UNIVERSITY OF GHANA

(all rights reserved)

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

Course Code and Title: MATH 353: Analysis I

BOOK OF QUESTIONS

Normed linear spaces

1. Let (X, k · k) be a norm real linear space.

a- Prove that for any a, b ∈ X,

|kak − kbk| ≤ kb − ak.

b- Let x, y ∈ X be such that kx − yk = 0. Compare kxk and kyk.

c- Prove that for any a, b ∈ X,

kb − ak + ka + bk
|kak − kbk| ≤ .
2

2. Let (X, k · k) be a norm real linear space. Let A be a nonempty subset of X. The
aim of this exercise is to introduce the notion of closure and limit points of a set.
(i) Negate the following proposition ”A is the smallest closed set containing A”.

Deduce that A = Int(A) ∪ ∂A and that A is closed if and only if A = A.

A is called the closure of A.

(ii) Given two subsets A, B of X, compare A ∪ B and A ∪ B.
(iii) Given two subsets A, B of X, compare A ∩ B and A ∩ B.
3. Let (X, k · k) be a norm real linear space. Let A be a nonempty subset of X. Prove
that x ∈ ∂A if and only if ∀r > 0, (Br (x) ∩ A 6= ∅ and Br (x) ∩ Ac 6= ∅)
4. In (R, | · |), given the subset A = (0, 1], find Int(A), Ext(A), ∂A, A.
5. Let (X, k · k) be a norm real linear space. Let A be a nonempty subset of X. A
point x ∈ X is called a limit point of A, if there exists a sequence (xn ) ⊂ A such
that limn→∞ xn = x. The set of all limit points of A is denoted A0 .
(i) Prove that ∂A ⊆ A0 .
(ii) Prove that x ∈ A0 if and only if ∀r > 0, Br (x) ∩ (A \ {x}) 6= ∅.
(iii) Prove that A is close if and only if A0 ⊂ A.
6. In each case, decide whether the given formulas defines a norm on R3 . If so, provide
a proof; if not give reasons.
(a) ∀ x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 kxk = max{| x1 | ,| x2 |, | x3 |}.
(b) ∀ x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 kxk = | x1 + x2 + x3 |.
1
These questions are from various sources. The author does not claim any copyright.

1
 (c) ∀ x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 kxk = a(| x1 + x2 + x3 |) ∀ a ∈ R, a > 0.
kxk
(d) ∀ x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 kxk = , where kxk is a norm on R3 .
1 + kxk
7. Prove that the following formula defines a norm on the space M2x2 (R). ∀ A ∈
M2x2 (R), kAk = sum of absolute values of all the entries in the matrix A. Show
that for this norm, one has the additional property ∀ A, B ∈ M2x2 (R),

kABk ≤ kAk kBk

8. Let k.k1 and k.k2 be two different norms on a vector space V. Prove the k.k1 + k.k2
also defines a norm on V.
9. Decide whether or not the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality is true in R2 , with the norm
defined by

(a) kxk = | x1 | + | x2 |,
(b) kxk = max{| x1 |, | x2 |},

where x = (x1 , x2 )
10. Verify that for all a and b ∈ Rn with the usual norm

ka + bk2 + ka − bk2 = 2 kak2 + 2 kbk2

11. Express the following statements using only mathematics symbols:

(a) The B5 (1, 2, 3) contains its centre.
(b) The decentred ball B5 (1, 2, 3) does not contain its centre.
(c) The closed ball Br (a) contains its centre.
(d) Every open ball contains its centre.
12. The collection Mm,n (R) of all (mxn)-matrices with entries in R is a vectorspace
over R. Let kAk1 and kAk∞ be norms defined on Mm,n (R) such that

m
X n
X
kAk1 = max1≤j≤n | aij | and kAk∞ = max1≤i≤m | aij |
i=1 j=1

(1)

Determine the matrix norm to (i) kAk1 and (ii) kAk∞ for the following matrices
   
3 −6 2 3 2 1
A= 2 5 1 , B = 2 −3 0
−3 2 2 1 0 −1

13. (a) Consider K = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : −2 < x < 0 and 0 < y < 2}. Given that (a, b) ∈
K, find the number r such that Br ((a, b)) ⊆ K.
(b) Prove that Br ((a, b)) ⊆ K where r is defined in (i).
(c) Prove that S = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : −2 < x < 0 and 0 < y < 2} is not open.

2
14. In each case, suppose Rn has usual norm. Decide whether the statement is true
and give a reason for your answer:
(a) In R, 2 ∈ B4 (−2) (b) In R, −1.5 ∈ B2 (0)
(c) In R, (1.5, 0.5) ∈ B2 (−1, 0)
(d) In R4 , (2, 0, 0, −1) ∈ B3 (−1, 1, 0, 1)
15. In each case, suppose Rn has the norm kxk = max{| x1 |, · · · , | xn |}. Prove each
of the set inclusions:
(a) B3 (1) ⊆ B5 (0) in R (b) B2 (1, 1) ⊆ B3 (1, 0) in R2
(c) B1 (3, 0, −2) ⊆ B3 (1, 1, −1) in R3
(d) B2 (1, 0, 0, 0) ⊆ B4 (0, 0, −1, 1) in R4

16. In each case, suppose Rn has the norm kxk =| x1 | + · · · + | xn |. Disprove each of
the following alleged set inclusions:
(a)B1 (−3) ⊆ B1 (−3) in R. (b)B2 (−2, 2) ⊆ B4 (0, 0) in R2 .
2
(c)B1 (1, −1) ⊆ B2 (0, 0) in R .
17. In the normed vector space R2 with the usual norm, find a number r > 0 such that

Br (0, 1) ∩ B 3 (2, 1) 6= ∅
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18. In the normed vector space R2 with the usual norm, find a number r > 0 such that

B2 (1, 1) ∩ Br (3, 3) = ∅

19. Prove that for all real numbers r > 0, s > 0 and all vectors a, b, c in the normed
vector space V,
(a)Br (a) ⊆ Bs (b) =⇒ Br (a + 2c) ⊆ Bs (b + 2c)

1 1
(b)Br (a) ⊆ Bs (b) =⇒ Br (a − c) ⊆ Bs (b − c)
2 2
2
20. In each case, find the image of the set A under the given map f . (a)A = [−2, ]
3
and f : R −→ R with f (x) = 2x + 3
−1
(b)A = [ , 1] and f : R −→ R with f (x) = 2x2 − 1
2
(c)A = B2 (0, 0) and f : R2 −→ R with f (x, y) = x2 − y 2
(d)A = B2 (1, 1) and f : R2 −→ R2 with f (x) = −2x.
21. Consider in R3 the vector-product defined for any x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and y =
(y1 , y2 , y3 ) in R3 by
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 .
The associated norm is given by
√ q
kxk = x·x= x21 + x22 + x23 .

(i) For α, θ ∈ R, let x = (cosh α cos θ, −1 + sin θ, sinh α cos θ) and

y = (cosh α cos θ, 1 + sin θ, − sinh α cos θ). Prove that x and y are orthogonal,
i.e. x · y = 0.
(ii) Prove that for any x and y in R3 ,

kx + yk2 − kxk2 − kyk2

x·y = .
2

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 (iii) Deduce that if x and y are orthogonal, then

kx + yk2 = kxk2 + kyk2 .

Hence using (i), that

4 cosh2 α cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 2 cosh2 α cos2 θ + 2 + 2 sin2 θ + 2 sinh2 α cos2 θ.

Sequences and series

22. (a) Let (un ) be a sequence of real numbers, and let λ ∈ [0, 1). Assume that for
some N ∈ N,
|un+1 | ≤ λ|un | ∀n =
6 N.
Prove that
lim un = 0.
n→∞

(b) Let (vn ) and (wn ) be two sequences of positive numbers, and let λ ∈ [0, 1).
Assume that for some N ∈ N,
vn+1 wn+1
≤λ ∀n 6= N.
vn wn
Prove that
vn
lim = 0.
n→∞ wn
Deduce the limits of the sequences

(ln n)α
, α > 0, β > 0, n ≥ 2
nβ
and
nα
, α > 0, n ≥ 1.
2n

23. Let (an )n≥1 be the sequence defined by

1 1 1
an = + + ··· + .
n + ln 1 n + ln 2 n + ln n
Study the convergence of (an )n≥1 .
24. Let a > 0 and consider the sequence (un )n≥0 defined by
 
1 a
u0 > 0, un+1 = un + .
2 un

Let (vn )n≥0 be the sequence defined by

√
un − a
vn = √ .
un + a

(i) Prove that vn+1 = vn2 , ∀n ∈ N.

(ii) Write vn in terms of v0 .
(iii) Prove that |v0 | < 1 and deduce that vn converges to 0.
(iv) Express un as a function of vn and deduce the limit of un .
25. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 defined by
r
1
a1 = 1, an+1 = a2n + .
2n

4
 (i) Prove that (an ) is increasing.
(ii) Prove that for any n ≥ 1,
1
an+1 ≤ an + .
2n
Deduce that (an ) is bounded above.
(iii) Prove that (an ) converges and give its limit.
26. Prove that if a sequence (an )n≥1 converges to a ∈ R, then sequence (sn )n≥1 defined
by
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
sn :=
n
also converges to a.
27. Let (an )n≥1 be the sequence defined by
2n−1
1 1 1 X 1
an = + + ... + = .
n+1 n+2 2n k+1
k=n

(i) Prove that (an ) is increasing and that

1
≤ an < 1.
2
What can you conclude?
(ii) The aim of this part is to prove that limn→∞ an = ln 2.
(a) Check that for any k ∈ N,
Z k+1
1 1
dt > .
k t k+1

– Using (a), prove that

1
0 < ln 2 − an < .
2n
Deduce the limit of the sequence.
28. For any n ≥ 0, put
1
tn
Z
In := dt.
0 1+t
(i) Prove that for any n ≥ 0,
1 1
≤ In ≤ .
2(n + 1) n+1
tn
[Hint: You may prove and use that 2 ≤ In ≤ tn for any 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.]
Deduce that In converges to 0.
(ii) Find In + In+1 in terms of n.
(iii) For n ≥ 0, put

Sn := (I0 + I1 ) − (I1 + I2 ) + · · · + (−1)n (In + In+1 ).

i. Simplify Sn .
1 1
ii. Deduce that 1 − 2 + 3 + · · · + (−1)n−1 n1 = Sn−1 .
iii. Deduce that
 
1 1 1
lim 1− + + · · · + (−1)n−1 = ln 2.
n→∞ 2 3 n

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29. Prove that for any set S, the

inf (S) = −sup(−S),

where −S = {−s : s ∈ S}
30. Find the maximum, minimum, infimum and supremum (whenever these exist) for
the following sets,

1 + (−1)n
(a) {1 + : n ∈ N}
n

(b) {x : x ∈ Q and x2 < 2}

31. Use the − definition of limits of a sequence to establish the following limits
n
(a) limn−→∞ ( 2 )=0
n +1
3n + 2
(b) limn−→∞ ( )=3
n+1
1
(c) If a > 0 then limn−→∞ ( )=0
na + 1
4 1
32. Let (an )n∈N be the sequence defined as an = 3 + √ ,
n n
(a) Find the limit of an
(b) Justify your limit in (i).
√
33. Let a1 = 2 and define the sequence (an )n∈N recursively by

√
q
an+1 = 2 + an , f or n > 1.

Show that the sequence converges and find its limit. (Hint: show that the sequence
is monotone).
34. Determine which of the following series converge absolutely and which just con-
verge:

P∞ n 2n2 + 4n
(a) n=2 (−1)
n3+ n2 − 2n
P∞ n n2 − 4n
(b) n=2 (−1)
2n3 + n − 5
P∞ n 1
(c) n=2 (−1)
nIn(n)
35. Given a series

∞
X n2 − n
(−1)n
n3 + 2n2 − n − 2
n=2

Show that the series converges but it does not converge absolutely.
36. In each case, prove that the sequence s : N −→ R with values given by the stated
formula is a Cauchy sequence:

6
 2
(a) s(n) =
n
2
(b) s(n) = √
n
(c) s(n) = 10−n
37. In each case, prove that the sequence s : N −→ R with the values given by the
formula is Not a Cauchy sequence:

1
(a) s(n) = n 3
(b) s(n) = nIn(n)
nπ
38. (a) Let s(n) = nsin2 ( ). Write down the first few terms of the sequence and
2
find, if they exist, lim sups(n) and lim inf s(n).
(b) Let s(n) = (−1 + (−1)n )n.
Write down the first few terms of the sequence and find, if they exist, lim
sups(n) and lim inf s(n).
(c)
 n
 if n is odd
Lets(n) = n + 1
 1 if n is even
n+1
Write down the first few terms of the sequence and find, if they exist, lim
sups(n) and lim inf s(n).
3
39. Let s : N −→ R with s(n) = (−1)n (1 − n ). By examining subsequences, deter-
2
mine whether

limn−→∞ s(n) exists.

Limits and continuity

40. Let f, g : R → R, and let a ∈ R. Assume that limx→a f (x) = l and limx→a g(x) =
m. Prove that
• limx→a (f g) (x) = lm;
f (x) l
• if moreover, m 6= 0, limx→a g(x) = m.

41. Using the (, δ)-definition of a limit, prove the following assertions.
(i) limx→3 (x2 − 5x + 1) = −5;
√
(ii) limx→1 ( x − 1) = 0;
√
(iii) limx→1 x2 + 15 = 4;
x−1
(iv) limx→2 3x−2 = 14 ;
2x2 −1
(v) limx→−1 x−2 = − 13 .
42. Using the definition of the limit, prove the following.
2x+1
(i) limx→∞ x−3 = 2;
x−1
(ii) limx→−∞ 3x2 −2
= 0;

7
 √ √
(iii) limx→∞ x + 1 − x = 0;
x−1
(iv) limx→2+ x−2 = ∞.
43. Let f (x) = x3 + x + 2.
(i) Find f (−1) and f (0).
(ii) Prove that the equation f (x) = 0 has a solution in the interval (0, 1).
x+1
44. Prove that the equation 2x2 −3
= 1 has at least one solution in the interval
q q
(− 32 , 32 ).

45. Let f be defined by f (x) = x cos x1 if x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0. Prove that f is

continuous at 0.
46. Let f (x) = x ln x1 . Prove that f can be extended to a function g that is continuous

at x = 0.