COMPUTER

HARDWARE AND
NETWORKING
by
Jemshihas AP
AKNM Govt.PTCT
jemshihas@gmail.com

11th Jan
AKNM Govt. Polytechnic College Chelari
 COMPUTER
NETWORKS

by
Jemshihas AP
AKNM Govt.PTCT
jemshihas@gmail.com

11th Jan
AKNM Govt. Polytechnic College Chelari
 Transmission Media
3

 In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a

physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the
channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – Guided
4

 Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through wired or

bounded cabling system that has a fixed path. For example, Twisted
pair cable, co-axial wires, fibre optic cables, etc.
 Twisted Pair Cable
 Pair of copper wires are twisted together in helical shape like a DNA
molecule. Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce
interference between nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different
for each pair. Up to 25 twisted pair are put together in a protective
covering to form twisted pair cables that are the backbone of telephone
systems and Ethernet networks.

University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – Twisted Pair Cable
5

 Advantages of twisted pair cable

 Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

 Can be used for both analogue and digital transmissions

 Least expensive for short distances

 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged

 Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

 High error rate for distances greater than 100m

 Very thin and hence breaks easily

 Not suitable for broadband connections

University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – UTP
6

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
 Advantages:
 Least expensive
 Easy to install

 High speed capacity

 Disadvantages:
 Susceptible to external interference
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – UTP
7

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is
used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
 Advantages:
 Betterperformance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparatively faster

 Disadvantages:
 Comparativelydifficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive

 Bulky
University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias - Coaxial
8

 It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner

wire conductor (Figure below). The inner conductor is held in place by either
regularly spaced insulating rings or a solid dielectric material. The outer
conductor is covered with a jacket or shield. A single coaxial cable has a diameter
of from 1 to 2.5 cm. Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support
more stations on a shared line than twisted pair.

University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias - Coaxial
9

 Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated

cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
 Advantages of Coaxial Cables
 Excellent noise immunity
 Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable
 Can be used for both analog and digital signals
 Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
 Easy to install and maintain
 Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables
 Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables
 Not compatible with twisted pair cables
University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – Optical Fibre Cable
10

 An optical fibre is a thin (2 to 125µm ), flexible medium capable of guiding an

optical ray. Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibres. Thin
glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called optical
fibre. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at
the source, which is read by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre cable has
a bundle of such threads or fibres bundled together in a protective covering. Each
fibre is made up of these three layers, starting with the innermost layer
 Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
 Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index than
the core
 Protective outer covering called buffer
 Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material. However, as refractive
index of the cladding is lower, any stray light wave trying to escape the core is reflected
back due to total internal reflection. University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – Optical Fibre Cable
11

 Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines, internet

communication and even cable TV connections because transmitted data can
travel very long distances without weakening. Single node fibre optic cable can
have maximum segment length of 2 kms and bandwidth of up to 100
Mbps. Multi-node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of 100
kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.

University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias – Optical Fibre Cable
12

 Advantages of Optical Fibre

 High bandwidth
 Immune to electromagnetic interference

 Suitable for industrial and noisy areas

 Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

 Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

 Opticalfibre cables are expensive
 Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and
maintaining optical fibre cables
 Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full
duplex transmission
University of Calicut
 Guided transmission medias
13

Twisted pair cable Co-axial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

1 Transmission of signals takes Transmission of signals takes place Signal transmission takes place in
place in the electrical form over in the electrical form over the Inner an optical forms over a glass fiber
the metallic conducting wires. conductor of the cable.
2 In this medium the noise Co-axial having higher noise Optical fiber has higher noise
immunity is low. immunity than twisted pair cable immunity as the light rays are
unaffected by electrical noise
3 Twisted pair cable can be Co-axial less effected due to Not affected by the external
affected due to external magnetic external magnetic field magnetic field
field
4 Cheapest medium Moderate expensive Expensive
5 Low bandwidth Moderate high band width Very high band width
6 Attenuation is very high Attenuation is low Attenuation is very low
7 Installation is easy Installation is fairly easy Installation is difficult

University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias
14

 An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves

without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known
as wireless transmission.
 In unguided media, air is the media through which the
electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
 Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
 Radio waves
 Microwave

 Infra red

University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Radio waves
15

 Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
 The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
 In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
 An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
 Advantages
 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
 Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Microwaves
16

 Microwaves are of two types:

 Terrestrial microwave

 Satellite microwave communication.

 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

 Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna
to another.
 Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
 Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Microwaves
17

 In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
 It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.
 Characteristics of Microwave:
 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to
21-23 GHz.
 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

 Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.

 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.

 Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental

conditions and antenna size.
University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Microwaves
18

 Advantages Of Microwave:
 Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
 It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
 Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in
terrain is quite a difficult task.
 Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
 Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
 Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch
the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
 Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
 Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition.
This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
 Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.
University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Satellite Microwave
19

 A satellite is an entity that revolves around the earth at a certain height. Satellite
communication offers more flexibility than fiber optic and cable systems. We can
transmit signals from any point on the globe by using satellite transmission.
 How does a Satellite work?
 The satellite receives the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies these signals. It is retransmitted the amplified signal to another earth
station.
 Satellite transmission is much like the line-of-sight transmission in which one of
the stations is a satellite orbiting the earth. The principle is the same as the
terrestrial microwave. Signals still travel in straight lines in satellite
transmission.

University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Satellite Microwave
20

 Features of Satellite Microwave

 It provides transmission capability to and from any location on earth.
 Deployment of Satellite microwaves for orbiting satellites is difficult.
 Advantages of Satellite Microwave
 High-quality communication available to undeveloped parts of the world without
requiring a huge investment in the ground-based infrastructure.
 It is used in a variety of applications such as radio/TV signal broadcasting, weather
forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication and mobile, and
wireless communication applications.
 The coverage area of a terrestrial microwave is less than the terrestrial microwave.
 Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave
 The manufacturing cost is very high of satellite and very expensive to launch a satellite.
 Transmission can go down in bad weather. University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Infrared Waves
21

 The frequency of Infrared waves is about 300 GHz to 430 THz, which can
be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves of high
frequencies cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic of Infrared waves
prevents interference between one system and another. This means a
short-range communication system in a room cannot be affected by
another system in the adjacent room.
 If we are using the infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the
use of the remote by our neighbours. However, by this characteristic,
infrared signals become useless for long-range communication. Also, we
cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with communication.
University of Calicut
 Un Guided transmission medias - Infrared Waves
22

 Characteristics of infrared waves

 This type of wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high
data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards for using these
signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs, and
printers and it is also responsible for sponsoring the use of infrared waves.
 This type of communication provides better security with minimum interference.

University of Calicut
 Cable modem
23

 To support data transfer to and from a cable modem, a cable TV provider

dedicates two channels, one for transmission in each direction. Each channel is
shared by a number of subscribers, and so some scheme is needed for allocating
capacity on each channel for transmission. Typically, a form of statistical TDM is
used, as illustrated in Figure below. In the downstream direction, cable headend
to subscriber, a cable scheduler delivers data in the form of small packets.
Because the channel is shared by a number of subscribers, if more than one
subscriber is active, each subscriber gets only a fraction of the downstream
capacity. An individual cable modem subscriber may experience access speeds
from 500 kbps to 1.5 Mbps or more, depending on the network architecture and
traffic load. The downstream direction is also used to grant time slots to
subscribers. When a subscriber has data to transmit, it must first request time
slots on the shared upstream channel.
University of Calicut
 Cable modem
24

 Each subscriber is given dedicated time slots for this request purpose. The
headend scheduler responds to a request packet by sending back an assignment
of future time slots to be used by this subscriber. Thus, a number of subscribers
can share the same upstream channel without conflict.

University of Calicut
 Dial up modem
25

 To connect two computers via an analogue telephone line, a dial up

modem (Modulator - DEModulator) is required at each end of the telephone line.
The modem provides the interface between the digital computer system and the
analogue telephone line. The modem accepts a bit stream from the computer
and uses it to modulate a sine wave carrier on the telephone line. For incoming
signals, the process is reversed, and the carrier wave is demodulated to
reproduce the original stream of bits. The modem may be an add-on card
mounted directly into the motherboard of the PC (using an ISA or PCI slot) or
implemented as an external unit in its own case (see below). It is connected to a
standard telephone wall socket via a cable. External modems connect to the PC
via a DB9 or DB25 serial communication port, or a USB port. PCMCIA (Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association) modems are designed for
notebook computers.
University of Calicut
 Dial up modem
26

 A modem that can send and receive faxes is called a fax modem. Modern
modems conform to the V.90 standard, and have a theoretical maximum
download rate of 56 kbps (only possible due to data compression), with a
theoretical maximum upload rate of 33.6 kbps. Due to the relatively low
bandwidth of an analogue phone line (around 3 kHz), the standard signalling
rate available to modems is 2,400 baud. The data rate achieved depends on the
number of bits that can be represented per baud, but this in turn is dependent
on line conditions, which are always less than perfect. Data rates of 48 kbps can
generally be considered good. Modems negotiate a mutually acceptable
connection speed when the connection is initially established, and can
subsequently renegotiate connection speeds up or down, depending on the line
conditions at any given time.

University of Calicut
 Dial up modem.
27

University of Calicut
 Dial up modem.
28

University of Calicut
 Dial up modem.
29

University of Calicut
 Hub
30

 Hub is a networking devices which is used to transmit the signal to

each port (except one port) to respond from which the signal was
received. A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects
multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs
cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. In other words, collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have intelligence to find
out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage. Hub is operated on Physical layer. In this packet filtering is
not available. It is of two types: Active Hub, Passive Hub.
University of Calicut
 Hub
31

 Active Hub:- These are the hubs which have their own power supply
and can clean, boost and relay the signal along with the network. It
serves both as a repeater as well as wiring centre. These are used to
extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes
and power supply from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to
extend the distance between nodes.

University of Calicut
 Switch
32

 Switch is a multiport network device which is used to enable the

connection establishment and connection termination on the basis of
need. A switch is a data link layer device. In this packet filtering is
available. It is type of full duplex transmission mode. It does not
broadcast the packet to all computers as a hub does which means
bandwidth is not shared and makes the network much more efficient.
For this reason alone, switches are usually preferred over a hub. In
other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast
domain remains same. The switch can perform error checking before
forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to
correct port only. University of Calicut
 Switch
33

University of Calicut
 HUB Vs Switch
34

S.NO HUB SWITCH

1. Hub is operated on Physical layer. While switch is operated on Data link layer.
While switch is a Unicast, multicast and broadcast
2. Hub is a broadcast type transmission.
type transmission.
3. Hub have maximum 4 ports. While switch can have 24 to 28 ports.
While in switch, different ports have own collision
4. In hub, there is only one collision domain.
domain.
5. Hub is a half duplex transmission mode. While switch is a full duplex transmission mode.
6. In hub, Packet filtering is not provided. While in switch, Packet filtering is provided.
7. Hub cannot be used as a repeater. While switch can be used as a repeater.
Hub is not an intelligent device hence it is While switch is an intelligent device so it is
8.
comparatively inexpensive. expensive.
Hub is simply old type of device and is not While switch is very sophisticated device and
9.
generally used. widely used. University of Calicut
 Bridge
35

 A bridge operates in the physical layer as well as in the data link layer. It can
regenerate the signal that it receives and as a data link layer device, it can check
the physical (MAC) addresses of source and destination contained in the frame.
The major difference between the bridge and the repeater is that the bridge and
the repeater is that the bridge has a filtering capability. That means it can check
the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame should be forwarded
or dropped. If the frame is forwarded, then the bridge should specify the port
over which it should be forwarded.

University of Calicut
 Bridge
36

University of Calicut
 Bridge
37

 Types of Bridges:
 There are mainly three types in which bridges can be characterized:
 Transparent Bridge: As the name signifies, it appears to be transparent for the
other devices on the network. The other devices are ignorant of its existence. It
only blocks or forwards the data as per the MAC address.
 Source Route Bridge: It derives its name from the fact that the path which
packet takes through the network is implanted within the packet. It is mainly
used in Token ring networks.
 Translational Bridge: The process of conversion takes place via Translational
Bridge. It converts the data format of one networking to another. For instance
Token ring to Ethernet and vice versa.

University of Calicut
 Routers
38

 Routers are network layer devices and are particularly identified as Layer- 3
devices of the OSI Model. They process logical addressing information in the
Network header of a packet such as IP Addresses. Router is used to create larger
complex networks by complex traffic routing. It has the ability to connect
dissimilar LANs on the same protocol. It also has the ability to limit the flow of
broadcasts. A router primarily comprises of a hardware device or a system of the
computer which has more than one network interface and routing software.
 Routers do not look at the destination node address; they only look at the
network address. Routers will only pass the information if the network address
is known. This ability to control the data passing through the router reduces the
amount of traffic between networks and allows routers to use these links more
efficiently than bridge
University of Calicut
 Routers
39

 Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model meaning that the Routers
can switch and route packets across multiple networks. They do this by
exchanging protocol-specific information between separate networks. Routers
have access to more information in packets than bridges, and use this
information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are usually used in a complex
network situation because they provide better traffic management than bridges
and do not pass broadcast traffic.
 Functionality:
When a router receives the data, it determines the destination address by
reading the header of the packet. Once the address is determined, it searches in
its routing table to get know how to reach the destination and then forwards the
packet to the higher hop on the route. The hop could be the final destination or
another router. University of Calicut
 Routers
40

 Routing tables: play a very pivotal role in letting the router makes a decision. Thus
a routing table is ought to be updated and complete. The two ways through which a
router can receive information are:
 Static Routing: In static routing, the routing information is fed into the routing
tables manually. It does not only become a time-taking task but gets prone to errors
as well. The manual updating is also required in case of statically configured routers
when change in the topology of the network or in the layout takes place. Thus static
routing is feasible for tinniest environments with minimum of one or two routers.
 Dynamic Routing: For larger environment dynamic routing proves to be the
practical solution. The process involves use of peculiar routing protocols to hold
communication. The purpose of these protocols is to enable the other routers to
transfer information about to other routers, so that the other routers can build their
own routing tables.
University of Calicut
 Gateways
41

 Gateways normally work at the all layer of OSI model espescilalyin Transport
and Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport layer and above, there
are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways are
used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking
technologies such as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways
connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own routing
algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network
administration procedures and policies.
 Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router
with added translation functionality is a gateway. The function that does the
translation between different network technologies is called a protocol
converter. University of Calicut
 Gateways
42

 A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all five layers of

the Internet or seven layers of OSI model. A gateway takes an
application message, reads it, and interprets it. This means that it can
be used as a connecting device between two internetworks that use
different models. For example, a network designed to use the OSI
model can be connected to another network using the Internet
model. The gateway connecting the two systems can take a frame as
it arrives from the first system, move it up to the OSI application
layer, and remove the message.

University of Calicut
 Gateways
43

University of Calicut
 End of Today’s Lecture
44

Doubts && Queries?

University of Calicut
45

THANK YOU

University of Calicut