Nepal Telecom Exam Preparation: (Level 7)
Nepal Telecom Exam Preparation: (Level 7)
Nepal Telecom Exam Preparation: (Level 7)
Exam Preparation
(Level 7)
Every transmission line consists of circuit elements distributed along its length. Because
current flows through the conductors, the line has series inductance, and because there is
always a return path, which is normally another adjacent conductor, it has parallel
capacitance.
The series inductance and parallel capacitance are the dominant elements in the equivalent
circuit of lines, and are present even in theoretically perfect cases. But in real lines the
conductors are not perfect, so they also have some series resistance, and the dielectric or
insulation separating the two conductors is not perfect so it has some parallel resistance.
The series and parallel resistance are less significant than the inductance and
capacitance, unless there is a fault in the line.
Line Equivalent Circuit
It is important to note that in the real line the elements are distributed continuously along
the line, and are not lumped at intervals along the length as shown.
Each section of the equivalent circuit looks like a low pass filter, so the effect of the
inductance and capacitance is to limit the bandwidth of the signals which the line can
transport, with higher frequencies being attenuated more than lower ones.
The series and parallel resistances result in losses down the line, reducing the ability
of the line to transport the signal power efficiently.
Line Equivalent Circuit
It is important to note that in the real line the elements are distributed continuously along
the line, and are not lumped at intervals along the length as shown.
Each section of the equivalent circuit looks like a low pass filter, so the effect of the
inductance and capacitance is to limit the bandwidth of the signals which the line can
transport, with higher frequencies being attenuated more than lower ones.
The series and parallel resistances result in losses down the line, reducing the ability
of the line to transport the signal power efficiently.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
• Optical
• Ultraviolet
• X-rays
• Gamma-rays
Classes of transmission media
Guided Media
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow
pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
7.12
UTP Connecter
UTP Performance
UTP Cable vs STP Cable
S. No. Basis for comparison UTP (Unshielded twisted pair) STP (Shielded twisted pair)
1. Basic UTP is a cable with wires that STP is a twisted pair cable
are twisted together. enclosed in foil or mesh
shield.
2. Noise and crosstalk High comparatively. Less susceptible to noise
generation and crosstalk.
3. Grounding cable Grounding cable Necessarily required
4. Ease of handling Easily installed as cables are Installation of cables is
smaller, lighter, and flexible. difficult comparatively.
5. Cost Cheaper and does not require Moderately expensive.
much maintenance.
6. Data Rates Slow comparatively. Provides high data rates
Coaxial Cable
●Coaxial Cable has a single copper conductor a plastic layer provides
insulation. Coaxial has a central core conductor of solid copper
enclosed in an insulating sheath.
●Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.
●Transmits information in two modes:
- Baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth)
- Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges)
●Different coaxial cable designs are categorized by their radio
government (RG) rating. Each RG number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications, thickness, type of inner insulator, the construction
of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Coaxial Cable
BNC Connectors
Coaxial Cable Performance
Waveguide
• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
Propagation methods
Frequency Bands
Wireless transmission waves
Radio waves
●1kHz – 1GHz
●Relatively narrow (compared to microwave)
●Omni directional (all directions)
●□ good for long distances (sky propagation), interference with other
waves
●Can penetrate walls (Adv & disadv)
●Low data rate for digital communication.
Note
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.
Microwaves
●1GHz – 300GHz (wide band)
●unidirectional
●sending & receiving antennas should be aligned, no interference
●Can not penetrate walls (Adv & disadv)
●high data rate.
●Requires permission from authorities
Note
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using
line-of-sight propagation.
References
1. William Stallings
Data and Computer Communications3GPP
2. 4G Americas (3G Americas)
3. DoCoMo
4. Wikipedia
Thanks