Name: Nguyễn Hải Dương – 21DH120311

Trương Minh Thông - 21DH121688

Lâm Thảo Ly - 21DH120852

Topic: Factors affecting Gen Z's future adoption intention of electric vehicles as
their primary mode of transportation in Ho Chi Minh City.

Abstract
The growing awareness of environmental concerns, along with rapid technological
advancements, has driven an increasing interest in electric vehicles (EVs) as a sustainable
alternative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. This study investigates the
factors influencing Generation Z's adoption intentions of electric vehicles as their primary
mode of transportation in Ho Chi Minh City, focusing on four key variables: expected
benefits, user-friendliness, advantageous conditions, and cost awareness. Additionally,
the study applies the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) as
the theoretical framework. By utilizing quantitative analysis, the research aims to explore
the extent to which these factors affect Generation Z’s intention to adopt EVs and provide
valuable recommendations for policymakers and automotive companies to support the
transition towards electric mobility in urban areas like Ho Chi Minh City. The findings
will offer critical insights into consumer behavior in emerging markets and address the
challenges of promoting sustainable transportation solutions.
Keywords: Ho Chi Minh, Electric vehicles, Adoption, Purchasing Intention, Expected
Benefits, User-Friendliness, Advantageous Conditions, Cost Awareness, Generation Z,
UTAUT Theory.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of Study
The automotive sector holds a crucial position in the development of nations due to
its broad social, economic, and environmental impacts. As a major consumer of key
industrial products such as iron, steel, light metals, petrochemicals, rubber, and plastics,
the industry plays a significant role in driving economic growth. Furthermore, its
influence on the national economy is considerable, given the business it generates
through marketing, repair and maintenance services, spare parts distribution, fuel sales,
and financial and insurance offerings
(Gibson et al., 2014; Marcello Chiaberge, 2011; Mitchell et al., 2010)
.
The swift development of electric vehicles (EVs) has incited a worldwide shift
towards more environmentally friendly forms of transportation. The growing concern
over the environment and the need of communities to cut carbon emissions make it
imperative to comprehend the elements that will influence future EV adoption, especially
with regard to younger generations. In Ho Chi Minh City, where car ownership and
urbanization are increasing, Generation Z is a significant group that could influence how
people move in the future. In the framework of this busy metropolis, this study
investigates the variables influencing Gen Z's intention to adopt electric vehicles as their
primary mode of transportation in the future. These variables include environmental
awareness, technological perceptions, economic incentives, and social influences.
Automobiles and trucks that run on electricity rather than gasoline or diesel are
known as electric vehicles or EVs. The term "EV adoption" describes the growing
preference of both individuals and businesses for electric vehicles over conventional
vehicles that run on fossil fuels. As more businesses and consumers realize the
advantages of cleaner, more efficient transportation, interest in EVs has increased over
the last ten years. Significant improvements in EV infrastructure and technology have
reportedly helped alleviate some of the initial worries about charging station availability
and battery life, which are supporting this shift. The adoption of EVs is largely driven by
policy and financial incentives. Stricter CO2 and fuel economy regulations, as well as
laws requiring EV sales, have all helped to boost the market's initial adoption and
subsequent growth.
 Currently, the development of traditional transportation vehicles is one of the
major sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Vietnam. In an effort to meet its
environmental commitments, Vietnam has implemented the "Green Energy Transition
Action Plan," which prioritizes the shift to electric vehicles. While electric two-wheelers
have become popular in the Vietnamese market, electric cars have only recently emerged,
with a relatively modest presence. This is largely due to the hesitation of many consumers
in making the switch from conventional vehicles to electric ones.
Despite the growing awareness of environmental issues and government support
for green energy initiatives, the adoption of electric cars remains slow.
Trong Truong (2023)
stated that concerns such as high initial costs, limited infrastructure, and
unfamiliarity with electric vehicle technology contribute to consumer reluctance. Many
Vietnamese consumers still prefer gasoline-powered cars, which have been the norm for
decades, partly due to the established fueling infrastructure and perceived reliability.
The Vietnamese government's efforts to promote electric vehicles are part of a
broader strategy to reduce carbon emissions and improve air quality, particularly in major
cities where pollution from transportation is a pressing issue. As part of the "Green
Energy Transition Action Plan," incentives such as tax reductions, subsidies, and
investments in charging infrastructure are being introduced to encourage consumers to
transition to electric vehicles.
Tuan et al. (2022) noted that the Vietnamese government has implemented several
initiatives to encourage electric vehicle (EV) adoption, such as reducing taxes on EVs to
as low as 1%, waiving registration fees for electric cars, and offering registration fee
exemptions for buses that use clean energy. EVs produced domestically are subject to a
tax rate of 5–15%, compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, which are
taxed at rates ranging from 10–150%. These tax reductions are designed to lower the
selling price of EVs, making them more competitive with gasoline-powered cars in the
same category.
However, Vietnam is still a relatively new market for EVs, with only 3 to 5 years
of market adoption history. By 2020, there were only 900 EVs in use across the country, a
relatively modest figure (HL, 2022) . Although VinFast, Vietnam’s sole domestic EV
manufacturer, reported receiving over 50,000 orders for its EV models between 2021 and
2022, this figure primarily represents orders and may not reflect actual sales to date.
1.2. Research Problem Statement
Generation Z, also referred to as Gen Z, zoomers, iGeneration, centennials, post-
millennials, or Homelanders, includes individuals born in the late 1990s and early 2000s
(Alison Eldridge, 2023). This generation is deeply concerned about environmental issues,
having grown up in a world where climate change and pollution are significant
challenges. Many Gen Z members are vocal advocates for sustainability and
environmental protection, which positions them as likely early adopters of electric
vehicles. Known for embracing new technologies, their environmental consciousness
makes electric cars an appealing choice.
The exploration of factors influencing Generation Z's intention to adopt electric
vehicles (EVs) as their primary mode of transportation in Ho Chi Minh City emerges as a
timely and significant area of research. As the world grapples with the pressing
challenges of climate change and environmental degradation, the role of the
transportation sector in exacerbating these issues cannot be overlooked. Traditional
internal combustion engine vehicles have long been recognized as major contributors to
greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, electric vehicles represent a promising
alternative, offering a pathway to reduce emissions and utilize cleaner energy sources.
1.3. Research Questions
This study will focus on exploring how various factors affect Generation Z's
intention to use electric vehicles in Ho Chi Minh City, including factors such as expected
benefits, user-friendliness, advantageous conditions, and cost awareness. Therefore, to
understand insightfully the topic, there is a main research question guiding this study:
What are the key factors and do they influence Gen Z's adoption intention of electric
vehicles in Ho Chi Minh City?
1.4. Research Objectives
This research aims to shed light on Generation Z's willingness to transition to
electric vehicles, thereby setting out the main research objective and sub-research
objectives for providing insights that could contribute to mitigating the adverse
environmental impacts associated with conventional transportation methods. Hence, the
main research objective is to investigate the factors influencing Generation Z's intention
to adopt electric vehicles as their primary mode of transportation in Ho Chi Minh City.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Theory Background
In this study, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
model, developed by Venkatesh et al. (2003), is employed as the foundational theoretical
framework with four key variables: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social
influence, and facilitating conditions. This model is selected for three main reasons.
First, the UTAUT model was specifically developed to explain human behavior in
adopting new technologies. Therefore, it is particularly suitable for understanding the
factors that influence consumers' intentions to switch to electric vehicles—a new
technological product that has recently emerged in Vietnam. Given the novelty of electric
cars in the local market, it is crucial to explore the underlying motivations and barriers
consumers face when considering this technology shift.
Second, the UTAUT model is a synthesis of eight other theoretical models that
explain consumer behavior, including popular models such as the Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB), the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), and the Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM). Due to its integration of multiple theories, UTAUT is considered to have
superior explanatory power compared to the individual models. This makes it a
comprehensive tool for understanding a wide range of factors that could influence
consumer decision-making, especially in the context of transitioning to a new mode of
transportation like electric vehicles.
Third, the UTAUT model has been widely applied across various domains and has
demonstrated strong explanatory capability in predicting consumer intentions to switch to
different fields. For instance, UTAUT has been used to study consumer behavior in e-
commerce (Sombultawee, 2017), e-learning (Dang et al., 2017) , and other sectors. Its
broad applicability and proven effectiveness make it an ideal framework for investigating
the intention to adopt electric vehicles in Vietnam, where consumer attitudes toward this
new technology are still in the early stages of development.
By applying UTAUT in this research, we aim to provide a thorough understanding
of how various factors influence Gen Z's willingness to switch to electric vehicles and
what conditions might facilitate or hinder this transition.
In Vietnam, according to Trong Truong (2023), electric vehicles are not merely a
technological product but also a high-value, environmentally friendly solution that may
not yet align with the transportation habits of many individuals. Therefore, to better
explain consumer intentions to switch to electric vehicles, Venkatesh et al. (2003) has
expanded the UTAUT model by incorporating three additional variables: perceived cost,
habit of using traditional vehicles, and environmental concerns.
Ha et al. (2023) and Trong Truong (2023) confirmed that perceived cost is a
critical factor, as electric vehicles are often seen as a substantial financial investment.
Understanding how consumers perceive the affordability and long-term value of electric
cars is essential in predicting their willingness to adopt this technology.
Additionally, the habits of using traditional vehicles play a significant role in
influencing consumer decisions. In accordance with Tuan et al. (2022), many individuals
in Vietnam are accustomed to using gasoline-powered vehicles or motorbikes, which are
deeply embedded in daily life. This habitual use may create psychological or practical
barriers to switching to electric vehicles, despite their potential benefits. By examining
these habitual behaviors, the study aims to assess how strong these habits are and whether
they can be overcome.
Lastly, environmental concerns are increasingly important in consumer decision-
making, especially as awareness of climate change and sustainability grows. The
inclusion of this variable allows for an exploration of how much environmental
consciousness influences the intention to switch to electric vehicles. It recognizes that
consumers who are more concerned about the environment may be more inclined to
adopt eco-friendly transportation options, even if those options come with higher costs or
require changes in long-standing habits.

2.2. Hypotheses Development

2.2.1. Expected Benefit
Expected benefit is defined as an individual's perception of the benefit or
usefulness of a product and how well it supports the user (Venkatesh et al., 2003) .
Compared to traditional vehicles, electric vehicles are up to four times more fuel-
efficient, emit no pollutants during operation, and have lower overall lifecycle emissions
(Helmers & Marx, 2012) . Research conducted by Lee et al. (2021a) in Pakistan
demonstrated that performance expectancy has a positive influence on the intention to
purchase electric vehicles. Similarly, in the Chinese market, Tran et al. (2019a) found that
customers with a high awareness of the benefits of electric vehicle-sharing systems, such
as fuel savings, reduced pollution, and decreased traffic congestion, exhibited a stronger
intention to use these systems. Therefore, the inclusion of expected benefit in the research
model is crucial for understanding the factors that drive consumers' willingness to
embrace electric vehicles. As the advantages of electric vehicles become more apparent
to potential buyers, the positive impact on their intention to switch will likely intensify,
contributing to a broader shift towards more sustainable transportation options. Hence,
the study proposes the following hypothesis:
H1: Expected benefit has a positive impact on the intention to switch from
traditional vehicles to electric vehicles.
2.2.2. User – Friendliness
According to Venkatesh et al. (2003), a product that is perceived as complicated or
difficult to use is less likely to be accepted by consumers. User-friendliness is an
important factor in technology adoption because it directly affects a user's comfort level
and willingness to engage with the product. This is particularly relevant for new
technologies like electric vehicles, where consumers may have concerns about how easy
or difficult they are to operate compared to traditional gasoline-powered cars. Previous
research has demonstrated a positive relationship between ease of use and purchase
intention. For instance, Lee et al. (2021a) found that when customers perceive a product
as easy to use, they are more likely to intend to purchase it. In the context of electric
vehicles, Xu et al. (2020a) highlighted that ease of use extends to various aspects,
including the simplicity of operating the vehicle and the convenience of charging it.
These factors are especially critical for electric vehicles, as consumers may worry about
the unfamiliarity of new charging infrastructures or operational features like regenerative
braking and battery management systems. If potential buyers find the process of driving
and maintaining an electric vehicle to be straightforward and hassle-free, their likelihood
of switching from traditional vehicles increases significantly. In markets like Vietnam,
where electric vehicles are still relatively new, the ease of adoption plays a crucial role in
shaping consumer behavior. For instance, potential adopters may be concerned about the
availability of charging stations or the complexity of learning how to operate a new type
of vehicle. However, if these barriers are minimized through user-friendly design,
supportive infrastructure, and educational efforts, consumers may view electric vehicles
as a more viable alternative. Given the importance of ease of use in influencing consumer
adoption of new technologies, the study proposes the following hypothesis:
H2: User-friendliness has a positive impact on the intention to switch from
traditional vehicles to electric vehicles.
2.2.3. Advantageous Condition
Advantageous condition is defined as the degree to which technical infrastructure
is available to support the use of a product Venkatesh et al. (2003) . In the context of
electric vehicles (EVs), this concept is particularly crucial because EVs rely heavily on
the availability of charging stations and require more time to refuel compared to
traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, which could create inconveniences for users. As a
result, the number of charging stations and advancements in fast-charging technology
become essential factors in enhancing the intention to purchase electric vehicles.
Trong Truong (2023)
also stated that beyond charging infrastructure, the availability of other
supportive facilities, such as maintenance centers and parking lots equipped with
compatible chargers, is also critical for EV users. In regions lacking such infrastructure,
consumers may feel hesitant about adopting electric vehicles due to concerns over where
and how they will charge or service their cars. The ease of accessing these facilities
directly impacts consumer confidence in making the switch from traditional vehicles to
electric ones. Additionally, compatibility between electric vehicles and existing
infrastructure, such as parking lots with charging points or highways with rapid charging
facilities, enhances the overall user experience. For instance, consumers are more likely
to adopt electric vehicles if they know that they can easily find a place to charge their
cars, whether at work, in shopping centers, or along highways during long-distance trips.
Given the importance of these factors, the study proposes the following hypothesis:
H3: Advantageous conditions have a positive impact on the intention to switch
from traditional vehicles to electric vehicles.
2.2.4. Cost Awareness
Cost awareness refers to the consumer's assessment of the expenses associated
with purchasing and using an electric vehicle (EV) (He et al., 2018) . These costs may
include the initial purchase price of the vehicle, the cost of charging, and the maintenance
expenses (Dong et al., 2020) . While electric vehicles are often seen as a cost-saving
alternative in terms of fuel and long-term maintenance, the high upfront price, primarily
driven by the expensive battery technology, can still be a significant barrier to adoption.
Krishnan & Koshy (2021a) noted that the cost of electric vehicles remains relatively
high due to the substantial cost of battery production, though fuel and maintenance costs
are relatively lower compared to traditional gasoline-powered cars. Trong Truong (2023)
also claimed that the perception of high costs may create a psychological and financial
barrier that makes it difficult for consumers to form a positive intention to switch from
traditional vehicles to electric ones. Consumers who perceive the cost of purchasing and
maintaining an electric vehicle as too high may be less inclined to consider making the
switch, regardless of the potential long-term benefits. This is especially true in markets
like Vietnam, where electric vehicles are still relatively new, and many consumers may
not yet be fully aware of the total cost of ownership compared to conventional cars.
Given the importance of perceived cost in consumer decision-making, the study proposes
the following hypothesis:
H4: Cost awareness has a negative impact on the intention to switch from
traditional vehicles to electric vehicles.
2.3. Research Model

EXPECTED
BENEFITS

H1
USER-
FRIENDLINESS H2
ADOPTION
INTENTION
H3
ADVANTAGEOUS
CONDITIONS
H4

COST
AWARENESS

Figure 1. Research Model

3. Methodology
3.1. Scope of Study
The scope of this study is focused on exploring Generation Z's future adoption
intentions of electric vehicles (EVs) as their primary mode of transportation in Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam. This research investigates how four critical factors including
expected benefits, user-friendliness, advantageous conditions, and cost awareness shape
the willingness of this demographic to transition from traditional internal combustion
engine vehicles to EVs. The study applies the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of
Technology (UTAUT) as its theoretical foundation to analyze these influencing variables,
considering Generation Z’s growing environmental consciousness and their affinity for
adopting new technologies.
Ho Chi Minh City, as a rapidly developing urban center, faces increasing
environmental and transportation challenges, making it an ideal setting to examine the
potential shift toward sustainable transportation solutions like EVs. The research focuses
on Generation Z, a key demographic that will play a significant role in driving future
automotive trends and shaping the market for sustainable technologies. Quantitative data
will be collected in 2024 through surveys targeting Generation Z individuals in the city,
with the aim of understanding how infrastructure, perceived advantages, cost factors, and
user experience influence their adoption decisions. The findings will provide actionable
insights for policymakers, automotive manufacturers, and stakeholders interested in
accelerating the transition to EVs in urban environments, contributing to Vietnam’s
broader goals for environmental sustainability and cleaner energy use.
3.2. Respondents
The respondents for this study will consist of Generation Z individuals residing in
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, who are within the age range typically associated with this
generation, born between 1997 and 2012. This demographic has been chosen due to their
growing importance as future consumers, their early adoption of new technologies, and
their heightened concern for environmental issues. Given that Generation Z is expected to
shape future trends in sustainable transportation, they are an ideal group to explore in the
context of electric vehicle (EV) adoption.
 Participants will be selected through a random sampling technique, targeting
individuals who are either currently licensed drivers or have the potential to purchase or
use vehicles in the near future. The study will include respondents from diverse
socioeconomic backgrounds, educational levels, and living conditions to ensure a
comprehensive understanding of Generation Z’s perspectives on EV adoption in Ho Chi
Minh City. Surveys will be conducted online and to maximize participation and reach a
broad segment of the target population. The insights gathered from these respondents will
be crucial for identifying the key factors influencing their intention to adopt electric
vehicles, including perceived benefits, ease of use, cost awareness, and the availability of
supporting infrastructure.
3.3. Sampling Technique
The sampling technique adopted for this study will be a combination of
convenience sampling and stratified random sampling, selected to balance both efficiency
and representativeness. Initially, convenience sampling will be utilized due to its
practicality in reaching Generation Z respondents in Ho Chi Minh City. This
demographic is highly active on digital platforms such as social media and various online
forums, making it feasible and cost-effective to distribute the questionnaire through these
channels. This approach allows for the rapid collection of data, particularly in an urban
environment where Generation Z is often engaged with digital communication and is
more likely to respond to online surveys.
However, to ensure that the sample is not biased and remains representative of the
broader population, the study will incorporate stratified random sampling. This approach
involves dividing the target population into distinct strata based on key demographic
variables such as age, gender, and income level. Generation Z encompasses a wide range
of individuals with varying characteristics, and stratified sampling ensures that these
subgroups are accurately represented. By creating strata that reflect the diversity within
the population, the research will capture a more nuanced understanding of how factors
such as income and gender might influence the intention to adopt electric vehicles.
Within each stratum, a random sampling method will be used to select respondents
proportionally, ensuring that each subgroup is adequately represented according to its
presence in the broader population. For example, if a certain percentage of Generation Z
in Ho Chi Minh City falls within a specific income bracket, the same percentage will be
reflected in the sample. This proportionality ensures that no particular subgroup is
overrepresented or underrepresented, which is crucial for generating findings that can be
generalized across the entire Gen Z population in the city.
The combination of convenience and stratified random sampling allows for
efficient data collection while enhancing the reliability of the findings. By balancing the
speed and accessibility of convenience sampling with the rigor of stratified random
sampling, this study will produce a dataset that is both manageable and robust. This
method also helps address potential biases, ensuring that the data gathered provides a
comprehensive view of the various factors that influence Generation Z’s intention to
adopt electric vehicles as their primary mode of transportation. This combination of
techniques is particularly suited to studies focusing on urban populations with diverse
socioeconomic backgrounds, such as Ho Chi Minh City, where access to technology and
transportation preferences may vary significantly across different groups.
3.4. Minimum Sample Size
To determine the minimum sample size for this study, G*Power software
(Erdfelder et al., 2009) was used, which is a widely recognized tool for statistical power
analysis. The analysis followed the "F tests" family, focusing on "Linear multiple
regression: Fixed model, R² deviation from zero" as the statistical test. This approach is
well-suited to examine how the independent variables (such as expected benefits, user-
friendliness, advantageous conditions, and cost awareness) influence the dependent
variable, which is Generation Z's intention to adopt electric vehicles.
The type of power analysis selected was "A priori: Compute required sample size
given α, power, and effect size." This method ensures that the sample size is calculated
before data collection, ensuring the study’s results are statistically reliable. The effect size
(f²) was set at 0.15, which is considered a medium effect size, appropriate for social
sciences research. The alpha error probability (α) was set at 0.05, meaning the results
have a 5% chance of a Type I error, or rejecting a true null hypothesis. The power of the
test (1-β) was set at 0.80, implying an 80% probability of correctly rejecting a false null
hypothesis, which is the conventional standard for statistical power.
Given the number of predictors in the study (4 variables), G*Power calculated the
minimum sample size required to be 85 respondents. However, this study exceeds that
requirement with a sample of 203 respondents, providing a robust dataset for the planned
analysis. The larger sample size enhances the reliability of the findings and ensures that
the relationships between variables can be explored with greater statistical precision.
3.5. Questionnaire
The questionnaire designed for this study aims to explore the factors influencing
Generation Z's intention to adopt electric vehicles (EVs) as their primary mode of
transportation in Ho Chi Minh City. It consists of two main sections: demographics and
factors affecting EV adoption. The demographic section gathers information on
respondents' gender, age, income level, and their preference for using electric vehicles in
the future. This information is crucial for understanding the diverse perspectives and
experiences within the target population.
The second section focuses on the four key variables identified in the study:
expected benefits, user-friendliness, advantageous conditions, and cost awareness. Each
variable is assessed through a series of statements using a 7-point Likert scale, where
respondents indicate their level of agreement, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree). This scale allows for nuanced responses, enabling a deeper analysis of
respondents' perceptions and attitudes toward electric vehicles. By employing this
approach, the questionnaire seeks to quantify the significance of each factor in shaping
Generation Z's adoption intentions.
Through the collected data, this research intends to provide valuable insights into
how these factors collectively influence the likelihood of EV adoption among Generation
Z in Ho Chi Minh City. The findings will be instrumental in guiding policymakers and
automotive companies in developing strategies that promote sustainable transportation
solutions tailored to the preferences and needs of this emerging consumer segment.
Therefore, a questionnaire was constructed as below:
Table 1. Questionnaire

Construct Item Source

Expected Benefits EB 1: Using electric vehicles will help you (Trong

(EB) contribute to reducing environmental pollution. Truong,

2023)
EB 2: Using electric vehicles will help reduce
traffic congestion
EB 3: Driving an electric vehicle will help you
save fuel
 Construct Item Source
EB 4: Driving an electric vehicle will make you
feel more modern compared to traditional
vehicles
UF 1: The ease of operating an electric vehicle
will make you prefer it over traditional vehicles
UF 2: The features of electric vehicles are
friendlier and more convenient than those of
(Trong
User-Friendliness traditional vehicles
Truong,
(UF) UF 3: Electric vehicles will make you feel safer
2023)
when participating in traffic
UF 4: Traveling by electric vehicle will eliminate
your worries about weather issues (flooding,
storms, etc.)
AC 1: The increase in charging stations for
electric vehicles is essential for their future use
(Trong
Advantageous AC 2: Improving the charging speed of stations
Truong,
Conditions (AC) for vehicles is necessary for future adoption
2023)
AC 3: Increasing battery capacity will make
electric vehicles more popular
CA 1: The price of electric vehicles is still quite
high
CA 2: The fuel and maintenance costs of electric (Trong
Cost Awareness
vehicles are lower than those of traditional Truong,
(CA)
vehicles 2023)

CA 3: Using electric vehicles for transportation

will be more economical than gasoline vehicles
Adoption Intention AI 1: You are willing to buy an electric vehicle to (Trong

(AI) replace traditional vehicles Truong,

2023)
AI 2: You will recommend electric vehicles to
your friends
AI 3: You will prioritize the use of electric
 Construct Item Source
vehicles in the future
Source: Survey
4. Result and Discussion
4.1. Result
4.1.1. Respondent Profile
The respondent profile provides detailed insights into the demographic
characteristics and preferences of the participants in this study, focusing on Generation
Z's future adoption intentions of electric vehicles (EVs) in Ho Chi Minh City. A total of
203 individuals participated in the survey, with all respondents falling within the age
range of 18 to 25, reflecting the study's focus on Generation Z, often regarded as the
cohort most concerned with environmental issues and technological advancements.
When it comes to gender distribution, the majority of respondents were male,
accounting for 83.25% of the total sample (169 participants). Meanwhile, only 16.75% of
the respondents were female (34 participants), highlighting a male-dominant response
rate. This gender imbalance may provide valuable insights into the gender-specific
attitudes or awareness levels toward electric vehicles and sustainable transportation in Ho
Chi Minh City, suggesting that men might be more interested in or aware of electric
vehicle technology than their female counterparts.
In terms of income level, the data indicates that a significant portion of the
respondents belong to lower-income brackets. A majority (60%) of the participants
reported earning less than VND 3,000,000 per month (122 respondents), while 36% (73
respondents) fell within the income range of VND 3,000,000 to VND 6,000,000. Only a
small portion (4%, or 8 respondents) reported an income level above VND 6,000,000.
This distribution of income is reflective of a typical Generation Z demographic in
Vietnam, where many are either still pursuing higher education or just beginning their
professional careers, which impacts their earnings potential. This factor is likely to
influence their purchasing power and adoption of new technologies like electric vehicles.
Regarding their preference for electric vehicles, a striking 100% of the respondents
indicated that they preferred using electric vehicles in the future. This unanimous
preference underscores the high level of interest among Generation Z in Ho Chi Minh
City in adopting electric vehicles as their primary mode of transportation. It also reflects
growing environmental awareness and the perceived advantages of electric vehicles over
traditional combustion engine vehicles, despite potential challenges such as high initial
costs or insufficient infrastructure. These findings suggest that while financial constraints
may exist, there is still strong enthusiasm for adopting environmentally friendly
alternatives like electric vehicles within this age group.
Table 2. Gen Z Demographic Profile

Item Frequency Percent

Male 169 83.25%
Gender
Female 34 16.75%
Under 18 0 0
Age From 18 to 25 203 100%
Above 25 0 0
Under VND 3,000,000 122 60%
From VND 3,000,000 to
Income level 73 36%
6,000,000
Above VND 6,000,000 8 4%
Do you prefer to use Electrical Yes 203 100%
Vehicle in the future No 0 0
Source: Survey

4.1.2. Measurement Model

According to J. Hair et al. (2017) , in PLS-SEM, outer loadings ideally need to be
0.7 or higher to indicate a strong relationship between the item and the latent construct.
Loadings above 0.7 suggest that the indicator reliably reflects the underlying variable.
For items with outer loadings between 0.4 and 0.7, further analysis is required, such as
reviewing composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE), to determine
whether the item should be kept in the model. In this case, items that score below 0.7 but
above 0.4 can be retained depending on the strength of other factors.
For Expected Benefits (EB), the loadings of EB1 (0.820), EB3 (0.797), and EB4
(0.754) exceed the 0.7 threshold, demonstrating these items as reliable indicators of the
construct. Additionally, their cross-loadings with other constructs are significantly lower,
which supports the discriminant validity of the expected benefits construct, confirming
that these items accurately measure the variable without overlap with other constructs.
While most items performed well, it is important to note that EB2 had a loading value
below 0.7, which did not meet the threshold for a strong indicator of its respective
construct, Expected Benefits. Given this, EB2 was removed from the model to ensure
that the construct reliability and validity would remain valid and robust. This step was
necessary to enhance the overall measurement model's performance, maintaining
consistency with the criteria for outer loading, which recommends that items with
loadings below 0.7 should be carefully reviewed and potentially excluded if they could
negatively affect the model's reliability. Removing EB2 ultimately helped solidify the
Expected Benefits construct's reliability and ensure that the model met the required
standards for construct validity and discriminant validity.
Similarly, the User-Friendliness (UF) items show strong loadings, all of which are
above the 0.7 benchmark: UF1 (0.729), UF2 (0.851), UF3 (0.901), and UF4 (0.860).
These high loadings indicate that the items are reliable measures of the user-friendliness
construct. The cross-loadings with other constructs are relatively low, further reinforcing
the discriminant validity of this construct, which means that these items specifically
measure user-friendliness without interference from other factors.
For Advantageous Conditions (AC) and Cost Awareness (CA), all items also meet
the 0.7 threshold, with AC1 (0.823), AC2 (0.832), AC3 (0.852), CA1 (0.787), CA2
(0.852), and CA3 (0.830) showing strong relationships with their respective constructs.
These items have low cross-loadings with other constructs, confirming their reliability
and discriminant validity.
The Adoption Intention (AI) construct shows strong loadings for AI1 (0.805), AI2
(0.752), and AI3 (0.830), ensuring that these items are valid indicators for the adoption
intention variable, with minimal cross-loadings confirming the discriminant validity of
the construct.
J. Hair et al. (2017) recommend focusing on two indicators: Cronbach's alpha and
Composite reliability rho_c. According to these authors, the traditional reliability
assessment measure, Cronbach's alpha, has several limitations and tends to underestimate
the inherent reliability of the scale. Instead, evaluating reliability using the Composite
reliability rho_c is considered more appropriate.
The method of assessing Composite reliability is similar to that of Cronbach's
alpha. This coefficient ranges from 0 to 1 (negative values indicate erroneous data),
where values closer to 0 indicate lower reliability and values closer to 1 indicate higher
reliability. Composite reliability between 0.6 and 0.7 is acceptable for exploratory
research, while the optimal range is between 0.7 and 0.9. If Composite reliability exceeds
0.95, there may be an issue with indicator redundancy.
While Cronbach's alpha tends to underestimate reliability, on the contrary,
Composite reliability tends to overestimate it. Therefore, when evaluating results, both
indicators should be reported, and the reasonable reliability value typically falls between
Cronbach's alpha and Composite reliability.
The results for construct reliability and validity provide essential insights into the
internal consistency and convergent validity of the measurement model. Cronbach's
alpha, a traditional indicator of internal consistency, tends to underestimate the reliability
of constructs. Typically, a value of 0.7 or higher is considered acceptable for research
purposes. The constructs in this study show varying degrees of reliability based on
Cronbach’s alpha: AC (0.785), AI (0.711), CA (0.762), and UF (0.858) all demonstrate
good internal consistency. However, EB (0.700) is right at the minimum threshold,
indicating that this construct's internal consistency is borderline but still acceptable.
When considering Composite Reliability (rho_a and rho_c), which is generally
seen as a more reliable measure than Cronbach’s alpha, the values across all constructs
suggest strong reliability. AC (rho_a = 0.794, rho_c = 0.874), AI (rho_a = 0.714, rho_c =
0.838), CA (rho_a = 0.763, rho_c = 0.863), and EB (rho_a = 0.701, rho_c = 0.833) all fall
within the recommended range of 0.7 to 0.*, indicating high construct reliability. UF
(rho_a = 0.884, rho_c = 0.903) also shows strong reliability, though slightly higher than
the others, it is still within the acceptable range. These results confirm that the constructs
are reliable and that the measurement model can be trusted for further analysis.
The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) results further support the validity of the
constructs. An AVE score above 0.5 is considered acceptable, meaning that more than
half of the variance in the items is explained by the construct. The AVE scores for all
constructs exceed this threshold: AC (0.698), AI (0.634), CA (0.678), EB (0.626), and UF
(0.702). These values indicate strong convergent validity, confirming that the constructs
are measuring what they are intended to measure. Additionally, EB2 was removed from
the analysis due to its low outer loading (below 0.7), which ensures the reliability and
validity of the remaining indicators in the construct. The removal of EB2 helps maintain
the robustness of the measurement model, ensuring that it meets the necessary criteria for
construct reliability and validity.
When collinearity or multicollinearity occurs in a model, it can distort regression
coefficients and p-values, leading to inaccurate conclusions about the relationships
between variables. According to J. F. Hair et al. (2019), the Variance Inflation Factor
(VIF) can be used to detect the presence of collinearity. Specifically, a VIF of 5 or higher
indicates severe collinearity that significantly affects the model. If the VIF falls between
3 and 5, it suggests potential collinearity issues, while a VIF below 3 indicates that
collinearity is unlikely to be present in the model.
Based on the VIF values provided, the analysis shows that multicollinearity is not a
significant issue in the model. All VIF values are below the critical threshold of 3, which
indicates that the predictors within each construct do not exhibit collinearity. This means
that the relationships in the model can be considered valid, and there is no significant bias
in the estimation of regression coefficients or p-values.
While some values, such as the VIF for User-Friendliness, approach the upper end
of the acceptable range, they remain below the threshold where collinearity becomes
problematic. Specifically, the highest VIF value observed is for UF 3 at 2.728, which is
still within the safe limit, though close to 3. This suggests that no immediate corrective
action is needed, but monitoring this variable could be advisable.
In conclusion, the model does not suffer from severe multicollinearity, and the
relationships between the constructs should be stable and reliable. The analysis suggests
that the estimates in this model are trustworthy, with no major issues affecting the
interpretation of the results.
Table 3. Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Composite reliability, Factor loading, and
Cronbach's alpha value
Average
Composite Composite
Cronbach’s variance
Constructs Items Loadings Reliability Reliability VIF
alpha extracted
(rho_a) (rho_c)
(AVE)
AC 1 0.823 0.785 0.794 0.874 0.698 1.678
AC AC 2 0.832 1.664
AC 3 0.852 1.584
AI 1 0.805 0.711 0.714 0.838 0.634 1.475
AI AI 2 0.752 1.280
AI 3 0.830 1.496
CA CA 1 0.787 0.762 0.763 0.863 0.678 1.364
 CA 2 0.852 1.762
CA 3 0.830 1.719
EB 1 0.820 0.700 0.701 0.833 0.626 1.515
EB EB 3 0.797 1.377
EB 4 0.754 1.294
UF 1 0.820 0.858 0.884 0.903 0.702 1.673
UF 2 0.797 2.154
UF
UF 3 0.754 2.728
UF 4 0.820 2.281
Source: SMART PLS-SEM 4
The basis for assessing discriminant validity using HTMT is based on the idea that
the average correlation coefficient within a scale should be significantly higher than the
average cross-correlations between different constructs. When the average correlation
within a scale is high, the latent variables share a greater amount of variance internally
within that scale. If the average of the cross-correlations is low, it indicates that the latent
variable in question shares little variance with other latent variables. In this case, the
indicators for the two latent variables will achieve discriminant validity.
Henseler et al. (2015) suggested that if the HTMT value between a pair of factors
exceeds 0.9, discriminant validity is violated. If the HTMT value is below 0.85,
discriminant validity is well-established. Thus, values between 0.85 and 0.9 represent an
acceptable threshold.
The results from the HTMT (Heterotrait-monotrait ratio) table indicate that all
variables in the model demonstrate good discriminant validity. The value between
Advantageous Conditions (AC) and Adoption Intention (AI) is 0.517, which is well
below the 0.85 threshold. This suggests that these two constructs are conceptually
distinct, with minimal shared variance. Similarly, the HTMT value between
Advantageous Conditions (AC) and Expected Benefits (EB) is 0.679, confirming that
these variables remain distinct despite some degree of correlation.
In the case of AC and User-Friendliness (UF), the HTMT value is 0.477, further
supporting strong discriminant validity between the two constructs. The relatively low
correlation indicates that these variables measure different aspects of the phenomenon
under study. Additionally, the HTMT value between AI and UF is 0.576, which falls
within the acceptable range. Although there is some correlation, it does not undermine the
distinctiveness of these two variables.
 Finally, the value between EB and UF is 0.736, which remains under the 0.85
threshold, ensuring discriminant validity. While the correlation is higher compared to
other pairs, the constructs still capture different concepts. Overall, the HTMT values
confirm that the variables in this model measure separate constructs, with no evidence of
conceptual overlap or redundancy. This ensures that the constructs maintain their distinct
theoretical meaning, supporting the validity of the measurement model.
Table 4. HTMT Assessment
AC AI CA EB UF
AC
AI 0.517
CA 0.421 0.417
EB 0.679 0.715 0.525
UF 0.477 0.576 0.585 0.736
Source: SMART PLS-SEM 4
4.1.3. Structural Model
The statistical significance of the impact of a relationship (path coefficient)
depends on its standard error, obtained through the bootstrapping method in SMARTPLS
4. The bootstrap standard error allows the calculation of the t-value and p-value for all
path coefficients in the structural model (Ringle et al., 2024). Typically, the critical values
for a two-tailed test are 1.65 (significance level = 10%), 1.96 (significance level = 5%),
and 2.57 (significance level = 1%). The commonly used significance level is 5% (0.05),
which is also the default setting in SMARTPLS 4. If the p-value for a path coefficient is
less than 0.05, the relationship is considered statistically significant. Conversely, if the p-
value is greater than 0.05, the effect is not statistically significant. Even when a
relationship is not statistically significant, it is retained in the model, and the conclusion
reflects its lack of significance rather than removing the factor structure from the model.
SMARTPLS by default provides standardized path coefficients, which typically range
between -1 and +1 (though extreme values may occasionally occur).
Based on the path coefficient table, the following is an analysis of the relationships
between variables. The relationship between Advantageous Conditions (AC) and
Adoption Intention (AI) shows a path coefficient of 0.145. The p-value for this
relationship is 0.025, which is below the 0.05 threshold, indicating that the effect is
statistically significant. This suggests that advantageous conditions have a positive and
meaningful influence on the intention to adopt. The AC construct consists of three
indicators (AC1 to AC3), with loadings between 0.823 and 0.852, demonstrating reliable
item contributions.
The Cost Awareness (CA) to Adoption Intention (AI) relationship has a path
coefficient of 0.048. However, the p-value is 0.337, which exceeds the 0.05 threshold,
indicating that this effect is not statistically significant. As a result, cost awareness does
not have a meaningful impact on adoption intention in this model. The CA construct
includes three indicators (CA1 to CA3) with loadings ranging from 0.787 to 0.852,
indicating that the measurement model for this construct is reliable, even though the
effect on AI is minimal.
The path coefficient from Expected Benefits (EB) to Adoption Intention (AI) is
0.290, with a p-value of 0.000. Since the p-value is significantly below 0.05, this
relationship is statistically significant. This result shows that expected benefits strongly
and positively affect the intention to adopt. The EB construct is measured through four
indicators (EB1 to EB4), all with high loadings ranging from 0.754 to 0.820, indicating a
reliable measurement model.
Lastly, the relationship between User-Friendliness (UF) and Adoption Intention
(AI) has a path coefficient of 0.219, with a p-value of 0.000. This confirms that the effect
is statistically significant, meaning that higher user-friendliness positively influences
adoption intention. UF is measured through four indicators (UF1 to UF4), with loadings
between 0.729 and 0.901, showing strong internal consistency and a well-measured
construct.
The model demonstrates that Expected Benefits (EB) and User-Friendliness (UF)
have the most substantial positive impacts on Adoption Intention (AI), with path
coefficients of 0.290 and 0.219, respectively. Advantageous Conditions (AC) also
contribute positively but with a smaller effect (0.145). In contrast, Cost Awareness (CA)
shows the weakest influence on AI, with a path coefficient of 0.048, which is not
statistically significant. Overall, the diagram visually reinforces the statistical findings,
showing how the various constructs are measured and how they impact the intention to
adopt.

Table 5. Hypotheses Testing Results

Hypotheses PLS Origina Sampl Standard T statistics P Remarks
Path l sample e mean deviation (|O/STDEV| value
 (O) (M) (STDEV) ) s
H1 EB -> AI 0.290 0.292 0.064 4.553 0.000 Supported
H2 UF -> AI 0.219 0.224 0.059 3.697 0.000 Supported
AC ->
H3 0.145 0.148 0.065 2.239 0.025 Supported
AI
CA -> Unsupporte
H4 0.048 0.047 0.050 0.960 0.337
AI d
Source: SMART PLS-SEM 4

Figure 2. Structural Model Testing

Source: SMART PLS-SEM 4

The R-squared value represents the degree to which independent variables explain
the variation of a dependent variable in a model. For each dependent variable in the
model, there will be a corresponding R-squared coefficient. J. Hair et al. (2017) noted
that it is challenging to provide a rule of thumb for acceptable R-squared values, as this
depends on the complexity of the model (e.g., the number of independent variables
influencing the dependent variable, the presence of mediating relationships) and the
research field. Therefore, there is no definitive threshold for assessing whether an R-
squared value is satisfactory. R-squared ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1
indicating a high level of explanation for the dependent variable, while values closer to 0
suggest a low level of explanation.
The analysis of the data reveals a significant and positive relationship between the
independent variables and the dependent variable, Adoption Intention (AI). The path
coefficient, with a value of 0.319, indicates a moderate positive effect. This relationship
is further confirmed by the sample mean of 0.335, which is close to the original
coefficient, demonstrating consistency across different samples. The standard deviation
of 0.048 suggests that the estimates of the coefficient are stable and do not vary widely. A
t-statistic of 6.677 indicates a strong statistical significance, as it far exceeds the typical
threshold for significance, and the p-value of 0.000 reinforces this, showing that the
likelihood of this relationship occurring by chance is extremely low.
Table 6. Predictive Accuracy (R2)

Original Sample Standard deviation T statistics P

Item
sample (O) mean (M) (STDEV) (|O/STDEV|) values
AI 0.319 0.335 0.048 6.677 0.000
Source: SMART PLS-SEM 4
The effect size (f²) is a crucial indicator for determining the strength of the
relationship between independent variables and the dependent variable. Based on
Cohen (1988)
guidelines, f² values can be classified into four categories: no effect (f² < 0.02),
small effect (0.02 ≤ f² < 0.15), medium effect (0.15 ≤ f² < 0.35), and large effect (f² ≥
0.35). This classification allows us to interpret how influential each independent variable
is on the dependent variable.
For this model, the AC variable's effect size on AI is 0.022, which falls into the
small effect category. This indicates that AC has a minimal but noteworthy influence on
the adoption intention of electric vehicles (AI). The EB variable, with an f² of 0.072, also
demonstrates a small effect on AI, suggesting it is somewhat more influential compared
to AC, but still not a dominant factor in determining adoption intention. UF, with an
effect size of 0.043, similarly exhibits a small influence on AI, falling in line with other
predictors that do not have a particularly strong effect.
In contrast, CA shows an effect size of 0.003, which is classified as having no
significant effect on AI. This result implies that cost awareness (CA) is not a key factor
driving the adoption of electric vehicles in this context. Consequently, CA contributes
very little to explaining the variability in the dependent variable, indicating that other
constructs like user-friendliness (UF), advantageous conditions (AC), and expected
benefits (EB) play more prominent roles in influencing electric vehicle adoption
intentions among Gen Z.
Overall, while the effect sizes suggest that all independent variables exert some
level of influence, they do not show strong or medium-level effects. The low values
indicate that factors beyond these measured constructs may also be significantly shaping
adoption intentions, and further research may be needed to uncover additional drivers of
this behavior.
Table 7. Effect Size (f2)

Items AC AI CA EB UF
AC 0.022
AI
CA 0.003
EB 0.072
UF 0.043
Source: SMART PLS-SEM 4
4.2. Discussion
The study identified four key factors that significantly impact Gen Z's intention to
switch to electric cars, including expected benefits, user-friendliness, advantageous
conditions, and cost awareness. These findings are consistent with previous research

(Dutta & Hwang, 2021; Lee et al., 2021b; Tran et al., 2019b; Trong Truong, 2023; Xie et al., 2022; X
. However, the variable cost awareness (CA) did not have a
statistically significant effect on Gen Z’s perception. While Krishnan & Koshy (2021b)
argued that the price of electric cars remains high due to the high costs associated with
battery production, they also pointed out that fuel and maintenance costs are relatively
cheaper compared to traditional gasoline-powered cars. Each consumer may perceive the
cost of a product differently, and those who perceive higher costs may face more
difficulty forming an intention to switch.
The P-value for the CA variable is 0.337, which is higher than 0.05, confirming
that the correlation between CA and AI is not statistically significant. This suggests that,
for most young people, the cost of electric vehicles may not be a major issue in the future
compared to the growing environmental crisis. Therefore, hypothesis H4, which posited
that cost awareness would significantly influence intention, is not supported.
 On the other hand, hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 are all statistically significant, with
P-values below 0.05, indicating that these variables (expected benefits, user-friendliness,
and advantageous conditions) have a substantial impact on Gen Z’s intention to switch to
electric cars, and thus these hypotheses are accepted. Regarding the correlation
coefficients, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values for all independent variables are
below 2, indicating no multicollinearity issues.
Interestingly, the results for the effect size (f²) reveal some surprising findings. The
effect size for the expected benefits (EB) variable falls within the medium range (0.15 <
f² < 0.35), as per Cohen’s criteria, but it emerges as the most influential factor in shaping
Adoption Intention (AI) compared to the other three variables. This indicates that young
people have high expectations regarding the benefits of electric vehicles, particularly in
terms of environmental, social, and traffic-related improvements. Their strong belief in
these potential benefits suggests that Gen Z views electric vehicles as a solution to
pressing societal issues, making the expected benefits a primary driver of their adoption
intentions.
In expanding this analysis further, it becomes clear that Gen Z’s emphasis on the
environmental benefits of electric vehicles is reflective of broader societal trends. With
increasing concerns over climate change and pollution, younger generations are more
likely to prioritize sustainability in their purchasing decisions. Electric vehicles offer a
tangible way to reduce carbon emissions, and Gen Z’s heightened awareness of
environmental issues could explain why expected benefits emerged as the strongest
predictor of adoption intention. Moreover, the perceived social benefits of electric
vehicles, such as contributing to a cleaner and healthier society, resonate strongly with
this generation’s values. Lastly, the traffic benefits that electric vehicles could bring, such
as smoother and quieter urban mobility, are likely appealing to a generation growing up
in increasingly congested cities.
This emphasis on the long-term advantages of electric vehicles over the initial cost
hurdles suggests that, as electric vehicle prices become more competitive, cost concerns
will diminish in importance. Gen Z’s forward-looking perspective on the positive impacts
of electric vehicles on the environment and society could play a crucial role in
accelerating the adoption of electric vehicles in the coming years.
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