han jade nikli og rikra til jik rankanoen döi i temmon daava
mangan ja nikli pre pu at rakka dikka pallar baloarne.

FLH II Onni pöio jade nikli, onno rekra sig ninno, jik af
rankanoerna döi i temmen, onno daava kjera päio pre meros
pu, at rakka baloarne.

Eng So he went and hired himself out to a citizen of that

country, who sent him to his fields to feed pigs.

16
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LL Ta karna lo voltra fyssa perda oppri siro belsing ninna

kabent tjakke Baloarna kadde, nane attjer dovas kaben
dockades to lester.
KIH Kava færnisát honka ka opri baloánes/balo
kabingén/kabing, honka kji færnisa honka dela lo avri
baloánes/balo kabingén/kaben.
FLH I Dela mander kaben at pæren asjar kjarto med raakon
baloarne kar asjar kji jik gavo dela mander kaben.
FLH II
Onno pöio kammar at pilo sin poren pærdi raakon, som
baloarne kade onno kji dedde pöio teknot.
FLH III
Onno daln mangar at pærdi seros pærd med kaben, so
baloarne kade, onno kji dede knaspern teknot.
Eng He longed to fill his stomach with the pods that the pigs
were eating, but no one gave him anything.

17
LL Dolle lo bliddra stilad ta penna: “karna buttider ninna
mengeske-rakklos palla diro miro Barodad kammar tji
butt ninna maro, karna mander bukkar an mul”
KIH Kava ava to kåtro/kåkkaro honka rakra: “Miro dadd
kammas butri lindráde fakkare, dåvane kammas butare
maro jekk dåváne kar opri, dorsta manders besjár/s jibé to
avri bokipa”
FLH I Han ava ninna til kokkare oh pukka: “Budtte kjereste
divisar gar kammar meros dado kammar maro dorsta
mander muler af bokipa”
FLH II

Minno döi ava ninno kokkare rakra: “pöio hvor budtte

diviskjerare kammas meros dado kamma dorsta maro
FLH III minno kamnder muler af bokkipa”

Minno döi daln ava ninnoo sero solus rakra daln: “Vorna
bute diviskjerare kammar meros dado so kammas dåista
maro! Ninno manders mular pas bokipa”

Eng When he came to his senses, he said, ‘How many of my

 322

father’s hired servants have food to spare, and here I am

starving to death!

18
LL Mander voltrar ste oppri ta ja to miro Barodad ta penna to
lester: “Baro Develeske Dad, mander kammar grekkopa
pala devel ta pala diro”
KIH Mander jar opri to miro dad/dado honka pukka to kava:
“Dad, mander kammas grikkót mot kamloén honka diro”
FLH I Mander jar opri til meros dado og penna: “Dado, manders
kammas grekkopa mod punen og dero”
FLH II
Mander besjar opri onno jar ninno meros dado, onno rakra
ninno päio: “Dado, mander kammas grekipa mod punen
FLH III onno vago dero”

Mander siltan beschar opri, onno ja ninno meros dado,

onno rakra knasper dado: “Mander kammas grekipa mod
punen onno vaga deros”

Eng I will set out and go back to my father and say to him:
“Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you"

19
LL “Mander honkar nani buttider mollepa to karar siro tjavo,
mander voltrar honka jekh attjer diros mengeske-rakklos”

KIH “Mander asjár kji duritáre karás diros raklo-kjavo. Kjera

mander to jekk avri diros lindra-gaer”

FLH I “Mander asja kji duriare verdo karas deros raklo kjera
mander som jik deros dindrare”
 323

FLH II
“Onni asjar kji duriare maalar ar karas deros kjavo kjerrar
mero som jik af deros diviskjerare”
FLH III
“Onni aschjar kji duriare mållar at karas deros kjavo.
Kjera mero so jik pachs deros diviskjerare”
Eng “I am no longer worthy to be called your son; make me
like one of your hired servants”

20
LL Savi stedde lester oppri ta jadde to siro dad, ta pala lester
ascha duri niklos, fyste lesters dad dikka lo ta chala preall
lester ta
jadde siggrot pala lester perra pala lesters men ta tjommra
lester.
KIH (Og) kava stédde opri honka jádde to siros dad. Kava
besjade durit nikli, dikka los dad kava honkaledde baro
miak to lo. Kava nasja/prasta lo andri drissa, perát kava om
menén honka kjommáde lo.
FLH II Onni pöio besja opri. Onni ava minno ceros dada. Minno
döi han pöi var endnu durnikli, dikka antes dado pöio. Onni
miak budt, onni nasja ninno, pera om antes meen, onno
FLH III kjuma pöio.

Onno daln beschja opri onno ava ninno seros dado. Minno
döi daln virna jik ninna dirnikli savo ante dado knaspern
onni mijak inderligen, orna knaspern onno naschjar ninno
onno pera no antes mee, onno kjumma knaspern.
Eng So he got up and went to his father.But while he was still a
long way off, his father saw him and was filled with
compassion for him; he ran to his son, threw his arms
around him and kissed him.

21
 324

LL Tjavon penna to lester: "BaroDad, Mander kammar kerrat

grekkopa pala tjeri ta glaneske diro: mande aschar nani
buttider moll te karas diro tjavo”
KIH Raklo-kjavoén rakla to kava: “Dad, miro kammas mot
kamloén honka diro. Miro asjár kji duriáre mållar honka
karás diros raklo-kjavo”
FLH II Minno kjavo rakra ninno pöio: “Dado, mander kammar
grekipa imod punnen ono vago dig, onno asjar kji duriare
FLH III maallar at karas deres kjavo”

Minno kjavoen rakra ninno knasperten: “Dado, mander

kamar grekipa buno punen onno vago dero, onno aschjar kji
duriare mållar at karas deres kjavo”
Eng The son said to him: “Father, I have sinned against heaven
and against you. I am no longer worthy to be called your
son”

22
LL Dolle penna BaroDad to siro mengeske-rakklos: "sigga
erssnos ta le glaneske dova shukkranoast isa Ta isade lester
an kava, ta bescha jekh gustro pre lesters vhasjt ta kalsinger
pre lesters piror”
KIH Dadoén rakra te siros dendráre: “Sigga diros! Le kei dåva
lakjoáste isingane/isarna og kamma dåva pre kava. Dela
kava jekk gustro/gustri ore vasjén/vastén los, honka
kalsingár pre piroáne”
FLH II Minno dadoen rakra ninno ceros denrar: “Regrar kei daava
lakjoaste isar, onno isar pre pöio daava, onno dellar pöio jik
gustro pre antes vairst, onno tiraker pre piroane”

FLH III Minno dadoen rakra ninno seros dendrare: “Regrar kei dåva
lakjoaste isar dårjan, onno isardar knasperten; onno delar
knasperten jik sormus pe antes varirster onno tirakker pre
piroarne”
Eng But the father said to his servants: “Quick! Bring the best
robe and put it on him. Put a ring on his finger and sandals
on his feet”
 325

23
LL Ta anner dova tullanoa musskro ta merra dova, Savi
karmissa vorssnos ka ta
dolle kerra vorssnos loschanoa
KIH Le gjø-gurg-kjavoén honka mera/marra dåva, (og) la
vårsnusáne ka honka asja låsjanoé!

FLH II Onno ja pallar daava tuloe muskro kei, onno mara daava,
onno lader os kae, onno asjar gladttan.

FLH III Onno regrar dåva tuluaste muskroe kei, onno marar dåva,
onno la hirst ka, onno honkar glattan.
Eng Bring the fattened calf and kill it. Let’s have a feast and
celebrate.

24
LL Ta dova miro tjavo acha mulad, karna kammar lett pala siro
jibben,
lester honka niklos karna nii aschar aveskeske-lattjad.
KIH Vago dåva miros raklo-kjavo ajáde kjivra-nikli honka
asjár/(asját lakját) ava pali. (Og) dærsno begynte honka asja
låsjanoé.
FLH II Tinno daava meros kjavo var mulo onno asjar blavar
gjidanes ipali, onno var nikli onno pasjar lakja. Onno de
begyndte at asja glatan.
FLH III
Tin dåva meros kjavo varna mulo, onno aschjar blavanes
jidanes pali, onno varna nikli onno aschjar lakjan pali. Onno
de begyndte at honka glattan.
Eng For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was
lost and is found. So they began to celebrate.
25
LL Lesters phurano tjavo honka avri pre themmen,Karna lester
nii tradra pale ta ava glan to hispan fyste lo shunna
spekkrepa ta kelepa.
 326

KIH Men dåva puranoéste/áste raklo-kjavón kavás asjáde avri

pre nitanén. Ninn akava jadde pali to kjeriét
honka(nærmet)/avade siro låddét/låddipaét, heiáde lo
knarka honka kelipa/kellipa.
FLH II Minno antes puronoste kjavo var pre pu onno da pöio ava,
onno var nær kairst. Kjæren, skjuna pöio polipan gjibar
onno kjelipa.
FLH III

Minno antes puriaste kjavo varna pre puu, onno da daln ava
hikelt nino hispan, sjuna daln gålipa jibar onno kjellipa.
Eng Meanwhile, the older son was in the field. When he came
near the house, he heard music and dancing.
26
LL Dole kara lo to siros jekh attjer dova mengeske-rakklona
ta puscha So dova savia naschtade ascha.
KIH Kava kara to siro jekk avri dendrárne/árna honka
pukja/áde hva dåva kanfara asja.
FLH Onno daln kara jik pasch dendro-rakloarne nino serot,
onno avrepuitja hvad dåva virna.
Eng So he called one of the servants and asked him what was
going on.

27
LL Lengro penna to lester: “Diro phral kammar avat khere:
Ta dole nii diro BaroDad kammar lett lester an baro
sastepa topalo, kammar lomerrat dova tullanoa musskro”
KIH Kava rakla to lo: “Diros pral asjár avát, honka diros dad
kammas marrát gjø-gurg-kjavoén vago kava lédde lo
lakjo pali/pale”
FLH Minno daln rakra ninno knasperten: “Deros pral aschjar
ava onno deros dado mara dåva tuloaste muskro, vago
daln kammar led knasperten lakjo pali”
Eng He replied: “Your brother has come, and your father has
killed the fattened calf because he has him back safe and
sound”
 327

28
LL Dole ascha lester miak, lakk ta voltra nani ja andre,
Lesters BaroDad jade avri ta rakkra ninna lester.
KIH Ninna asjáde kava rusjto honka færnissa kji ja andri.
(Kava asjáde rusjto honka færnissa kji ja andri).
Dadén/dadón jádde avri honka rakla lakjot/bunigt to lo.
FLH Minno daln blavanas rusto. Onno sillan kji ja andre. Döi
vago jade antes dado avri onno manga knasperten.
Eng The older brother became angry and refused to go in. So
his father went out and pleaded with him.

29
LL Lo rakkra ta penna to siro BaroDad: “Dikk savi butt
ninna bhers mander kammar mengrat ta mangat gla diro,
ta tji nani jikh volta kammar mander jatt preall diros
devleske-lav, ta nani jikh tjium diro dockat mander. Savo
mander saste naschta kerra mande loschano ninna miro
mala”
KIH Men kava rakla to siros dad: “Dikkra andri savo butri
bæsj kammas mander dinrát/dendrát diros, (og) kji
kammas mander kjerát imot diros lav. (Men) mande
rkammas diro delát jikk kjavo-busjni/bekron/Bakro savo
mander færnissa låsjipa miros me maléne manders.
FLH Minno daln rakra onno penna nino dadoen: “Dika sao
budte bærs dendrar mander dero, onno kji rakra naban
deros bodran, onno dero kammar ded mero jik buschni-
kjavo, at mander karnas honka glattan mero manuser”
Eng But he answered his father, ‘Look! All these years I’ve
been slaving for you and never disobeyed your orders.
Yet you never gave me even a young goat so I could
celebrate with my friends”

30
 328

LL Karna lengros tjavo, tjakke kammar kat oppri diro

barvalopa kettanes ninna lummnier(lobbor), nii kammar
avat topale, savo kammar diro gla lester merrat dova
tullanoa-musskron.
KIH (Men) ninna dåva raklo-kjavón diros ava, kava savo
kammas kjivrát nikli vådripán diros kjettanes me lubniér,
ninna marra diro gjø-gurg-kjavón vago lo.
FLH Minno da dåva deros kjavo aschjar ava, so kammar vago
kadopri deros kova med lubianer, mara dero dåva
tuluaste muskro ninno knasperten.
Eng But when this son of yours who has squandered your
property with prostitutes comes home, you kill the
fattened calf for him!

31
LL Dova penna lo to lester: “Miro tjavo diro honkar sas-tjiro
pala
mander,ta sas-sasarot miros aschar diros
KIH (Men) kava rakla to lo: “Raklo-kjavo, Diro asjár
dåstano/sastot hos miro, honka helkót/hilkót meros asjar
diros”
FLH Minno daln penna ninno knasperten: “Meros kjavo, dero
aschjar sasstiil hirst mero, onno sas dåva so meros
aschjar, aschjar deros”
Eng The father said: “My son, you are always with me, and
everything I have is yours”

32
LL Ninna fyser vorssnos ascha fedia ta
loschanoa, karna lengros phral ascha an mul,kammar lett
siro jibben, lo
honka niklos karna nii lo aschar lattjad.

KIH Men ninna skulle våro låsjanoé våros honka asja låsjalé
vago dåva diros pral asjáde mulo honka asjár/ás avát pali
jido, asja kjivra-nikli honka asjár/ás lakjipát.
 329

FLH Minno gavon burde være glattan sero vago dåva deros
pral varna mulo. Onno aschjar blavanes jidanes pali,
onno varna vago nikli. Onno aschjar lakjan pali.
Eng But we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother
of yours was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is
found
330