RIS-2766-RST - Wheelsets Iss 2 Draft 3

Rail Industry Standard
RIS-2766-RST
Issue: Two Draft: Draft 3
Date: March 2023

for Wheelsets
Synopsis
This document supports GMRT2466
and sets out requirements for the
design, manufacture and maintenance
of wheelsets and their components.
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Published by RSSB
© Copyright 2023
Rail Safety and Standards Board Limited
RIS-2766-RST
Date: March 2023 Rail Industry Standard for Wheelsets
Issue Record
Issue Date Comments

One 02/12/2017 Created by combining the non-NTR content of
GMRT2466 and relevant superseded guidance
notes
Two March 2023 Revisions include replacing the term 'TSI' with
[proposed] 'NTSN', clarify application of re-profiling
tolerances, revision to recovery speed with large
wheel flats and update of references to other
documents
Revisions have been marked by a vertical black line in this issue except where "TSI"
has only been replaced by "NTSN".
Superseded Documents
The following Railway Group documents are superseded, either in whole or in part as
indicated:
Superseded documents Sections superseded Date when

sections are
superseded
RIS-2766-RST issue one Rail All March 2023
Industry Standard for Wheelsets [proposed]
Supply
The authoritative version of this document is available at www.rssb.co.uk/standards-
catalogue. Enquiries on this document can be submitted through the RSSB Customer
Self-Service Portal https://customer-portal.rssb.co.uk/
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Rail Industry Standard for Wheelsets Date: March 2023
Contents
Section Description Page
Part 1 Purpose and Introduction 8

1.1 Purpose 8
1.2 Application of this document 8
1.3 Health and safety responsibilities 8
1.4 Structure of this document 8
1.5 Approval and Authorisation 8
Part 2 Requirements for Design 9

2.1 Wheelset design 9
2.2 Wheelset geometry 10
2.3 Axle design 11
2.4 Wheel design 13
2.5 Axlebox 15
2.6 Axle bearing design 16
2.7 Wheelset assembly design considerations 16
2.8 Corrosion protection 18
Part 3 Requirements for Railway Wheelset Manufacture and Assembly 20

3.1 Wheelset components 20
3.2 Replacement components for British Rail wheelset designs 20
3.3 Assembly 22
3.4 Wheelset testing 25
3.5 Wheelset balancing 26
3.6 Wheelset identification 27
3.7 Handling and care of wheelsets 28
Part 4 Requirements for Wheelset Maintenance 29

4.1 Introduction of wheelset maintenance 29
4.2 Wheelset examination 31
4.3 Wheelset measurements 34
4.4 Investigation of wheelset damage 39
4.5 Wheelset NDT 40
4.6 Wheelset defects 43
4.7 Actions required when unacceptable defects are identified 48
4.8 Repair and overhaul 56
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Part 5 Requirements for Wheelset Records 62

5.1 Introduction to wheelset records 62
5.2 Labelling of wheelsets 62
5.3 Traceability of wheelsets 63
5.4 Recording of examination results 64
Part 6 Conformity Assessment 65

6.1 Conformity assessment 65
6.2 Assessment of new wheelset designs 65
Appendices 67
Appendix A Branding 67
Appendix B Wheelset and Tread Profile Gauging Systems 79
Appendix C Wheel Tread Defects 88
Definitions 97
References 100
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Carriage and coaching stock derivative wheels 24
Figure 2: Critical areas for cracks in wheel tread 43
Figure 3: Wheel tread roll-over 44
Figure 4: Definition of false flange 44
Figure 5: Definition of a sharp flange 45
Figure 6: Toe radius build-up 45
Figure 7: Flange toe radius assessment using a flange height and thickness gauge 46
Figure 8: Example of flange back distortion 46
Figure 9: Wheel rim distortion 47
Figure 10: Permissible witness marks on re-profiled treads 54
Figure 11: As forged condition axle markings 72
Figure 12: Branding on finish machined roller bearing axles 72
Figure 13: Branding on finish machined plain bearing axle 72
Figure 14: Axle end branding of roller bearing axles 73
Figure 15: Axle end branding of plain bearing axles 73
Figure 16: Branding on monobloc wheels during manufacture 74
Figure 17: Branding on monobloc wheels after assembly 74
Figure 18: Branding on wheel centre during manufacture 75
Figure 19: Branding on tyres during manufacture 75
Figure 20: Branding on tyres and wheels following assembly 76
Figure 21: Profile sliding gauge 79
Figure 22: Profile limit machining gauge and plug gauge 80
Figure 23: Adjustable flange thickness and height gauge 82
Figure 24: Go / No Go back-to-back gauge 83
Figure 25: External tread diameter comparison gauge 84
Figure 26: Tyre thickness gauge 85
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Figure 27: Rim thickness gauge 85
Figure 28: Go / No-Go throat thickness gauge 86
Figure 29: Adjustable throat thickness gauge 86
Figure 30: Go / No-Go flange thickness and height gauge 87
Figure 31: Go / No-Go restricted flange height gauge 87
Figure 32: Crack on flange 88
Figure 33: Cracks on wheel tread extending down the chamfer 89
Figure 34: Light cracking due to RCF 90
Figure 35: Section through a wheel with RCF 90
Figure 36: Typical damage associated with a wheel slide showing cracks and spalling 91
Figure 37: Long cavity 92
Figure 38: Isolated wheel flat showing measurement of length 93
Figure 39: Multiple wheel flats 94
Figure 40: Tread roll-over 95
Figure 41: Flange toe radius build-up 96
Figure 42: Display of measured wheel profile with flange toe radius build-up 96
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List of Tables
Table 1: Examples of consistent sets of wheelset standards 9
Table 2: Tread run-out and wheel wobble limits 10
Table 3: Monobloc wheel material 13
Table 4: Limit of tolerable tread run-out 37
Table 5: Defects and consequential damage 39
Table 6: Tread run-out limits and actions applicable to vehicles in traffic 48
Table 7: Wheel flat limits and actions applicable to vehicles in traffic 49
Table 8: Speed limits for recovery of vehicles with wheel flats or tread run-out 50
Table 9: Actions to be taken on discovery of cavities during inspection in traffic 51
Table 10: Actions to be taken on discovery of cavities during routine inspection at

maintenance 51
Table 11: Wheelset unique identification codes 68
Table 12: Axle geometry codes 70
Table 13: Branding codes for axles 71
Table 14: Manufacturing contractor codes 76
Table 15: Sliding profile gauges 79
Table 16: Profile machining limit gauges 80
Table 17: Other gauges 81
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Part 1 Purpose and Introduction

1.1 Purpose
1.1.1 This document is a Rail Industry Standard for the design, manufacture and
maintenance of wheelsets.
1.1.2 This document should be read in conjunction with the Rolling Stock National
Technical Specification Notices (NTSNs) ‘Locomotives and Passenger’ (LOC&PAS)
and ‘Freight Wagons’ (WAG) and Railway Group Standard GMRT2466.
1.2 Application of this document
1.2.1 Compliance requirements and dates have not been specified because these are the
subject of internal procedures or contract conditions.
1.2.2 If you plan to do something that does not comply with a requirement in this RIS, you
can ask a Standards Committee to comment on your proposed alternative. If you
want a Standards Committee to do this, please submit your deviation application
form to RSSB. You can find advice and guidance on using alternative requirements on
RSSB’s website www.rssb.co.uk.
1.3 Health and safety responsibilities
1.3.1 Users of documents published by RSSB are reminded of the need to consider their
own responsibilities to ensure health and safety at work and their own duties under
health and safety legislation. RSSB does not warrant that compliance with all or any
documents published by RSSB is sufficient in itself to ensure safe systems of work or
operation or to satisfy such responsibilities or duties.
1.4 Structure of this document
1.4.1 This document sets out a series of requirements that are sequentially numbered. This
document also sets out the rationale for the requirement, explaining why the
requirement is needed and its purpose and, where relevant, guidance to support the
requirement. The rationale and the guidance are prefixed by the letter ‘G’.
1.4.2 Some subjects do not have specific requirements but the subject is addressed through
guidance only and, where this is the case, it is distinguished under a heading of
‘Guidance’ and is prefixed by the letter ‘G’.
1.5 Approval and Authorisation
1.5.1 The content of this document will be approved by Rolling Stock Standards Committee
(RST SC) on 9 December 2022 [proposed].
1.5.2 This document will be authorised by RSSB on 25 January 2023 [proposed].
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Part 2 Requirements for Design

2.1 Wheelset design
2.1.1 For the design of wheelsets a consistent set of standards shall be applied for wheels,
axles and their manufacture and assembly as a wheelset and their subsequent
inspection and maintenance.
2.1.2 Where standards other than those mandated by the LOC&PAS NTSN, the WAG NTSN
or GMRT2466 are permitted as defined in this document, the suitability of standards
selected shall be demonstrated by reference to relevant experience in service,
analysis, simulation and/or testing.
Rationale
G 2.1.3 This provides the consistent methodology to comply with the LOC&PAS NTSN
(4.2.3.5.2) and WAG NTSN (4.2.3.6.2 and 4.2.3.6.3).
Guidance
G 2.1.4 The sets of standards available are subdivided typically into standards for design and
for manufacture with separate standards for axles, wheels and wheelset assembly.
G 2.1.5 The following table gives five examples of consistent sets of standards for which
there is service experience:
Case 1 2 3 4 5
Wheelset Journals Outside Outside Outside Inside Inside

type
Traction Non- Powered Non- Both Both
powered powered
Wheel Forged Forged Cast Forged Cast

type and rolled and rolled and rolled
Axle Design BS EN BS EN BS EN BS 8535 BS 8535

13103-1 13103-1 13103-1
Manufact BS EN BS EN BS EN BS EN BS EN
ure 13261 13261 13261 13261 13261
Wheel Design BS EN BS EN BS EN BS EN BS 5892-7

13979-1 13979-1 13979-1 13979-1
Manufact BS EN BS EN BS 5892-7 BS EN BS 5892-7

ure 13262 13262 13262
Wheelset Assembly BS EN BS EN BS EN BS 5892-8 BS 5892-8

13260 13260 13260
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Case 1 2 3 4 5
NTSN Compliance
LOC&PAS Full Full National National Not

use use applicable
WAG Full Not National National National

applicable use use use
Table 1: Examples of consistent sets of wheelset standards

G 2.1.6 The Association of American Railroads (AAR) Manual of Standards and
Recommended Practices, Section G, ‘Wheels and axles’ and Section G ‘Part II - Wheel
and axle (shop) manual’ sets out the design requirements, standard sizes and
manufacturing requirements for wheels and axles. Matters relating to wheel tread
profiles and wheelset dimensions are not applicable.
2.2 Wheelset geometry
2.2.1 When new, or following overhaul, the tread run-out (radial) and the wheel wobble
(axial run-out) shall not exceed the values set out in Table 2
Vehicle type Maximum tread Maximum wheel

run-out (mm) wobble (mm)
Any vehicle permitted to operate above 0.20 0.30

125 mph and up to 140 mph
Locomotives and coaching stock operating at 0.25 0.40
maximum speeds up to and including 125 mph
Freight vehicles operating at maximum speeds 0.30 0.40
greater than 75 mph and up to and including
100 mph
between 60 mph and 75 mph
up to and including 60 mph
All other vehicles As BS 5892, Part 6
Table 2: Tread run-out and wheel wobble limits

2.2.2 When newly turned, the wheel tread profiles on each wheel shall be aligned with the
wheelset axis.
2.2.3 Wheel tread profile shall be within a geometric tolerance of ±0.25 mm of the
nominal.
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2.2.4 On new or overhauled wheelsets the outside face of the rim of the wheel or tyre shall
be flat to within ±0.25 mm.
2.2.5 Resilient wheels when new, or overhauled, shall have a maximum wheel axial run-out
(wobble) of 0.75 mm for all vehicles.
Rationale
G 2.2.6 To limit the vertical and lateral oscillations generated during wheel rotation to
prevent on-vehicle vibration and / or track damage.
Guidance
G 2.2.7 The risk of flange climbing and derailment is increased by irregularities, steps or sharp
edges on the flange and flange tip. Sharp features, poor transitions and irregularities
on the flange tip may increase the possibility of splitting switches.
G 2.2.8 See 4.7.4 for limits that apply when re-profiling in service.
2.3 Axle design
2.3.1 Axles for new wheelset designs shall use axle design standards that are consistent
with the requirements for wheelsets (see 2.1).
2.3.2 The axle design shall define the non-destructive testing (NDT) requirements for
manufacture and all phases of the wheelset life and shall be set out in the technical
documentation supplied with the axle (see 3.4).
2.3.3 Where an axle coating and protective system is required this shall be recorded in the
technical documentation for the axle.
2.3.4 For axles designed in accordance with BS EN 13103-1:2017 or BS 8535:2011 the axle
material shall be selected from BS EN 13261 Grades EA1T, EA4T or EA1N.
Rationale
G 2.3.5 The choice of axle material can influence axle reliability and the inspection regime
applied to the axle in service. Where high-strength steel axles are operated close to
their permitted stresses the potential crack propagation rate could be correspondingly
greater, hence necessitating an appropriately frequent inspection regime. A
recognised standard of axle materials helps to achieve the required performance and
reliability of the axle.
Guidance
G 2.3.6 The following is a non-exhaustive list of factors that are typically considered in axle
design:
a) Maximum operational speed and cant deficiency.
b) Characteristic of loads applied to the axle, including vehicle loads, track inputs,
wheel tread damage, mass of transmission components and transmission forces,
braking forces, effects of wheel-slide and wheel-slip systems etc.
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c) Loading regimes which could adversely affect the axle life, such as torsional
vibrations.
d) The geometry between the axle features.
e) The effects of interference fits on the axle.
f) All potential stress concentrations and method of their elimination, for example,
surface finish, geometry.
g) Maximum stresses that satisfy non-finite fatigue life requirements.
h) The material and heat treatment process to be used.
i) Manufacturing process, including surface finish.
j) Compatibility with NDT techniques that are to be applied to the axle during its
life.
k) Effects of impact damage to the axle surface.
l) Effects of thermal and mechanical interaction between the brake disc and the
mounting on the axle.
G 2.3.7 The effect of surface treatment can influence the axle fatigue performance of the
axle, which can in turn affect the allowable fatigue stress.
G 2.3.8 The application of some blast cleaning processes can be beneficial in not only
effectively cleaning the axle surface but also in generating a compressive stress in the
surface. In this case the shot blast medium needs to be considered carefully to avoid
obscuration of defects due to plastic modification of the surface.
G 2.3.9 Great Britain (GB) and European axle design standards have been developed over
many years:
a) British Rail BASS 503 and BASS 504 design guides were produced for the design of
axles for operation on track meeting British Rail track standards and quality at the
time. These documents give limiting stress values for different parts of the axle
and in so doing assumptions were included for the axle material, suspension
characteristics and axle corrosion protection.
b) BS EN 13103-1 supersedes BS EN 13103 and BS EN 13104 and applies to both
powered and non-powered (trailer) axles with outboard bearings. Axles with
inboard bearings are addressed in PD CEN/TS 13103-2, and it is intended that a
part 3 will be developed to address axles for urban applications.
c) BS EN 13103 and BS EN 13104 originated from UIC leaflets, where the most
appropriate standard axle design would be selected on completion of the design
calculations; that is, larger than the minimum design calculated. This ensured a
margin of safety over the calculation values. In practice, axles were not therefore
working at the limit values that the standards apparently permit.
d) In addition, BS EN 13103 and BS EN 13104 were developed from experience of
typical mainland European infrastructure. Also, these design methods require that
corrosion protection and axle maintenance regimes are considered.
G 2.3.10 A record of the coating system used on the axle is necessary because the need for,
and specification of, an axle coating system can have a significant effect on the
predicted life of an axle and the maintenance plan.
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2.4 Wheel design
2.4.1 Wheels for new wheelset designs shall use design standards that are consistent with
the requirements for wheelsets; see 2.1.
2.4.2 New wheelset designs shall use monobloc wheels.
2.4.3 For wheels restricted to national use, the wheel material shall be selected from
approved grades of steel for particular applications as set out in the table below.
Wheel type BS 5892-3 BS EN 132623 BS 5892-7 AAR
Freight, R7E x2 x x
integral brake
disc wheels
Freight, cheek R8E x x x

mounted brake
disc wheels
Other freight R7T or R8T ER7 or ER8 C64 M-107/M-208

wheels class B
All passenger R8T or RS8T1 ER8 x x

vehicle wheels
Other wheels R8T ER8 C64 M-107/M-208

class B
Table 3: Monobloc wheel material
Note: RS8T is not recommended for use on tread braked wheel applications.
Note: x - No approved grades of steel available.
Note: BS EN 13262 only applies to rim chilled wheels for this table.
2.4.4 For wheels designed in accordance with BS EN 13979-1, the wheel material shall be
selected from BS EN 13262 Grades ER7 or ER8.
2.4.5 For cast wheels designed in accordance with BS 5892-7, the wheel material shall be
BS 5892-7 Grade C64.
2.4.6 For wheels designed in accordance with AAR standards (see G 2.1.6), the wheel
material shall conform to AAR standard M-107/M-208 Class B.
2.4.7 New wheel designs shall make provision for balancing without the need for holes in
the wheel.
2.4.8 Tread braked wheels or wheels with disc brakes mounted on or integral with the wheel
shall be designed to accommodate the thermal loads induced by braking cycles.
2.4.9 The wheel shall remain securely located on the axle when subject to the maximum
thermal loading.
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2.4.10 Where alternative standards are used, lateral displacement of the wheel rim, relative
to the wheel hub, shall be within the criteria set out in 6.2.2 of BS EN 13979-1.
2.4.11 For monobloc wheels, the rim thickness at the final re-profiling may be reduced such
that the wheel rim fatigue life becomes finite. The predicted fatigue life at final re-
profiling shall be not less than three times the remaining service life.
Rationale
G 2.4.12 The objective is to provide robust and reliable wheel designs and help ensure
materials selected are of a recognised standard and achieve the required
performance and reliability. Monobloc wheels help eliminate the risk of derailment
from loose or fractured tyre wheel arrangements. Consideration of thermal loadings
due to braking helps to ensure safety of the wheelset against derailment from
movement of the wheel on the axle or excessive displacement of the wheel rim.
Guidance
G 2.4.13 Eliminating holes for balance weights reduces the risk of wheel fatigue fractures
emanating from stress raisers caused by the attachment of balance weights.
G 2.4.14 The recommended method of balancing is by machining in accordance with the
respective standard.
G 2.4.15 The requirement that the predicted fatigue life at final re-profiling shall be not less
than three times the remaining service life provides a contingency for uncertainties
that can affect the wheel life assessment, such as the stress levels that can be locally
generated in the wheel rim and the number of cycles when negotiating track features
in the final part of its life.
G 2.4.16 The most severe thermal loading is produced through either:
a) Drag braking; or
b) The most arduous repeated braking cycle to be experienced by the vehicle
(including an additional stop to represent peak thermal loading during the cycle).
G 2.4.17 The repeated braking cycle can be determined from a route simulation, including
station dwell times, with additional brake applications added at the most arduous
location identified in the simulation. Alternatively, the repeated braking could be
cyclic brake applications with representative station dwell times.
G 2.4.18 The route simulation or repeated braking cycle reaches a maximum or saturation
temperature, which the wheel is required to accommodate without losing the
interference fit on the axle. This principle is applicable to all railway vehicles, although
freight trains having greater start / stop cycle times could achieve the maximum
temperature in a single cycle. The drag braking case for freight vehicle applications
could generate higher temperatures in the wheel when holding a constant speed on a
long gradient.
G 2.4.19 The list of factors in clause G 2.3.6 for axle design also affects wheel design. In
addition, the following factors are relevant for wheel design:
a) Thermal effects on the wheel to axle fit.
b) Thermal strains imposed by friction brake components.
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c) The full range of wheel dimensions permitted.

d) Effects of thermal and mechanical interaction between the brake disc and the
mounting on the wheel.
G 2.4.20 The following factors can affect calculating the predicted wheel fatigue life:
a) Steel cleanliness levels.
b) Permitted defects in the wheel rim, as set out in maintenance guidance related to
tread defects and profile discontinuities (see 4.4).
c) Residual stress distribution in the worn wheel.
d) Transient loading at the tread corner when negotiating switches and crossings.
G 2.4.21 Where cast wheels are specified, BS 5892 Part 7 includes requirements for
micrographic cleanliness.
2.5 Axlebox
2.5.1 The combination of axlebox and axle bearing designs shall be sealed to stop water
ingress and contaminants.
2.5.2 New axlebox designs shall meet the requirements set out in BS EN 15827:2011 and
the relevant component related standards.
2.5.3 Existing axlebox designs shall be used and maintained within the parameters
specified for the relevant standards.
Rationale
G 2.5.4 This is to help control the risk of premature bearing failure and ensure the structural
integrity of axleboxes.
Guidance
G 2.5.5 Sealing arrangements minimise the loss of lubricants during operation and protect
the bearing from contamination due to the ingress of water and other foreign
substances from the operating environment.
G 2.5.6 The function of the axlebox is to:
a) Ensure integrity of the installation and maintain location of the wheelset in the
event of a bearing failure.
b) Transmit suspension loads.
c) Support other equipment such as life guards and sanding equipment.
G 2.5.7 Axle bearings can fail as a result of the passage of electrical current. A measure to
help control this risk is to include axle current return brushes. The effect of high
electrical resistance, typically due to glazing of rubbing surfaces where no or low
current is experienced, can affect the axle bearings and measures implemented to
help control the risks associated with the passing of electrical current.
G 2.5.8 Annex D of BS EN 15827:2011 lists the component related standards relevant to
axleboxes and axlebox-mounted equipment.
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G 2.5.9 Design accelerations have been harmonised between GMRT2100 and

BS EN 13749:2021 but other values have been used in the past in GMRT2100 and
other standards.
2.6 Axle bearing design
2.6.1 The axle bearing design life shall be determined using BS ISO 281:2007 or alternative
equivalent method.
Rationale
G 2.6.2 To demonstrate the suitability of the selected bearing and to determine maintenance
schedules.
Guidance
G 2.6.3 A method for calculating bearing life is set out in BS ISO 281. Bearing manufacturers
will use their own methods, which include the effects of such things as material
quality, cleanliness, heat treatment and geometry to provide more accurate
prediction.
G 2.6.4 The following factors affect design of the axle journal bearing:
a) Radial, lateral and torsional loading, including mechanical loads appropriate to
the input from track and vehicle.
b) Additional load inputs due to the effects of predictable wheel tread defects, for
example, wheel flats.
c) The loads that can be attributed to the accumulated tolerance in the assembly
and parasitic forces that can be produced within the suspension arrangement.
d) The full range of operating duties, rotating speeds and loads.
e) Selection of bearing grease, taking into account degradation and increasing water
content of the grease over time.
f) Climatic conditions.
g) Thermal inputs.
2.7 Wheelset assembly design considerations
2.7.1 Wheels and other components that are secured to the axle by interference fit shall be
designed to remain secure over the full range of operational conditions that the
wheelset will experience to include as a minimum:
a) The thermal effects arising from the environment and service operation.
b) The effects of either traction or braking applied torque.
c) The potential effects of interference fit relaxation caused by the interference fit of
adjacent components.
2.7.2 Wheelsets for new wheelset designs shall use standards for assembly that are
consistent with the requirements for wheelsets (see 2.1).
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2.7.3 Components mounted on wheelsets shall be designed to accommodate the proof,

thermal, fatigue and self-induced loads. This shall be demonstrated by calculation or
structural analysis using loads derived from test, service or simulation.
2.7.4 Components mounted on a wheelset shall have a service life at least that of the
wheelset or a multiple thereof. In addition, where a component can only be
maintained or overhauled when the wheels are removed from the axle, then the
component fatigue life shall be at least that of the wheels or a multiple thereof.
2.7.5 Any brake disc fasteners shall have a life commensurate with the life of the brake disc
and compatible with the wheel life.
Rationale
G 2.7.6 The primary objective is to ensure the security of wheelset components in service to
achieve the required levels of safety and performance. Additional requirements help
ensure reliability and an economic service life (that is, the interval between overhauls)
by requiring components fitted to wheelsets such as brakes and transmissions, to
have service lives that are compatible with the overhaul requirements for the primary
wheelset elements: the wheels and axle.
Guidance
G 2.7.7 Components mounted to the wheelset that are required to have a service life at least
that of the wheelset or a multiple thereof, include: gear cases, gearboxes, axle hung
traction motor mountings (suspension tubes), brush gear, brake discs and speed
sensors.
G 2.7.8 Evaluation of the design life is undertaken using appropriate mechanical, thermal,
braking and transmission loads, including track inputs. Additional predictable loads
that are produced from wheelset damage, including tread damage, can be considered
in the component design.
G 2.7.9 Aspects that influence the design of wheelset and the equipment fitted include:
a) All proof and fatigue loads and other design factors predictable throughout the
required design life.
b) The thermal and mechanical loads transmitted to the mounting arrangement are
to be consistent with those used in the wheel and / or axle design.
c) Assessment of the mechanical and thermal loads and the interaction with the
wheel and / or axle to ensure that the installation remains secure at all times
throughout the design life.
d) Mechanical loads appropriate to the input from track and vehicle, such as tread
damage and transmission forces.
e) Centrifugal loads, for example on fasteners of split discs.
f) Localised and bulk thermal inputs.
g) Braking loads.
h) Effects of thermal and mechanical interaction between the brake disc and the
mounting on the wheel or axle.
i) Variations through the service life from new to worn condition.
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2.8 Corrosion protection
2.8.1 A coating and protection system applied to the wheels and axle shall be documented
in the technical specification.
2.8.2 The technical specification shall include provision for the completion or addition of
any corrosion protection after completion of all tests on the wheelset.
2.8.3 Materials that come into contact with the wheelset shall not have an adverse effect
on the performance of the coating applied to the wheelset.
2.8.4 The technical specification shall include provision for the treatment of overhangs and
other moisture traps at the axle to wheel interface and similar locations, to prevent
corrosion.
Rationale
G 2.8.5 These requirements are to control and manage the risk from corrosion to wheelsets
and the consequent risk of axle failure due to cracks initiating in areas and surfaces
damaged by corrosion.
Guidance
G 2.8.6 The axle design process includes the effect of measures for protecting the axle and
any necessary maintenance activities required to maintain axle integrity. The
measures adopted, their application and maintenance are therefore an integral part
of the wheelset design.
G 2.8.7 The choice of an axle protection system is influenced by a number of factors such as:
application, speed, duty, protection required, maintenance policy and repair
processes. The principal systems available for axle protection are summarised as
follows:
a) Axles may have no protective coatings applied, such as AAR designed axles, where
the surface is permitted to corrode. Such axles take into consideration the effect
of corrosion and impact damage on surface finish by including additional
allowance during their service life. These axles tend to be of a larger diameter and
will often include a machining allowance for skimming of the corroded surface.
b) Traditional protective coatings are usually comparatively thin and will generally
only provide protection against corrosion, not being sufficiently robust to prevent
impact damage to the surface. These coatings are usually comparatively simple to
apply and remove. Such coatings may be suitable for surface NDT techniques.
c) Thick coatings made up of several different layers each providing a different
function in the protection system. Often the outer layer consists of a rigid material
which resists impacts from ballast, ice and other debris on the track. These
coatings may prove unsuitable for surface NDT techniques and may require
complete removal to enable surface inspection.
G 2.8.8 The following factors have an effect on the selection of a coating and protection
system to be applied to a wheelset:
a) Mechanical and impact damage.
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b) Environmental factors, corrosive material that the wheelset could come into
contact with.
c) Potential for galvanic corrosion between components.
d) Adhesion to substrate material at the manufactured surface finishes.
e) Effects of products remaining on the surface.
f) Susceptibility to corrosion spreading beneath the coating if damaged locally.
g) Repair systems that are likely to be necessary to rectify damage (including
facilities and time constraints).
h) Systems necessary for the removal of the coating at overhaul.
i) Disposal of waste materials.
G 2.8.9 Materials that can have an effect on the coating when they come into contact with
the wheelset include: NDT consumables, coupling compounds, and other protective
materials such as those applied to axle body transitions.
G 2.8.10 Areas left uncoated or unpainted for ultrasonic testing can be protected with suitable
material, typically by one which is transparent to ultrasound, before storage,
transportation or fitting to a vehicle.
G 2.8.11 The axle body surface can be blast cleaned to improve keying of the corrosion
protection medium applied to the axle body. The process applied to the axle surface
can affect the material fatigue strength.
G 2.8.12 RSSB research project T1223 (2022) looks at the theory and practice of wheelset
coating systems. It includes a report giving technical guidelines for wheelset coatings
and a coating systems selection tool, in the form of a weighted decision matrix, that
can be used to assist in the selection of the optimum coating system.
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Part 3 Requirements for Railway Wheelset Manufacture and

Assembly
3.1 Wheelset components
3.1.1 Axle testing

3.1.1.1 In addition to NDT requirements specified for manufacture, axles shall be successfully
tested using the ultrasonic axle test regime required for maintenance.
Rationale
G 3.1.1.2 The ultrasonic axle testing undertaken during manufacture is intended to be
representative of the ultrasonic axle testing undertaken during the axle’s service life.
The ultrasonic testing requirements included within EN 13261 specify a relatively
basic probe technology which may be inferior to the subsequent maintenance testing.
These basic ultrasonic testing requirements may result in the acceptance of axles that
prove to be opaque to the more sensitive techniques applied during maintenance.
When ordering axles, the ultrasonic testing requirements are defined.
Guidance
G 3.1.1.3 Opacity can be caused by relatively large grain size within a material adversely
affecting the transmission of ultrasonic sound wave through the material, particularly
important for N grade materials. This condition results in the affected axle being
rejected as ultrasonic axle testing (UAT) is not possible. Testing for this condition prior
to assembly removes the majority of axles affected by this condition at an early
stage, although it is believed the condition can occur some time after manufacture.
G 3.1.1.4 All new axles are subject to magnetic particle inspection (MPI) or an equivalent
validated procedure, before assembly, to ensure they are free of surface-breaking
defects.
3.2 Replacement components for British Rail wheelset designs
3.2.1 Replacement axles

3.2.1.1 Replacement axles shall be manufactured in accordance with BS 5892-1:1992 Grade
A1T, A4T or A1N.
3.2.1.2 Axles manufactured in accordance with BS 5892 Part 1 shall be subject to the
micrographic cleanliness examination requirements set out in BS EN 13261 clause
3.4.1.
3.2.1.3 Replacement axles shall additionally be subject to the following tests, which are
optional in BS 5892 Part 1:
a) Impact test (BS 5892 Part 1 clause 8.3.4).
b) Ultrasonic testing (BS 5892 Part 1 clause 9.3.1) to demonstrate that the axle body
is transparent to ultrasound.
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c) MPI (BS 5892 Part 1 clause 9.3.2), or inspection process of at least equivalent
sensitivity, over the whole surface area, excluding the axle ends. This testing shall
be carried out after finish machining and prior to fitment of any components.
3.2.1.4 Replacement axles shall have a hydrogen content in accordance with BS EN 13261.
Rationale
G 3.2.1.5 The additional requirements are specified to assure product quality to an equivalent
level to that provided by European standards that are current at the time of issue of
this standard or that in time supersede them.
3.2.2 Replacement monobloc wheels

3.2.2.1 For replacement wheels to British Rail designs, the wheel material shall be selected
from BS 5892, Part 3, Grades R7E, R8E, R7T, R8T or RS8T, with the grade and heat
treatment selected in accordance with the original design or shown to be equivalent.
3.2.2.2 Replacement wheels shall be manufactured in accordance with BS 5892, Part 3.
3.2.2.3 Replacement wheels shall be subject to the micrographic cleanliness examination
requirements set out in BS EN 13262, clause 3.4.1.
3.2.2.4 Replacement wheels shall additionally be subject to the following tests, which are
optional in BS 5892 Part 3:
a) Uniformity of rim hardness (BS 5892-3, clause 8.3.6.1).
b) Ultrasonic test (BS 5892-3, clause 8.3.7). The wheel rims ultrasonically tested for
internal defects:
i) Wheelsets operating up to 125 mile/h – no defect larger than 2 mm.
ii) Wheelsets operating above 125 mile/h – no defect larger than 1 mm.
c) Residual stress for rim chilled wheels (BS 5892-3:1992, clause 10.6).
Rationale
level to that provided by current European standards.
Guidance
G 3.2.2.6 It is permissible to ultrasonically test the wheel rim using the method specified in
BS EN 13262:2020.
3.2.3 Replacement wheel centres

3.2.3.1 Replacement wheel centres shall be manufactured to the requirements of
BS 5892-2:1992.
3.2.3.2 The grade of steel used in the manufacture of wheel centres shall be Grade U as set
out in BS 5892-2:1992 with the the hydrogen content not exceeding 2 parts per
million (ppm).
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Rationale
level to that provided by current European standards.
3.2.4 Replacement tyres and retaining rings

3.2.4.1 Replacement tyres shall be manufactured to the requirements of BS 5892 Part 4. The
approved grades of steel are either B5E or B6E.
3.2.4.2 Replacement tyres shall be tested in accordance with the 'mandatory and optional'
requirements of BS 5892 Part 4. The hydrogen content shall not exceed 2 ppm.
3.2.4.3 Replacement retaining rings shall be manufactured to the requirements of BS 5892,
Part 5.
Rationale
G 3.2.4.4 The original components were manufactured to British Rail procedures and
specifications, which are no longer available. The British Standards specified and any
additional requirements allow an acceptable replacement to be manufactured.
Guidance
G 3.2.4.5 To ensure tyres are free from internal defects they can be tested in accordance with
the ultrasonic test method specified in BS EN 13262 with a maximum defect size <
2 mm. The ultrasonic technique is to have minimal or no dead zone.
3.3 Assembly
3.3.1 Wheelset assembly

3.3.1.1 Wheelsets shall be assembled in accordance with the requirements of the relevant
standard: BS EN 13260, BS 5892 Part 6, BS 5892 Part 8 or AAR standards (see
Wheelset design).
Rationale
G 3.3.1.2 Application of a consistent set of standards is required throughout from design to
assembly to maintenance to ensure that safe and reliable wheelsets are placed into
service.
3.3.2 Used components

3.3.2.1 When any component is reused during manufacture and assembly, the requirements
set out in 2.7 shall be satisfied.
3.3.2.2 Components with a life limited to less than the period before the next due inspection
shall not be reused.
Rationale
G 3.3.2.3 This requirement controls the risk of reusing components such as axles, axleboxes and
brake discs when assembling wheelsets prior to service operation.
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Guidance
G 3.3.2.4 Wheelsets may be assembled with used components provided that they satisfy the
defined maintenance requirements.
3.3.3 Prohibited components

3.3.3.1 The following components shall not be reused once removed from a wheelset:
a) Tyres once removed from a wheel centre.
b) Tyre retaining rings (Gibson rings).
c) Brake disc security bolts.
d) Balance weight bolts.
e) Unoverhauled axle bearings.
f) Axle end-cap locking plates.
3.3.3.2 Except for seals designed for reuse that have been examined and found serviceable,
any gaskets or rubbing seals fitted to the axle end, axlebox end or any axle end
equipment shall not be reused once removed from a wheelset.
Rationale
G 3.3.3.3 This requirement ensures wheelsets do not fail as a result of reusing components with
limited life or in an unsatisfactory condition.
Guidance
G 3.3.3.4 It is important that the integrity of seals and gaskets is maintained, as water ingress
is a major contributor to bearing failures.
3.3.4 Replacement wheelsets to established designs

3.3.4.1 Replacement wheelsets to British Rail and older designs shall be assembled in
accordance with BS 5892-6:1992.
3.3.4.2 Tyre installations using retaining rings shall use only a single piece ring; make-up
pieces are not permitted.
3.3.4.3 Carriage and coaching stock derivative wheels with tyres shall have a gap between
the tyre snip end and the wheel centre of no greater than 1 mm (see dimension X in
Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Carriage and coaching stock derivative wheels

3.3.4.4 Locomotive wheels with tyres, except where fitted with coaching stock derivative
wheels, shall have no gap.
3.3.4.5 Tyred wheels shall be marked with white lines across the tyre / wheel centre interface
(see BS EN 15313 Annex D.1).
Rationale
G 3.3.4.6 This requirement helps to reduce the risk of tyre movement on wheels due to loss of
retaining ring pieces.
G 3.3.4.7 White line marking provides a simple means of identifying when a tyre has moved on
the wheel centre and helps to reduce the risk of derailment.
Guidance
G 3.3.4.8 The traditional GB practice for marking and monitoring tyre movement uses three
equally-spaced 20 mm wide white lines 175 mm long radially on the tyre and on the
centre of the wheel. BS EN 15313 specifies four equally spaced 20 mm wide white
lines 150 mm long radially.
3.3.5 Wheelset dimensions

3.3.5.1 The assembled wheelset shall comply with the geometric requirements set out in the
relevant assembly standard.
3.3.5.2 The tread profiles shall be inspected for conformity to the design tread profile (as set
out in EN 13715 or GMRT2466).
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Rationale
G 3.3.5.3 These requirements confirm that the wheelset has been correctly manufactured or
overhauled and ensure that the wheelset wheel tread profiles, back-to-back
dimension, radial and axial run-out are all within prescribed limits in order to maintain
compatibility with the vehicle to which is to be fitted and the infrastructure.
3.4 Wheelset testing
3.4.1 Wheelset NDT after assembly

3.4.1.1 Wheelsets shall be subject to NDT testing after assembly.
3.4.1.2 For each wheelset / axle type there shall be a dedicated NDT procedure.
3.4.1.3 Axles found to be opaque to ultrasound, when tested in accordance with the regime
defined in the maintenance plan, shall be rejected from use.
Rationale
G 3.4.1.4 This requirement reduces the risk of failure due to the initiation and propagation of
fatigue cracks.
Guidance
G 3.4.1.5 All fully assembled wheelsets are subject to NDT examination to ensure the axle
satisfies the requirements of the specified NDT procedure; there are to be no spurious
signals from interference fits and other features on the axle.
G 3.4.1.6 Dedicated NDT procedures for each wheelset / axle type will ensure clear instructions
and reliable inspection.
G 3.4.1.7 Requirements for NDT procedures and validation are set out in RIS-2701-RST.
G 3.4.1.8 Certain material conditions can restrict the transmission of ultrasound such as the
larger grain structure in normalised steels. The grain size of axles in the normalised
condition can affect the material's ability to transmit ultrasound and the
effectiveness of UAT, causing interference to the signal.
G 3.4.1.9 The following factors have an effect on the NDT regime applied:
a) Design calculations and recommendations for similar recently developed designs,
where these are available.
b) Service conditions / environment of the wheelset design and its specific use.
c) Service history of the similar wheelset design, regarding fatigue, damage,
corrosion, cracking and testing problems of specific NDT regimes.
d) Access to apply NDT techniques regarding the particular design.
e) Validated minimum defect detection and probability of detection capabilities of
the NDT techniques being considered.
f) Defect identification criteria, either:
i) The minimum which can be detected using a particular technique both for
the axle body and for specific critical axle areas; or
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ii) That set by the design and fatigue consideration when the wheelset is
designed.
G 3.4.1.10 Aspects that influence the facilitation of NDT testing regimes include:
a) Access required to apply the NDT equipment.
b) The wheelset equipment to be removed to gain access for testing.
c) Bearing arrangements.
d) Disc brake installation.
e) Drive installations on the axle, such as a gearbox.
f) Risks introduced when dismantling or reassembling, such as contaminants,
damage of sealing and incorrect assembly.
3.4.2 Wheelset electrical continuity

3.4.2.1 The wheelset shall be tested to demonstrate compliance with the requirements of the
respective standard, that is, one of:
a) BS 5892 Part 6 clause 4.2.2;
b) BS 5892 Part 8 clause 4.3; or
c) BS EN 13260 clause 3.2.3.
Rationale
G 3.4.2.2 This ensures compatibility with the existing train detection systems used on the GB
mainline network.
Guidance
G 3.4.2.3 The wheelset electrical resistance is measured to ensure that the wheelset is capable
of transmitting the small electrical current produced by track circuits and larger
traction return currents.
3.5 Wheelset balancing
3.5.1 Wheelsets shall be balanced in accordance with the requirements of the relevant
standard, that is, one of:
• BS EN 13260:2020;
• BS 5892-6:1992;
• BS 5892-8:2012; or
• AAR standards (see 2.1).
3.5.2 Wheelsets that physically cannot be dynamically balanced, typically due to axle
mounted drives, shall be shown to have the equivalent imbalance within the
permitted tolerance by calculation.
Rationale
G 3.5.3 Unbalanced wheelsets have the potential to damage the infrastructure and affect
vehicle stability. Out-of-balance forces impose additional cyclic loadings on
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suspension components, affecting the fatigue behaviour of track components, the

wheelset, bearings and the vehicle suspension. These requirements ensure that the
risks associated with out-of-balance forces exerted on the track by the wheelset are
controlled within acceptable limits.
Guidance
G 3.5.4 It is good practice to minimise the radial run-out for wheelsets that cannot be
physically balanced to compensate for the dynamic radial forces that might occur.
G 3.5.5 Methods for elimination of residual imbalance are set out in BS EN 13262 clause F.6
and BS 5892-3 clause 5.8.
G 3.5.6 When assembling wheelset components, the position of their imbalance can affect
the total imbalance of the complete wheelset.
G 3.5.7 Existing wheel designs that are balanced by the attachment of rim balance weights
may continue to use this method.
G 3.5.8 Typical examples of when it is not feasible to balance wheelsets is when limited
dismantling takes place or where significant axle mounted equipment remains in
place, for example re-profiling or when no other components are removed.
3.6 Wheelset identification
3.6.1 Branding
3.6.1.1 All wheelsets and components of wheelsets shall be branded in accordance with the
requirements of either:
a) Appendix A of this document; or
b) BS EN 13260, BS EN 13261 and BS EN 13262.
3.6.1.2 Wheelsets shall not have labels or bands attached as a means of identification as an
alternative to branding.
3.6.1.3 Any markings on reused components which refer to the original wheelset shall be
erased and the wheelset records endorsed.
3.6.1.4 Illegible or obscured brandings shall be erased and the component shall be re-
branded in accordance with the requirements of this document.
Rationale
G 3.6.1.5 These requirements ensure the traceability of wheelsets, axles and wheels throughout
their lives.
Guidance
G 3.6.1.6 Cold stamping is the preferred method for branding.
G 3.6.1.7 An example of a means of identification that is not permitted is the option contained
in UIC 813 (withdrawn), clause 4.2.5.2, paragraph 2, where the markings could be
punched into a steel band placed round the axle.
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3.6.2 Unique identification of axles

3.6.2.1 Each new axle shall be branded with a unique serial number, allocated from the
wheelset assembler's own series of numbers or from the details generated and
supplied by the entity in charge of maintenance (ECM).
3.6.2.2 Axles shall not be given the number of:
a) An axle it replaces.
b) A previously scrapped axle.
3.6.2.3 The wheelset assembler's code shall be included in the unique axle serial number.
Rationale
G 3.6.2.4 This requirement ensures the traceability of axles.
Guidance
G 3.6.2.5 Each axle has a unique serial number that is used with other markings to identify the
axle / wheelset throughout its life when subject to activities such as testing,
inspections. The serial number is not a duplicate of other serial numbers used in the
past or present.
3.6.3 General stamping requirements

3.6.3.1 Wheelset branding shall be in accordance with the appropriate standard.
3.6.3.2 The branding shall be of a size and depth such that the information is clearly legible
when the appropriate surface coating or protection is applied at any stage of the
wheelset life.
Rationale
G 3.6.3.3 This requirement ensures the traceability of wheelsets, axles and wheels.
Guidance
G 3.6.3.4 The stamping indentations can cause a stress raiser if allowed to infringe the
machined tread chamfer or last turning groove. Good practice is to ensure the
location of branding marks is clear of such features, including when in the fully worn
condition.
G 3.6.3.5 Sharp corners and notches create stress raising features that can initiate fatigue
fractures in the material. Good practice is to use stamps with a rounded profile.
G 3.6.3.6 Automated processes can be used for marking wheelset components.
3.7 Handling and care of wheelsets
Guidance
G 3.7.1 Requirements for wheelset handling and storage are set out in RIS-2704-RST.
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Part 4 Requirements for Wheelset Maintenance

4.1 Introduction of wheelset maintenance
4.1.1 Maintenance plan

4.1.1.1 BS EN 15313 clause 4 contains requirements for a wheelset maintenance plan. These
requirements shall be used, except where alternative requirements are specified in
this document.
4.1.1.2 The maintenance plan shall identify all specifications, procedures and processes,
including examination, inspection and testing, for wheelset maintenance, which are
applied at a frequency adequate to ensure that the wheelset is at all times in
compliant condition.
4.1.1.3 For any given wheelset design type within its scope the maintenance plan shall set
out any specific processes, tools, gauges, wear or defect limits that are required for its
maintenance.
Rationale
G 4.1.1.4 Wheelsets are safety-critical components and it is therefore essential that all
maintenance activities are controlled and documented to ensure that their condition
in service is maintained within safe limits and that records are sufficient to ensure
traceability so that service problems or incidents can be investigated and rectified.
Guidance
G 4.1.1.5 RIS-2004-RST includes requirements for vehicle maintenance, which are
supplemented by the maintenance requirements set out in Part 4 of this document.
G 4.1.1.6 Railway undertakings define, as part of their safety management system, the
provisions by which the wheelsets are maintained within the specified limits in the
maintenance plan.
G 4.1.1.7 Additional inspections and NDT can be applied to wheelsets manufactured to earlier
standards than those included in this document. Such wheelsets were manufactured
to earlier standards using materials and processes that were not as consistent and
reliable as those produced today. In addition, these wheelsets could have
accumulated a considerable fatigue history during their service lives. Previously, axles
over 40 years old were required to be identified with an 'X' stamped in front of the
manufacturing contractor's code and were required to be inspected at half of the
normal inspection interval. This is no longer required but it is still expected that the
design life is considered in the maintenance plan and appropriate measures are
applied to axles that remain in service beyond their intended design life.
G 4.1.1.8 Regular monitoring and recording of wheel wear can enable the prediction of
maintenance attention and permit economic re-profiling to be undertaken. Such a
monitoring method can allow the identification of abnormal wear conditions within a
vehicle or fleet of vehicles.
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G 4.1.1.9 To ensure that wheelsets remain within the safety limits set out in this document
more restrictive criteria may be established that will allow planning of maintenance
activities within the maintenance schedule.
G 4.1.1.10 BS EN 15313 gives additional information and guidance on wheelset defects, which
can be used to adjust inspection regimes according to service experience.
G 4.1.1.11 For this part, a wheelset comprises an axle with wheels mounted, which can be tyred
or resilient wheels and includes wheelsets which can also be fitted with axle journal
bearings, axleboxes, brake discs, final drives, transmissions and noise damping
systems.
G 4.1.1.12 Requirements on the identification of roller bearing defects are set out in RIS-2709-
RST.
G 4.1.1.13 Wheelsets conforming to AAR standards require a different maintenance regime for
safe operation to that required for British or European wheelsets.
4.1.2 Wheelset duty change

4.1.2.1 When a wheelset is subject to a change of duty, the maintenance plan shall be
reviewed.
4.1.2.2 A risk assessment shall be undertaken to determine the impact of the change in duty
on wheelset maintenance requirements, and shall consider factors that affect its
service life, including, but not limited to, the following;
a) Axle load.
b) Route change / mileage.
c) Speed.
d) Duty cycle.
e) Track forces.
f) Change of gearing / tractive effort.
g) Transporting of corrosive commodities.
Rationale
G 4.1.2.3 The inspection intervals and wear patterns are strongly influenced by the duty
performed. A change in duty therefore requires the maintenance plan to be reviewed
to ensure the inspection regime for a wheelset continues to be appropriate.
4.1.3 Maintenance processes

4.1.3.1 During maintenance, wheelsets shall be handled and stored in accordance with
RIS-2704-RST.
4.1.3.2 To prevent damage the following shall not be permitted except as allowed by the
individual sub-clause limitations:
a) The use of power tools on an axle or component or any part of the wheelset which
is 'ready for assembly' or at any time other than as part of an approved process.
b) Welding, brazing or other thermal process, except where it is set out in a validated
procedure. Welding or grinding spatter and sparks can damage the surface of the
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wheelset causing localised imperfections on the material surface that could

subsequently develop into a fracture.
c) Action in the vicinity which would cause flame cutting debris or weld spatter to fall
on a wheelset or component.
d) Attachment of an electrical connection or current return, not allowed for by the
wheelset design, other than those needed to carry out MPI or welding using a
validated procedure or electrical resistance testing.
e) Use of any tool, other than in accordance with a validated procedure, which could
cause notches, pits or other markings on the axle or wheelset component.
f) The application of grease to axle and suspension tube bearings to any extent until
they have been assessed for smooth rotation without grease.
g) Hand-grinding to remove sharp flanges except to facilitate recovery of the vehicle.
h) Processes accidentally or inappropriately applied in the vicinity of the wheelset
that would mechanically or thermally affect the wheelset.
4.1.3.3 Where there is evidence that any of these has been applied to a wheelset, then the
wheelset shall be removed from service and sent for overhaul, with the cause of
rejection clearly identified.
Rationale
G 4.1.3.4 As wheelsets are safety-critical components, there is a need to control or prohibit
processes affecting wheelsets which can create stress raisers that can initiate fatigue
failure or adversely modify material properties.
4.1.4 Welding on vehicles

4.1.4.1 Electrical welding of a railway vehicle fitted with wheelsets shall only be undertaken
with adequate electrical return current bonding to prevent electrical current passing
through the wheelset and bearings.
Rationale
G 4.1.4.2 Electrical current can damage the bearing surfaces that could subsequently fail in
service.
Guidance
G 4.1.4.3 The return current from electrical welding in adjacent vehicles can pass through the
coupling and inter-vehicle jumper arrangements to earth, so damaging the bearings
of attached vehicles.
4.2 Wheelset examination
4.2.1 Wheelset maintenance examinations

4.2.1.1 Wheelsets shall be examined during service according to the maintenance plan.
4.2.1.2 In addition, wheelsets shall be examined in the event of:
a) Receipt of an incident report, for example rough riding, striking an object, unusual
noise, wheel flats etc.
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b) Report of a wheel load impact detector exceedance.

c) Activation of a hot box detector.
d) Brake drag.
e) Identification of other deficiencies associated with wheelsets, for example
identified by High Risk Defect Reports, as set out in RIS-8250-RST.
f) The vehicle having been stored for a period of time.
4.2.1.3 Any fasteners removed during maintenance shall be replaced.
4.2.1.4 RIS-2702-RST Appendix A sets out requirements on the in-service examination and
reference limits for freight wagon wheelsets.
4.2.1.5 All visual and physical examination results shall be recorded (see Part 5 Requirements
for Wheelset Records).
Rationale
G 4.2.1.6 These requirements prevent derailment through the use of potentially defective
wheelsets.
Guidance
G 4.2.1.7 In addition to the factors set out above, the maintenance plan can set out limits for
other factors that will require the wheelset to be overhauled before refitting to the
vehicle.
G 4.2.1.8 The maintenance plan sets out the examination frequency of wheelsets.
4.2.2 Wheelset visual examination

4.2.2.1 Wheelset examinations shall include checks for:
a) Corrosion anywhere on the axle, wheel (other than the tread) or wheel centre (see
also 4.2.2.2).
b) Damage anywhere on the axle, wheel or wheel centre as defined in the relevant
maintenance standard, and may include:
i) Cracks.
ii) Scoring.
iii) Burrs or raised edges.
iv) Sharp indentations.
v) Impact marks.
vi) Fretting.
vii) Damage to protective coatings.
c) Tread damage and flats as defined in 4.6.2 including:
i) Tread run-out.
ii) Flange build-up, steps or sharp radii on the flange (toe radius build-up or
sharp flange).
iii) Circumferential steps in the flange profile.
iv) False flange.
v) Flange back distortion.
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vi) Cavities.
vii) Wheel flats.
viii) Local tread collapse in the form of a rim face bulge.
d) Any signs of overheating anywhere on the wheelset.
e) Cracks in the axle, wheel or wheel centre.
f) Any sign of movement at interference fit interfaces.
g) Checks for damage to, or missing, oil injection hole plug.
4.2.2.2 For wheelsets with tyred wheels, examination shall additionally include:
a) Checks for evidence of movement between the tyre and wheel centre
(misalignment of paint mark, disturbed or cracked rust / dirt / paint between wheel
centre / retaining ring / tyre, polishing at the interface, slivers of metal close to the
interface).
b) Checks for cracks in the tyre.
c) Checks for damage to the retaining ring.
d) Where there is reason to suspect that the tyre has moved, checks with a feeler
gauge that the clearance between the tyre snip and the wheel centre rim is within
limits.
Rationale
G 4.2.2.3 Drawn from service experience, these requirements set out a list of checks for
wheelset defects and indications of possible problems that can affect the integrity or
life of wheelsets.
Guidance
G 4.2.2.4 A detailed understanding of a particular wheelset design undertaking a particular
duty can lead to additional inspection requirements, which are set out in the
maintenance plan.
G 4.2.2.5 The regular maintenance of wheelsets needs to include a visual examination of the
wheels to ensure they have not overheated. Overheating is evident by loss of dirt,
discolouration and flaking of the paint from the wheel rim and web transition on
tread-braked wheels.
G 4.2.2.6 Overheating of the wheel can cause the wheel to expand and relieve the interference
fit on the axle. The wheel hub to axle interface is checked for evidence of movement
on the axle, indicated by signs of the paint at the wheel / axle interface being broken,
metal particles at the interface, measurement of the wheelset back-to-back and
wheel axial run-out (wobble).
G 4.2.2.7 Overheated tyres can move on the wheel centre. Tyred wheels can be checked for
movements by checking the alignment of the indicator lines.
G 4.2.2.8 Overheated wheels can be caused by the lack of free and correct operation of brake
gear causing dragging brakes or, for vehicles with rheostatic braking, if this is not
functioning correctly, all wheels might be potentially affected.
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4.3 Wheelset measurements
4.3.1 Wheelset wear measurement

4.3.1.1 The maintenance plan shall determine the intervals at which the wheel tread profile
(see 4.3.2) and the wheelset back-to-back shall be measured (see 4.3.3).
4.3.1.2 Wheelsets shall not operate with a wheel diameter below that specified by design or
in the technical specification.
Rationale
G 4.3.1.3 Wheelsets are required to be maintained within safe limits to ensure compatibility
with the infrastructure. Wheelsets that deviate from the established limits are at risk
of derailment and risk damage to critical track components, in particular those at
switches and crossings. Damage to switches and crossings, if not immediately causing
derailment, can increase the risk of derailment for following vehicles.
Guidance
G 4.3.1.4 Operation with wheels below their minimum diameter increases the risk of failure
through structural overload and can cause an infringement of the loading gauge.
G 4.3.1.5 Minimum wheel diameter may be controlled by a last turning groove to limit the
minimum diameter on wheel re-profiling and then the use of flange height limits.
Minimum rim, tyre or throat thickness limits can also be applicable.
G 4.3.1.6 It is good practice to check for unusual wear such as uneven wear across the wheelset
and local areas of uneven wear circumferentially around the wheel tread.
4.3.2 Wheelset measurement following visual examination

4.3.2.1 The wheelset dimensions shall be checked when a wheelset has been involved in a
derailment, or when examined:
a) There is evidence of overheating.
b) The wheel tread wear groove is not visible.
c) There is evidence of unusual wear patterns to the tread or the flange.
d) There is any other reason to suspect that dimensions are at variance with
requirements.
4.3.2.2 If required by 4.3.2.1, the following dimensions shall be checked:
a) Back-to-back dimension (see 4.3.4).
b) Wheel tread diameters.
c) Wheel tread diameter difference.
4.3.2.3 Where there is reason to suspect that a wheelset is out of round or oval, this shall be
checked in accordance with 4.3.5.
4.3.2.4 In the event that a wheel impact load detection threshold is exceeded, but no visible
tread damage is observed, the wheel shall be checked for out-of-roundness.
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Rationale
with the infrastructure; see 4.3.1.
Guidance
G 4.3.2.6 Diameter differences across a wheelset cause the wheelset to operate offset on the
track. In severe cases, this can cause the wheelset to yaw within the bogie and result
in excessive flange wear of one wheel. This effect can also be experienced if the tread
profile is not correctly aligned on the wheel.
G 4.3.2.7 Abnormal readings from wheel impact load detection equipment, and in particular
any defect in a wheel that contributes to producing a total vertical force of more than
350 kN per wheel, require the wheelset to be examined.
G 4.3.2.8 This examination should consider all possible causes of the reported vertical forces,
including wheel out-of-round or ovality, wheel discontinuities, suspension defects etc.
4.3.3 Wheel tread measurement

4.3.3.1 When required, the wheel tread profile shall be measured using suitable gauges or
measuring equipment.
4.3.3.2 The flange height and thickness shall not be outside the limits specified for the wheel
profile; see GMRT2466 or EN 13715:2020 as applicable.
4.3.3.3 Where wheelset examination shows that the wheelset requires re-profiling due to
defects, measurement of the wheel tread profile may be omitted.
Rationale
with the infrastructure; see 4.3.1.
Guidance
G 4.3.3.5 The condition of tread profiles can seriously affect the wheelset and vehicle
performance.
G 4.3.3.6 The suspension arrangement in some vehicles provides a good steering ability for the
wheelsets. These wheelsets predominantly experience wear of the tread with little
wear on the flange. As the flange thickness is measured at a constant height above
the tread datum point, the flange thickness can appear to increase as the tread wears
and flange height increases. Although the flange thickness measurement is greater
than in the design condition, the wear is limited by the flange height.
G 4.3.3.7 For established or newly defined GB profiles defined in GMRT2466, the flange
thickness is measured at 13 mm above the tread datum, whereas the European
profiles specified in EN 13715 are measured at 10 mm above the tread datum.
G 4.3.3.8 In addition to the traditional gauges or the integrated measuring system of a
machine for checking tread profiles, there are many alternative systems available,
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such as electronic profile measurement tools. Care should be taken that profile
surfaces are clean and datum surfaces (such as back of flanges) are not worn.
G 4.3.3.9 The user may use any system providing it achieves the required level of repeatability
and accuracy and it is subject to a calibration that conforms to the requirements of
BS EN ISO 10012.
G 4.3.3.10 Examples of gauges used to assess the flange thickness and height are shown in
Figures 22, 23, and 24 of Appendix B; however, other systems may be available.
G 4.3.3.11 The gauge shown in Figure 23 is used by opening out both slides. The gauge is held
squarely on the flange back and drawn down onto the profile at right angles to the
tread surface. The sliders are then moved to make contact with the tread and
measurements taken.
4.3.4 Back-to-back measurement

4.3.4.1 The back-to-back dimension of wheelsets using an established or newly defined GB
tread profile in accordance with GMRT2466 shall be measured at three equally
spaced locations around the wheel circumference when unloaded.
4.3.4.2 The back-to-back dimension of wheelsets subjected to vehicle loads shall be
measured at axle height to negate flexing due to load.
Rationale
G 4.3.4.3 The compatibility of GB profiles with the GB network is based on the established
measuring technique and tolerances.
G 4.3.4.4 NTSN / EN 13715 profiles are controlled by measurement at the rail when loaded and
therefore include axle deflection under load and hence have different tolerances.
Guidance
G 4.3.4.5 It may be necessary to move the vehicle to roll the wheels and ensure all
measurements are taken at axle level.
G 4.3.4.6 Assessment of the back-to-back dimension can be obtained with Go / No-Go gauges
(set out in Figure 24 of Appendix B) and feeler gauges or a calibrated internal
micrometer.
G 4.3.4.7 The method of measuring the back-to-back dimension of wheelsets using tread
profiles defined by the LOC&PAS and WAG NTSNs at rail level in laden conditions still
applies if those profiles are used. This method and the corresponding limits consider
deflection under loading.
G 4.3.4.8 The LOC&PAS NTSN or WAG NTSN back-to-back limits have also to be considered
with the tread widths and the front-to-front limits prescribed.
4.3.5 Tread run-out (radial misalignment) measured in service

4.3.5.1 When required, the tread run-out shall be measured with the wheel unloaded while
the wheel is rotated at the wheel tread datum (70 mm outboard of the flange back).
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Vehicle type Limit of tolerable tread run-out
Any vehicle permitted to operate above 0.7 mm

125 mile/h and up to 140 mile/h
Passenger or personnel vehicles 1.3 mm

operating at speeds up to and including
125 mile/h
Non-passenger vehicles, locomotives, 1.3 mm

power cars, driving van trailers and on-
track plant
Freight vehicles up to 17.5 tonnes axle 3.0 mm

load
Freight vehicles equal to or over 17.5 2.0 mm

tonnes axle load
Other vehicles 2.0 mm
Table 4: Limit of tolerable tread run-out
Rationale
with the infrastructure (set out in 4.3.1). In particular, these run-out criteria place a
limit on the excess loads applied to suspensions and infrastructure by affected
wheelsets, thereby reducing the risk of damage.
Guidance
G 4.3.5.3 Tread run-out occurs where the wheel tread is no longer circular or concentric with the
axle bearing surfaces. A wheel that is no longer circular can take two forms, either
out-of-round or oval, although practically all run-out of the wheel tread could be
considered to be out-of-round. Generally, defects of this type cannot be found by
visual inspection and measurement will be required.
G 4.3.5.4 These measurements can be undertaken by manual measurements of the flange
height relative to the tread or wheel tread diameters at numerous positions around
the wheel. Alternatively, automated systems are available that measure the degree of
out-of-round or wheel impact loads in traffic.
G 4.3.5.5 Where run-out is found during routine examination but which is within the limits
given in Table 4, no immediate action is required. However, consideration can be
given to restoring the tread profile at a convenient point as subsequent damage such
as out-of-round or shelling may result.
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4.3.6 Wheelsets damaged in collisions or derailment

4.3.6.1 Wheelsets that have been involved in a collision, struck an object on the track or
become derailed shall be examined in accordance with 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 of this
document.
4.3.6.2 For movement from the scene of the incident, the wheelset examination shall
determine if a wheelset has damage that is likely to lead to a failure or damage the
track on the journey to the depot for rectification and shall, in addition, include
measurement of back-to-back dimension and checks to establish that:
a) The axle is not fractured. Providing that there are no suspicions of the axle being
cracked, an ultrasonic axle test is not required until the vehicle reaches the
registered maintenance site.
b) There is no evidence of wheels having moved on the axle.
c) There is no evidence of loose tyres.
d) Any damage to wheel profiles is accounted for in the conditions applying to the
move.
e) There are no parts that may become detached during the move.
f) There is nothing to prevent free rotation of the wheelset.
g) There is no evidence of axlebox bearing degradation.
h) There is no evidence of localised overheating on a wheel to indicate the presence
of a wheel flat that is preventing rotation, but is resting on the rail and therefore is
not readily obvious.
i) For powered axles, the transmission is free to rotate and has no evidence of
degradation.
4.3.6.3 Damage to a wheelset arising from a collision or derailment shall be repaired in
accordance with a procedure that includes the use of NDT to prove the repaired area
is free of defects.
Rationale
with the infrastructure. After a collision or derailment additional checks are required
to ensure that recovery of an affected vehicle does not cause additional incidents.
Guidance
G 4.3.6.5 Wheelsets that have been involved in an accident or derailment require visual
examination to determine whether they are suitable to run on the track from the
incident site to a maintenance location for further detailed examination, or whether
some other means of recovery is necessary. See also EN 15313 clause 9 for additional
guidance.
G 4.3.6.6 Wheelsets that have been derailed or struck an object on the track may run on the
line, provided the axle is not bent and does not have damage that is likely to lead to
failure or damage the track on the journey to the depot for rectification.
G 4.3.6.7 Wheelsets with minor tread damage that is within the criteria specified for wheel
tread defects, and with no visible damage to the axle, may be considered not to
require an axle NDT examination.
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G 4.3.6.8 Wheelsets that have been involved in derailments at speeds in excess of 10 mph, or
the distance run while derailed was more than 100 m, or have visual damage are
usually subjected to non-destructive testing of the axle before re-entering service.
G 4.3.6.9 The use of a wheelskate could be necessary to recover wheelsets with serious tread
damage or other defects that would jeopardise the safe movement of the vehicle.
Movement is at reduced speed in accordance with the requirements for the use of
wheelskates set out in RIS-2780-RST Part 4.
G 4.3.6.10 When the vehicle has been returned to a suitable location, a detailed assessment and
examination can then be undertaken in accordance with the maintenance plan.
4.4 Investigation of wheelset damage
4.4.1 When damage or defects are reported relating to vehicle suspensions or underframe
equipment, the wheelsets shall be examined for signs of damage. Where there is
evidence of damage the affected wheelsets shall be examined according to 4.2.2.
Rationale
G 4.4.2 Wheelsets do not operate in isolation and may be damaged by defects elsewhere.
Conversely, damaged wheelsets may lead to damage to bearings and suspension
components.
Guidance
G 4.4.3 Defects identified in the bogies and suspensions could have resulted in damage to
the wheelset or, conversely, resulted from a defect on the wheelset. It is good practice
to ensure that not only is the defect rectified, but also that associated components
and equipment are examined for consequential damage. Table 5 identifies possible
defects and causes or effects.
Defect Cause or effect
Tread damage, ovality, flats Suspension damage, springs, dampers,

pivot bushes, axlebox structural damage,
bearings, wheel slide protection
installations, drive mechanisms,
gearcases and suspension tubes. Seized
traction motor / final drive gearbox
Loose / broken safety straps or Damage and scoring of the axle or other
component that can fall onto the component
wheelset
Loss of motor bogie axle protective cover Scoring of the axle by debris being
retained in space between axle and
motor
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Defect Cause or effect
Loose / defective bearing retaining rings Damage and scoring of the wheelseat to
journal transition and contamination of
the journal bearing
Defective current return brush Scoring and damage to brush track
Defective equipotential bonding and Bearing damage, overheating and

traction return connection potential failure
Seized brake mechanism Overheated brake disc or brake drag,

moved wheel / tyre
Defective primary damper Rough riding
Defective suspension location Unusual wear pattern on the wheel

tread, high flange wear
Loose balance weights Damage to the wheel, cracks in the

wheel
Loose bearing end caps Bearings become loose, subsequently

overheat and fail in short period
Table 5: Defects and consequential damage
4.5 Wheelset NDT
4.5.1 The maintenance plan shall include requirements that are set out in the wheelset
technical specification for NDT during maintenance, repair and overhaul of wheelsets.
4.5.2 The results of all tests shall be recorded and reported.
4.5.3 All wheelsets found by NDT to be defective shall:
a) Be referred for overhaul and further investigation; and
b) Be subject to further NDT examination before being scrapped; and
c) When found to be defective and therefore to be scrapped, be mutilated to prevent
inadvertent reuse.
4.5.4 Axles with identified transverse (circumferential) cracks shall be withdrawn from
service.
4.5.5 Axles fitted with suspension tubes that are not removed at overhaul shall have the
earth return tracks examined using an approved NDT technique.
4.5.6 All axles shall be subject to MPI, or an equivalent NDT technique, at overhaul to
ensure they are free of surface breaking defects. This technique is applied when the
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axles are generally stripped of components to allow access to most surfaces of the
axle.
4.5.7 During overhaul, the NDT examinations of the assembled wheelset shall be proven to
be as sensitive and reliable at detecting the same size flaws as the in-service NDT
regime. Where no other NDT scanning methods are used, the wheelset axles shall be
tested as a minimum application of far end, near end, or high angle techniques to a
validated procedure.
4.5.8 Journal surfaces, wheel seats, gear wheels, suspension tubes and other interference fit
components shall be subject to MPI, or an equivalent technique, when exposed.
Although it is not necessary to remove all components at overhaul, consideration shall
be given to exposing the entire axle surface for testing.
4.5.9 Axles shall be subject to MPI or equivalent process during overhaul; however, this does
not apply to hollow axles subject to internal NDT inspection.
4.5.10 In addition to the MPI, axles that are subject to a UAT regime in service shall also be
examined in accordance with the validated in-service procedure during the overhaul,
to avoid a suspect signal being recorded once returned to service.
4.5.11 When a change to the NDT requirements is being considered, a risk assessment shall
be undertaken to determine if its impact is likely to consider factors that affect the
fatigue life, including, but not limited to, the following:
a) Loadings;
b) Duty cycle;
c) Axle material properties;
d) Suspension design;
e) NDT inspection period;
f) Fracture propagation prediction;
g) Defect size;
h) Probability of detection (NDT method used and flaw detection capabilities);
i) Freight vehicles carrying corrosive or reactive product.
4.5.12 The NDT procedure shall include measures to prevent any couplant used in NDT
examinations, particularly hollow axle ultrasonic testing, entering into bearings.
Rationale
G 4.5.13 The objective of subjecting wheelsets to NDT is to prove they are defect free to a
level of confidence consistent with the application. At the design stage, the NDT
frequency is determined to ensure that defects do not propagate to failure between
NDT inspections. These criteria are set to ensure that if a defect in the axle is just
below the detectable size, then it does not grow to failure before the subsequent
inspection.
Guidance
G 4.5.14 Requirements for NDT procedures and validation are set out in RIS-2701-RST.
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G 4.5.15 Axle NDT usually comprises ultrasonic testing (near end, far end and high angle scans
for solid axles or using a probe inside a hollow axle), eddy current testing or when the
axle is stripped of components at repair or overhaul, MPI.
G 4.5.16 The NDT periodicity is specific to the vehicle type, wheelset type and duty. The
arrangements for NDT are defined by the design of the wheelset and form part of the
maintenance plan.
G 4.5.17 Typically, axle design depends on axles being free of:
a) Surface breaking transverse (circumferential) cracks or crack-like indications.
b) Surface breaking longitudinal cracks or crack indications in excess of the limits set
out in the maintenance plan.
c) Non-surface breaking defects greater than defined in the respective standards:
BS 5892, BS EN 13261 or AAR standards.
d) Any characteristic that causes the axle to be opaque to ultrasound.
G 4.5.18 Where an axle is found to contain defects in excess of the design limits, then it is
good practice to conduct further metallurgical and physical investigation to
determine the origin and any additional information that can be obtained from the
investigation.
G 4.5.19 The couplant for UAT can adversely affect the function of bearing lubricant, leading
to premature bearing failure.
G 4.5.20 The internal automated ultrasonic test of a hollow axle will include a complete test of
the axle using approved equipment and procedures for the particular design of axle.
G 4.5.21 Whatever tests are carried out on wheelsets or wheelset components during repair or
overhaul, it is good practice for every wheelset that is subject to a UAT regime to
undergo a full UAT in accordance with the appropriate procedure after assembly and
before being fitted to a vehicle or sent for storage.
G 4.5.22 The objective of further NDT before scrapping is to determine the proportion of the
axle population being scrapped for fractures, the fracture origin and whether there
are any trends in the failure rate or detection methods. Where the defect is greater
than a specified size the axle should be subject to further metallurgical examination.
This requirement has been included as a recommendation of the Rickerscote enquiry
(a derailment and subsequent collision with a travelling post office train at
Rickerscote, Stafford, March 1996, caused by a broken axle).
G 4.5.23 Where bearings are fitted which cannot be demagnetised in situ, MPI is not typically
suitable.
G 4.5.24 After MPI it is good practice that the residual magnetism in the axle is measured and
rectified, as appropriate.
G 4.5.25 It is good practice for motor axles with suspension tubes that remain on the axle
throughout overhaul to have their centre earth return track inspected by an approved
NDT technique. This recommendation was introduced following the failure of a motor
axle that was initiated from electrical arc damage on the axle earth return track.
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G 4.5.26 An alternative equivalent process will be one for which the probability of detection of
the minimum crack size, for the NDT inspection periodicity of the axle, is at least as
good as that of the procedure being replaced or MPI, whichever is better.
G 4.5.27 The principles set out in RIS-2700-RST can be used to evaluate the suitability of the
alternative equivalent process.
G 4.5.28 Where the technical specification includes a machining allowance, surface defects
can be removed by skimming within the allowance. NDT is used to prove any
machined surface is free of defects.
G 4.5.29 The maintenance plan will set out the criteria for rectification of longitudinal defects
in addition to BS 5892, Part 1, sections B3 and B4 or BS EN 13261. Non-destructive
testing is used to prove any machined surface is free of defects.
G 4.5.30 Records of all examinations and inspections of the wheelsets are retained to comply
with Part 5 of this document, including the measurements recorded, NDT results and
the defects identified. This information permits railway undertakings to plan
attention to worn or defective wheelsets before mandatory limits are reached.
4.6 Wheelset defects
4.6.1 Wheelset cracks

4.6.1.1 Wheelsets shall not be used with cracks:
a) In the outer chamfered edge of the wheel or the flange (see Figure 2).
b) On the wheel rim.
c) Within any tread roll-over or toe-radius build-up.
d) On the tread surface beyond the limits set out in the maintenance plan for the
wheelset or in this document.
4.6.1.2 The maximum length of multiple or isolated cracks in wheel tread or web shall be
measured and recorded.
Figure 2: Critical areas for cracks in wheel tread
Rationale
G 4.6.1.3 These requirements define and prioritise the zones on the wheel where cracks could
compromise structural integrity of the wheel and result in failure.
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4.6.2 Wheel tread defects

4.6.2.1 Thermal crazing and rolling contact fatigue cracks in the centre of the tread surface
shall be within the limits set by the requirements of the appropriate maintenance
specification.
4.6.2.2 Tread conditions in excess of the criteria specified shall be rectified by re-profiling.
4.6.2.3 Wheel tread roll-over as shown in Figure 3 shall not exceed 5 mm.
Figure 3: Wheel tread roll-over

4.6.2.4 There shall not be a false flange (as shown in 4) greater than 2 mm.
Figure 4: Definition of false flange

4.6.2.5 There shall not be any circumferential step in the flange profile greater than 1.5 mm
in depth.
4.6.2.6 There shall be no sharp flange (as shown in Figure 5) or toe radius build-up (as shown
in Figure 6), steps or sharp radii on the flange (toe radius build-up or sharp flange).
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Figure 5: Definition of a sharp flange
Figure 6: Toe radius build-up

4.6.2.7 Assessment for toe radius build-up or sharp flange shall be made using a 5 mm radius
arc over a 7 mm chord length. With the end points of the chord in contact with the
flange, then, between these points, the flange shall either only just touch the arc or
there shall be a clearance. This may be demonstrated using CAD and a measured
profile.
4.6.2.8 For measurement with a gauge (see Appendix B), for an acceptable flange, it shall be
shown that the gauge can be placed without rocking on any discontinuity or radius on
the flange, as shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7: Flange toe radius assessment using a flange height and thickness gauge
4.6.2.9 Flange back blend distortion - any point in the flange back blend shall not be closer to
the vehicle centre-line than the flange back as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Example of flange back distortion
4.6.2.10 In-service local tread collapse in the form of a rim face bulge shall not exceed 2 mm
(see Figure 9) and such a feature shall cause the wheelset to be removed from service
within 24 hours of the fault being identified.
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Figure 9: Wheel rim distortion
Rationale
G 4.6.2.11 The defects described clearly represent a risk to the safe operation of a wheelset.
Guidance
G 4.6.2.12 Tread roll-over is caused by metal flow. The metal flow that forms the tread roll-over
is susceptible to the formation of cracks that can propagate into the wheel parent
material, which can present a safety hazard.
G 4.6.2.13 A circumferential step in the flange profile usually occurs either:
a) When a vehicle is operating over a route where the curve population is such that
the flange spends a considerable amount of time in hard contact with the rail side
face; or
b) When the wheel diameters are unequal so that one wheel is constantly making
excessive contact with the rail gauge face during steering of the wheelset.
G 4.6.2.14 Flange back distortion can be the result of wear, material flow or damage that could
result in part of the back of the wheel flange creating a back-to-back dimension less
than the specified minimum.
4.6.3 Axle defects

4.6.3.1 The maintenance plan shall determine if wheelsets can continue to be used where
axle defects have been observed during visual examination (see 4.2.2).
4.6.3.2 The maintenance plan shall set acceptable limits and define requirements for repair,
overhaul or scrapping.
Rationale
G 4.6.3.3 Wheelsets, in particular axles, experience a large number of cyclic loads when in
operation. Damage to the axle, although only minor, can rapidly lead to failure in
service. This loading environment can initiate fatigue fractures from small
imperfections that could propagate to fracture with the consequential risk of
derailment.
Guidance
G 4.6.3.4 The maintenance requirement for the protective coatings applied to certain axles is
rigorous and may require the wheelset to be removed in the event of damage to the
surface coating. This ensures that corrosion of the axle surface does not occur.
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4.7 Actions required when unacceptable defects are identified
4.7.1 Unacceptable defects identified in service

4.7.1.1 For axle defects, the maintenance plan shall determine when and how the affected
vehicle is removed from service; see 4.6.3.
4.7.1.2 Where multiple small cracks are found in the tread and one of the cracks exceeds
40 mm in length the wheelset shall be removed from service within 24 hours of the
fault being identified.
4.7.1.3 Where an isolated crack longer than 30 mm is found in the tread, the vehicle shall be
removed from service immediately. Where an isolated crack longer than 20 mm is
found in the tread, the wheelset shall be removed from service within 24 hours of the
fault being found.
4.7.1.4 Where cracks are found in the transition between tread and rim on the outside face
of the rim, in the flange or in any roll-over (see Figures 3 and 33), then the wheelset
shall be removed from service immediately. Any move to a repair facility shall be at a
speed restricted to 45 mile/h or less.
4.7.1.5 If wheel tread run-out is identified on a vehicle in service, the affected vehicle shall be
taken out of service in accordance with Table 6.
Vehicle type Tread run-out Vehicle to be Speed restriction

taken out of
service
Any vehicle Above 1.3 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

permitted to running line
operate above
125 mph and up to 0.7 mm to 1.3 mm Within 24 hours of None
140 mph the fault being
found
Passenger or Above 3.0 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

personnel vehicles running line
operating at speeds
up to and including 1.3 mm to 3.0 mm Within 24 hours of None
125 mph the fault being
found
Non-passenger Above 3.0 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

vehicles, running line
locomotives, power
cars, driving van 1.3 mm to 3.0 mm On completion of None
trailers and on- the journey
track plant
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Vehicle type Tread run-out Vehicle to be Speed restriction

taken out of
service
Freight vehicles up Above 5.0 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

to 17.5 tonnes axle running line
load
3.0 mm to 5.0 mm On completion of 60 mph
the journey
Freight vehicles Above 4.0 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

equal to or over running line
17.5 tonnes axle
load 2.0 mm to 4.0 mm On completion of 60 mph
the journey
Other vehicles Above 4.0 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

running line
2.0 mm to 4.0 mm On completion of 60 mph

the journey
Table 6: Tread run-out limits and actions applicable to vehicles in traffic

4.7.1.6 If wheel flats are identified on a vehicle in service the affected vehicle shall be taken
out of service in accordance with Table 7.
Vehicle type Wheel flat length Vehicle to be Speed restriction

taken out of
service
Any vehicle Above 60 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

permitted to running line
operate above
125 mph and up to Above 40 mm to On completion of The speed shall be
140 mph 60 mm the journey limited to 125 mph
until the vehicle is
taken out of service
30 mm to 40 mm Within 24 hours of Discretion of

the fault being railway undertaking
found
Passenger or Above 60 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

personnel vehicles running line
operating at speeds
up to and including 40 mm to 60 mm Within 24 hours of Discretion of
125 mph the fault being railway undertaking
found
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RIS-2766-RST
Vehicle type Wheel flat length Vehicle to be Speed restriction

taken out of
service
Non-passenger Above 60 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

vehicles, running line
locomotives, power
cars, driving van 40 mm to 60 mm On completion of Discretion of
trailers the journey railway undertaking
Freight vehicles up Above 80 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

to 17.5 tonnes axle running line
load
60 mm to 80 mm On completion of 60 mph
the journey
Freight vehicles Above 70 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

equal to or over running line
17.5 tonnes axle
load 50 to 70 mm On completion of 60 mph
the journey
Freight vehicles Above 70 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

with wheels equal running line
to or less than
630 mm diameter 30 to 70 mm On completion of 60 mph
the journey
Other vehicles Above 60 mm Immediately See Table 8 to clear

running line
40 to 60 mm On completion of 60 mph
the journey
Table 7: Wheel flat limits and actions applicable to vehicles in traffic

4.7.1.7 Vehicles with run-out or wheel flats which require the vehicle to be taken out of
service immediately shall be removed from the running line in accordance with
Table 8.
Damage Speed restriction
Flat length longer than 100 mm or tread A vehicle shall not be moved except to
run-out greater than 8.0 mm clear the running line and at a maximum
speed of 10 mph or with the use of a
wheelskate. Further movement shall be
with the authorisation of the
infrastructure manager
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Damage Speed restriction
Flat length 70 mm to 100 mm long or Speed restriction of 35 mph

tread run-out 5.0 mm to 8.0 mm
Flat length up to 70 mm long or tread Speed restriction of 60 mph

run-out 3.0 mm to 5.0 mm
Table 8: Speed limits for recovery of vehicles with wheel flats or tread run-out
4.7.1.8 Wheelsets found with cavities shall be treated in accordance with Table 9 and
Table 10.
4.7.1.9 The railway undertaking shall also apply a suitable speed restriction when recovering
vehicles found with cavities above these limits.
Cavities found during an inspection in Action

traffic
Any single cavity greater than 15 mm The wheelset shall be withdrawn from
long circumferentially around the wheel service within 24 hours
Any two cavities, separated by less than

50 mm, having a combined length in
excess of 15 mm circumferentially
around the wheel
Table 9: Actions to be taken on discovery of cavities during inspection in traffic
Cavities found during an inspection at Action

maintenance
Any single cavity greater than 10 mm The tread profile shall be restored within
long circumferentially around the wheel two weeks
Any two cavities, separated by less than

50 mm, having a combined length in
excess of 10 mm circumferentially
around the wheel.
Table 10: Actions to be taken on discovery of cavities during routine inspection at

maintenance
4.7.1.10 Wheelsets with the following defects shall be removed from service within 24 hours of
such a fault being identified:
a) Wheel profile wear limits exceeded.
b) Wheel diameter wear limit exceeded.
c) Excess wheel tread roll-over.
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d) Flange build-up, steps or sharp radii on the flange (toe radius build-up or sharp
flange).
e) A circumferential step in the flange profile.
f) A false flange.
g) Flange back blend distortion.
h) Local tread collapse in the form of a rim face bulge.
Rationale
G 4.7.1.11 When unacceptable defects are found in service, the requirements set out accepted
practice for moving the affected vehicles to a suitable location, taking into account
the severity of the defect or defects.
4.7.2 Unacceptable defects identified during maintenance

4.7.2.1 The wheelset shall not be allowed to re-enter service unless rectified or replaced.
Rationale
G 4.7.2.2 When unacceptable defects are found during maintenance the requirement
preventing re-entry into service is obvious.
Guidance
G 4.7.2.3 Under some circumstances it may be necessary to move an affected vehicle from a
maintenance location to another which is equipped for the repairs required, in which
case the requirements set out in 4.6 are to be applied.
4.7.3 Rectification
4.7.3.1 A wheelset where there are signs of movement or cracks shall be overhauled before
being refitted to a vehicle or scrapped and replaced.
4.7.3.2 For a wheelset where unacceptable defects have been identified, either:
a) The wheelset shall be re-profiled if the defect involves dimensional limits or tread
defects that can be machined out; or
b) The wheelset shall be removed and sent for repair or overhaul, and a replacement
wheelset shall be fitted.
Rationale
G 4.7.3.3 The requirements for rectification of unacceptable defects found during maintenance
or in service prohibit any attempts to rectify a problem without the correct processes
being applied.
4.7.4 Re-profiling
4.7.4.1 When a wheelset is re-profiled the limits for the tread profile shall not exceed the
limits set out in the relevant standards used during design and manufacture.
4.7.4.2 After re-profiling the tyre or wheel rim thickness shall not be less than the limits for
minimum thickness specified in the maintenance plan.
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4.7.4.3 Following re-profiling, the tread surface, including flanges, shall be free of visible
defects such as cracks, cavities, flats or spalling and have a surface roughness no
coarser than 12.5 μm (formerly denoted grade N10 in ISO 1302:1992).
4.7.4.4 Re-profiling shall remove all evidence of wheel tread roll-over.
4.7.4.5 The tread chamfer applied during re-profiling may be in the range of 3 mm × 3 mm to
7 mm × 7 mm.
4.7.4.6 The maximum allowable wheel axial run-out (wobble) after re-profiling is 0.75 mm for
all vehicles except those with resilient wheels.
4.7.4.7 The maximum allowable wheel axial run-out (wobble) for resilient wheels is 1 mm.
4.7.4.8 The maintenance plan shall define the maximum permitted variation between wheel
diameters following profiling for wheels on the same axle.
4.7.4.9 When re-profiling the wheel treads, the bearings and other components shall be
protected from contamination and damage by swarf or other debris produced during
the re-profiling process.
4.7.4.10 After re-profiling, tyred wheels shall be checked for the security of the tyre and
retaining ring; see 4.2.2.
4.7.4.11 When setting up and after re-profiling, the wheelset shall be checked for any actual
damage or potential for damage, for example damage to wheel rims if a wheelset
being re-profiled is driven by means of drive dogs. Any damage shall be repaired in
accordance with the maintenance plan.
4.7.4.12 Witness marks of unmachined material, if they occur on the wheel tread when re-
profiling, shall be no more than 10 mm wide and 0.5 mm deep and blend in smoothly
with the machined area of the tread; see Figure 10)..
Rationale
G 4.7.4.13 The requirements are to ensure that re-profiled wheelsets are consistent with the
original design and that during re-profiling the risk from damage to other
components is controlled, such as bearing seals where, if damaged, there is a risk from
subsequent contamination and failure of the bearing.
Guidance
G 4.7.4.14 When re-profiling, it is necessary to remove sufficient material consistent with the
removal of all cracks, cavities and hard spots and the creation of the profile
designated for use on the wheelset / vehicle combination.
G 4.7.4.15 Throat thickness can be used as a means of controlling the minimum tyre or wheel
rim thickness, and the minimum value is set by the design strength of the wheel. For
monobloc wheels, the throat thickness is the dimension between the root of the
radius of the tread profile (flange root), and the underside of the flange-side wheel
rim, measured at the narrowest point.
G 4.7.4.16 Gauges used to assess the throat thickness are shown in Figures 28 and 29 of
Appendix B. Measurements are taken away from areas that have been machined
during balancing of the wheel.
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G 4.7.4.17 Gauges used to assess the tyre and wheel rim thickness are shown in Figures 26 and
27 of Appendix B.
G 4.7.4.18 If defects remain in the wheel tread it is probable that they could develop while in
service and require further attention. A crack remaining in the tread may propagate
rapidly in the appropriate conditions, resulting in wheel failure.
G 4.7.4.19 Witness marks being work hardened will have a greater resistance to wear than the
adjacent turned surface and may result in irregular tread surface. Also, where only a
small amount of material has been turned off, the tread sub-surface defects may
remain undetected, which can result in tread defects shortly after returning to service.
Figure 10: Permissible witness marks on re-profiled treads
G 4.7.4.20 The GB tread profiles included in GMRT2466 are defined with tread chamfers of
6 mm × 6 mm. The range of chamfers permitted is consistent with BS EN 13715.
G 4.7.4.21 The profile alignment on the wheels of a wheelset can have a significant effect on
the performance of the vehicle and life of the wheelset. The correct tread profile
alignment may be checked using a sliding gauge, as set out in Appendix B of this
document.
G 4.7.4.22 The maintenance plan may reference the applicable wheelset assembly standard, for
example BS 5892 Part 6, Table 2 or BS EN 13260, Table 3. The measurement
positions are identical but the criteria used in these standards differ; BS 5892 Part 6 is
more demanding.
G 4.7.4.23 Modern wheel lathes have their own in-built measuring system, which provides profile
data on the completion of turning and hence no gauging is required, although use of
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profile alignment tools may confirm the calibration of the lathe and that the correct
profile has been applied.
G 4.7.4.24 Many wheel lathes are imported from the EU and are therefore configured around
the TSI and EN controls. Although these are programmed to machine the standard
GB profiles, it is important to verify the parameters used to determine flange
thickness if the lathe is used to inspect that feature. Unless the lathe has been
specifically set to record the flange thickness at 13 mm above the tread datum, it is
likely that flange thickness would be reported at 10 mm above the datum and
therefore indicate that the flange is thicker than it would be if measured at the
correct height.
G 4.7.4.25 Gauges are shown in Figure 22 of Appendix B that can be used to assess profile
alignment. The profile is checked by assessing the gaps between the tread and gauge
at positions K to L and M to N. When the gauge is used on a wheelset carrying the
weight of a vehicle, it may be necessary to fit the gauge to the profiles at the same
height above the rail as the axle (that is 3 o’clock or 9 o’clock positions) and to
release the brakes. This is to avoid errors due to axle deflection under load.
G 4.7.4.26 It is good practice to check the alignment and surface finish of tread profiles
produced on a lathe regularly. It is good practice for profiles to be checked at least
once a day and on the first wheelset machined after a change to the lathe settings,
for example template, program, tooling etc.
4.7.5 Re-profiling - Economic Tread Turning (ETT)
Guidance
G 4.7.5.1 GMRT2466 permits the use of thinner flanges on certain profiles to improve the
useful life of wheels before scrapping, and defines the nominal profiles where ETT is
permitted and details of the range of subsidiary profiles consistent with the original
profile to be used that lie between the new profile and the fully worn condition.
G 4.7.5.2 ETT for use with GB profiles has been developed from the findings of RSSB research
projects T641 (2008) , T963 (2013) and Institute of Rail Research report
IRR 'and'110/145.
4.7.6 Wheelset replacement

4.7.6.1 The diameter of a replacement wheelset shall be compatible with any requirements
in the maintenance plan, which set tolerances for the variation in wheel diameters
between wheelsets fitted to a bogie or to a complete vehicle.
Rationale
G 4.7.6.2 Excessive variation in diameter between wheelsets fitted to a vehicle can affect
traction and braking performance and can also affect vehicle gauging by causing the
vehicle to pitch.
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Guidance
G 4.7.6.3 Some diesel multiple unit (DMU) powered bogies, with driven wheelsets on a bogie
that are mechanically linked, require a minimal diameter difference between the
wheelsets to prevent damage to the drive train.
G 4.7.6.4 The minimum wheel diameter to be fitted to a vehicle following repair or overhaul is
specified in the maintenance plan.
4.7.7 Notification of defects

4.7.7.1 When wheelsets with unacceptable defects are identified, the railway undertaking
shall advise the infrastructure manager of wheelset damage that may have adversely
affected the track over which they have been operating. These are to include
wheelsets that have been removed from service for:
a) Wheel flats that exceed criteria for vehicle to be removed from service, as set out
in Table 6 of this document.
b) Tread run-out that exceed criteria as set out in Table 4 of this document.
c) False flange exceeding the limits defined in 4.6.2.4 of this document.
Rationale
G 4.7.7.2 This requirement allows the possibility of the infrastructure being damaged by a
defective wheelset to be assessed and acting on this information for the risks to be
managed and controlled.
Guidance
G 4.7.7.3 The infrastructure manager will need to be advised of the train formation the
damaged wheelset had been operating in and the routes on which it had been
operating prior to being removed from service.
4.8 Repair and overhaul
4.8.1 Inspection and cleaning

4.8.1.1 Prior to repair or overhaul, wheelsets shall be visually examined before cleaning or
dismantling.
4.8.1.2 Cleaning methods shall not be detrimental to the wheelset or attached components
and not hinder any tests which may be required. Cleaning methods shall prevent
damage from cleaning materials to bearings and other wheelset components by
protection and sealing of apertures. Washing sprays shall not be directed at the
axlebox / bearing assemblies or seals.
4.8.1.3 Where the wheelset is removed from the vehicle and the axleboxes remain in position
on the axle for a repair, a bearing check shall be undertaken. This is to ensure that the
bearings in the axlebox are in a suitable condition for when they are returned to
service after repair. The bearing check shall include:
a) A rotation test to check for unusual sounds and roughness.
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b) An end float test.

c) A check of seals for wear or damage.
4.8.1.4 Where components, such as brake discs, gearwheels and suspension tubes etc are not
to be removed as part of the repair or overhaul procedure, they shall be checked for
security, integrity, damage and defects.
Rationale
G 4.8.1.5 Careful inspection and cleaning before overhaul can reveal additional information
about the condition of a wheelset, which can inform subsequent actions.
Guidance
G 4.8.1.6 Fasteners normally remaining in position may have samples removed to assess
corrosion that would otherwise be hidden. Any problems can be dealt with using an
applicable procedure.
4.8.2 Wheels, wheel centres and tyres

4.8.2.1 Where the wheelset back-to-back dimension falls outside the acceptable range, both
of the wheels or wheel centres shall be changed unless one wheel is clearly distorted.
4.8.2.2 Monobloc wheels and wheel centres that contain balance weight holes in the wheel
web shall be inspected at repair and overhaul by MPI or a process with an equivalent
level of sensitivity.
4.8.2.3 When accessible, the wheel web and wheel web holes shall be inspected for corrosion,
cracks and damage, in particular those wheels that are known to be susceptible to
fatigue fractures of the web.
4.8.2.4 The wheel centre to tyre interface shall be maintained to ensure integrity throughout
its service life, with particular attention to the inspection and rectification of wheel
centre interface surfaces.
4.8.2.5 All wheel centres shall be shown to meet the criteria identified in BS 5892 Part 2 or
equivalent criteria prior to re-tyring.
4.8.2.6 During repair or overhaul, examination for security and integrity of tyres shall in
addition include:
a) Checking the clearances between the inside vertical face of the tyre and the
retaining ring and between the retaining ring and wheel centre to ensure that
they are within limits.
b) Checking that the retaining ring ends are not separated by more than the
allowable gap and that there is no make-up piece in the retaining ring.
Rationale
G 4.8.2.7 When wheelsets are overhauled or repaired, only components that can be shown to
be in an acceptable condition are permitted to be used. Unsatisfactory components
are required to be replaced.
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Guidance
G 4.8.2.8 The number and spacing of balance weight holes can adversely affect the structural
integrity of the wheels. Such holes are consequently not allowed on new wheel
designs.
G 4.8.2.9 Wheel web cracks can frequently be initiated from features such as holes in the web,
and the point of initiation can be damage or an imperfection in the surface. Fractures
in the web can run circumferentially around the wheel web.
G 4.8.2.10 Typically, the criteria for wheel centres deemed acceptable for reuse are:
a) Outside diameter not to be less than nominal diameter minus 5 mm (nominal
diameter is recorded in the wheelset database).
b) Centre rim run-out less than 0.6 mm.
c) Surface roughness of all surfaces of the rim less than 3.2 μm.
d) Width of rim not less than nominal minus 2.5 mm.
e) Machined rim profile to comply with the relevant drawing.
f) No corrosion, after any shallow corrosion up to 0.2 mm deep has been removed by
an approved process.
g) No indentations greater than 2.5 mm across.
h) No raised edges or burrs. Material standing proud of the surface is to be removed
using an approved process. Material below the surface is not to be removed.
G 4.8.2.11 To achieve the above criteria, machining with a minimum depth of cut may be
necessary providing that minimum dimensions, as shown on the relevant drawing, are
achieved. Welding, using a validated procedure, is permitted in the wheel centre bore.
4.8.3 Repair and overhaul of axles

4.8.3.1 The maintenance plan shall specify the criteria for maintaining axles to ensure they
can be maintained for safe operation or identified for scrapping.
4.8.3.2 When stripped of components, axle seats shall be free of all scores, burrs or sheared
metal.
4.8.3.3 The axle body run-out shall be measured.
4.8.3.4 If the run-out is greater than the values specified for the design the axle shall be
considered to be bent and shall be scrapped.
4.8.3.5 To avoid scrapping, where the technical specification includes a machining allowance,
surface defects may be removed by skimming within the allowance. MPI can be used
to determine that there are no residual defects.
4.8.3.6 Axles shall be scrapped where copper penetration has occurred due to the migration
of copper from an overheated plain bearing into the steel micro structure.
4.8.3.7 Where the axle and wheelset component protective coating has suffered significant
damage, then consideration shall be given to removing the whole surface coating
before replacing it, with detailed requirements set out in the maintenance plan.
4.8.3.8 Protective coating shall not be applied over corroded surfaces.
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4.8.3.9 For axles which are protected by a surface coating, even where MPI or an equivalent
technique shows that the axle is clear, the corrosion shall still be unacceptable where
it:
a) Is located in any transition area.
b) Is concentrated at a particular point that is a corrosion pit, particularly where it
has a ring of red / brown staining.
c) Is greater than 1 mm deep or longer than 30 mm circumferentially or 50 mm
axially.
d) Cannot be removed by polishing up to 1 mm deep.
e) Cannot be removed by hand-polishing a sample area with 360 grit paper.
4.8.3.10 The axle end shall be normal to the axle centre-line.
Rationale
G 4.8.3.11 When wheelsets are overhauled or repaired, only components that can be shown to
be in an acceptable condition are permitted to be used. Unsatisfactory components
are required to be replaced.
Guidance
G 4.8.3.12 When assessing axle corrosion the extent and depth of corrosion is taken into
account. Corroded areas can be inspected by MPI or an equivalent technique to help
identify cracks and decide upon appropriate action, such as application of an
appropriate procedure to keep the axle in serviceable condition or whether to scrap
the axle.
G 4.8.3.13 Damage to the axle surface can initiate fatigue fractures; the following list sets out
typical examples of such initiators:
a) Weld spatter – causing small imperfections in the surface that cause irregularities
and stress concentrations.
b) Electric arc damage – can result in local high thermal gradients sufficient to
transform a small area of the surface to martensite, a hard, brittle phase of steel
that can form cracks during cooling and subsequent operation, which can develop
into fatigue fractures.
c) Sharp indentations – that can form a stress concentration at the axle surface and
initiate fatigue fracture.
d) Circumferential damage – scoring around the axle.
G 4.8.3.14 Damaged protective surface coatings can produce localised pitting corrosion and also
allow corrosion to propagate beneath the coating. Axle fatigue fractures can initiate
from surface corrosion; therefore, to minimise this risk, good practice is to remove the
whole of the damaged surface coating for examination, and to rectify any damage.
G 4.8.3.15 Historically, the most common cause of axle fracture in GB has been fatigue failure
emanating from surface imperfections. Corrosion pitting can, therefore, pose a
significant risk due to the possibility of crack propagation from the base of a pit due
to the stress concentration effect. Pitting arises from chemical attack from
atmospheric content (for example, salt or sulphur dioxide) or corrosive product carried
if this comes into contact with the axle.
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G 4.8.3.16 Cleaning methods used are unlikely to remove corrosive deposits from the bottom of
corrosion pits. Additionally, measurement of pit depth is problematic and the
presence of cracks initiating at the base of deep pits may be undetectable. Therefore,
axle skimming is the only certain method of removing these pits. This effectively ‘re-
lifes’ the axle but can, of course, be undertaken only where tolerances permit.
G 4.8.3.17 To reduce the possibility of initiation of corrosion pitting, protection by surface
coating (for example, painting) has generally been applied on traditional British axle
designs. Where this regime is in force, good coating adherence is important since if
water penetrates beneath the paint it may not dry out and can therefore initiate
localised corrosion. Similarly, damage to the surface protection can give rise to similar
problems.
G 4.8.3.18 Although general, even surface corrosion arising from the formation of iron oxide due
to oxygen and moisture present in the air is in itself thought unlikely to pose a
particular fatigue initiation risk, this needs to be removed before any specified
surface coatings are reapplied at wheelset maintenance to ensure that optimum
integrity of protection is achieved. There is also the possibility that surface corrosion
may aid the initiation of corrosion pits given the right conditions.
G 4.8.3.19 The use of surface coatings to provide corrosion protection is not generally specified
on low stress axle designs (for example, AAR axles) since the lower working stress
levels result in lower sensitivity to corrosion pitting effects.
G 4.8.3.20 Fretting staining arises where minute relative movement between interference fit
surfaces occurs, such as at axle wheelseat and bearing interfaces. A fine oxide layer is
created which appears as a surface stain. Easily removed dark brown dust (like
‘cocoa’) deposits may be present and it is possible that a very slight ridge may be
apparent at the edge of the stain when the interference fit components are
separated. At overhaul it is thought good practice to remove the dark brown dust but
it is not essential to remove the surface staining.
G 4.8.3.21 The axle end flatness and surface condition can have an influence on the reliability of
UAT. Therefore, it is important that the axle end faces shall be flat with no burrs, free
of indentations, sharp edges or grooves in the surface, other than permitted
identification. An oilstone is effective in removing burrs and sharp edges.
G 4.8.3.22 The surface condition of axle ends has typically been manufactured and maintained
to the following:
a) Surface roughness of the end face less than 3.2 μm.
b) Where the end face is re-machined to accommodate an axial thrust pad, the
surface roughness has typically been reduced to a value less than 0.8 μm and the
complete geometry of the axle end reinstated.
c) Flatness / run-out of end face less than 0.08 mm.
G 4.8.3.23 Axial score marks on axle seats are defined as those with raised edges, burrs, sheared
metal or excessive depth, sufficient to cause suspect defects on ultrasonic
examination or loss of oil injection pressure on subsequent wheelset overhaul/
dismantling. This excludes raised edges or burrs that have been dressed off using an
oilstone (or similar) or superficial scoring rectified using fine abrasive paper (finer
than 360 grade).
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4.8.4 Reassembly
4.8.4.1 Dismantled wheelsets shall be reassembled in accordance with the wheelset design
and the requirements of Part 3 of this document.
4.8.4.2 Fasteners removed during repair or overhaul shall be discarded and replaced by new
items, or may be re-used subject to:
a) Design assessment on the potential for re-use considering the known or probable
service duty of the fastener.
b) Inspection of the fastener according to defined procedures and standards to
ensure that the fastener is fit for re-use considering mechanical damage or
corrosion.
Rationale
G 4.8.4.3 This is intended to ensure that the wheelset is correctly reassembled after overhaul.
Guidance
G 4.8.4.4 Discarding fasteners during maintenance or overhaul eliminates the uncertainty of
whether a fastener is fit for re-use.
G 4.8.4.5 The suitability of a given fastener for re-use varies depending on the loading on the
fastener, the environment in which it operates (exposed to corrosive elements or
within a sealed enclosure), and any potential damage caused by prior mis-assembly
(such as cross-threading).
G 4.8.4.6 Prevailing torque fasteners (such as nyloc), tab washers and plates, and single-use
gaskets (paper or cork) are not suitable for re-use.
G 4.8.4.7 Gaskets made of neoprene with reinforcing washers at the fastener holes can be re-
used depending on the environment (temperature and aggressive chemicals) in which
they have operated, and need to be inspected for re-use.
4.8.5 Re-profiling at repair and overhaul

4.8.5.1 If required, overhauled or repaired wheelsets shall be re-profiled in accordance with
4.7.4.
Rationale
G 4.8.5.2 The requirement is to ensure that overhauled or repaired wheelsets are consistent
with the original design.
Guidance
G 4.8.5.3 None.
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Part 5 Requirements for Wheelset Records

5.1 Introduction to wheelset records
5.1.1 Records shall be kept and maintained throughout a wheelset’s life cycle.
5.1.2 A wheelset’s records shall ensure that the full history of the wheelset, including
manufacturing data, inspection records and maintenance activities, including all
visual and physical examination results, is available throughout its lifetime.
5.1.3 Wheelset records shall be updated before the wheelset is dispatched for overhaul.
Rationale
G 5.1.4 As safety-critical items it is essential that the full history of wheelsets in service is
available and that component histories can be traced. In the event of a failure in
service, a manufacturing defect or process problem being identified, robust reliable
records will allow identification of the processes applied, by whom, and affected
components.
G 5.1.5 The recording of all visual and physical examination results can assist in determining
the appropriate level of maintenance to be undertaken. The analysis of robust records
can inform decisions on the maintenance and service life of components
5.2 Labelling of wheelsets
5.2.1 Labelling of assembled or overhauled wheelsets

5.2.1.1 When a locomotive or passenger vehicle wheelset has been assembled or when an
overhaul or repair has been completed, a durable label shall be attached to the
wheelset to provide the following information about the wheelset, to assist
traceability:
a) Contractor’s identification.
b) Wheelset catalogue number, where applicable.
c) Wheelset serial number (axle unique number).
d) Overhaul / repair date.
e) UAT date or other NDT date.
f) UAT / NDT operator(s) name(s).
g) Warranty expiry date, if applicable.
h) Axle bearing manufacture date *.
i) Axle bearing overhaul date *.
j) Axle bearing fitting date *.
k) Axle bearing serial number *.
Note: *for both bearings on the axle.
Rationale
G 5.2.1.2 Labelling provides an efficient way of managing defective wheelsets, as it provides a
consistent form of identification.
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G 5.2.1.3 The type of label and its method of attachment to the axle can adversely affect the
surface or protective coating. For instance, moisture trapped on the material surface
can promote localised corrosion on exposed surfaces. Also, metallic bands can
damage any protective coating, so encouraging localised corrosion of the component.
5.2.2 Labelling of defective wheelsets

5.2.2.1 Defective wheelsets shall be labelled with the following information:
a) Catalogue or part number.
b) Wheelset serial number.
c) Reason for removal from vehicle.
d) Requirements for particular tests or examinations.
e) Estimate of miles run since the last NDT examination (where known).
f) The need for quarantine.
Rationale
G 5.2.2.2 Labelling is an efficient way of managing defective wheelsets as it provides a
consistent form of identification.
G 5.2.2.3 It is important that feedback is provided to railway undertakings and the
maintenance staff, to confirm, or otherwise, the presence of a defect.
G 5.2.2.4 The presence of defects are recorded in accordance with the process set out in the
safety management system.
5.3 Traceability of wheelsets
5.3.1 Wheelset records associated with the wheelset shall include the following
information:
a) Catalogue or part number.
b) Wheelset serial number.
c) Manufacturing data, including date of manufacture, name of manufacturer, name
of assembler and date of assembler.
d) Maintenance inspection history.
e) Maintenance activity record.
Rationale
G 5.3.2 This is to ensure that wheelsets are traceable throughout their life cycle.
G 5.3.3 Good practice is for a wheelset and its components to be traceable throughout its life
whether on or off a vehicle. This means systems are in place to ensure the correct
processes are applied during repair or overhaul and demonstrate the work has been
correctly and competently undertaken.
G 5.3.4 All parties holding wheelset records may be required to make available relevant
information upon request of the railway undertaking, entities in charge of
maintenance (ECM) or actor investigating an incident. These records can include
records of examinations, measurements, tests, work done and assembly details. Also
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included are relevant facility certificates, operator certificates and work experience
records, calibration evidence and equipment approval documentation.
G 5.3.5 Maintenance inspection history will include records of NDT results.
5.4 Recording of examination results
5.4.1 Records of all examinations and inspections of the wheelsets shall be retained,
including the measurements recorded, NDT results and the defects identified.
5.4.2 The examination requirements shall be clearly specified to the repair contractor.
5.4.3 A copy of relevant records identifying the cause of removal from service shall be
attached to the defective wheelset when dispatched for repair of overhaul.
5.4.4 Contractors repairing or overhauling wheelsets shall make and retain complete
records of examinations, measurements, tests, work done and assembly details.
Rationale
G 5.4.5 Effective records of examinations allow effective repairs and overhaul to be
undertaken with supporting evidence to justify the methods and processes used. See
also 5.1.
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Part 6 Conformity Assessment

6.1 Conformity assessment
Guidance
G 6.1.1 Conformity assessment is the process of demonstrating that a wheelset or wheelset
component satisfies the design specification, standards and is fit for purpose.
G 6.1.2 The LOC&PAS NTSN and WAG NTSN set out conformity assessment requirements in
Chapter 6 of the respective NTSNs.
G 6.1.3 RIS-2700-RST sets out a process which can be adopted by organisations that are
undertaking projects that require verification of conformity of an engineering change
to rail vehicles against applicable requirements and by organisations that carry out
the verification work.
G 6.1.4 Conformity assessment helps to ensure that the design requirements of this
document are satisfied.
G 6.1.5 Evidence that the requirements of this document have been met forms part of any
compliance assessment procedures.
6.2 Assessment of new wheelset designs
Guidance
G 6.2.1 Wheelset designs which embody new, unconventional or novel design features, new
materials and / or new manufacturing processes can be assessed by:
a) Evidence of satisfactory service on a major railway system under operating
conditions equivalent to those prevailing in GB with evidence to demonstrate that
the requirements of this document are met and that the operating conditions are
equivalent.
b) Demonstration by testing of new designs of wheelset or components, including
testing of new design features, materials or processes to ensure their safety and
reliability in service and the operational environment. Demonstration of the
suitability of the testing techniques in representing conditions in relation to the
component is required.
c) Evidence to demonstrate that equipment that has been used on another railway
administration in a similar application and environment to where it is proposed to
be used on the GB network.
d) Trials in service before a new wheelset is accepted for regular or service use. Trials
are a method of demonstrating that the wheelset design and manufacture meet
the requirements of the wheelset standards.
G 6.2.2 Customary validation methods to prove the integrity and suitability of a wheelset
design are:
a) Full-scale fatigue tests at the maximum stress ranges used in the design
calculations with a load regime no less onerous than that experienced in service.
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b) Fatigue life prediction calculations using stress ranges and various effects,
including thermal loadings, where appropriate, and the material properties
obtained from tests on specimens machined from an actual component or
accredited, published data for the same grade of material produced in a manner
similar to that of the component, with either:
i) Strain history under service loads, obtained from strain-gauged tests, used
as an input to fatigue life calculations; or
ii) Service trials to gather stress and strain histories for use in fatigue life
calculations.
c) Demonstration that the wheel rim remains dimensionally stable and does not
exceed the respective axial displacement when subject to maximum thermal
braking load.
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Appendices
Appendix A Branding
A.1 Axle branding
A.1.1 Forged axle identification
A.1.1.1 Axles in the as forged or rough machined condition shall be branded, as shown in
Figure 11.
A.1.1.2 The stamping shall be at one end only and shall be light but legible.
A.1.2 Axle end branding
A.1.2.1 Before the wheel seat is finish machined the markings, except for the inspector's
stamp, shall be recorded for inclusion in the records associated with the finished axle.
A.1.2.2 The branding shall be applied by cold stamping at one end only as soon as the areas
to be stamped have been finish machined in the positions shown by:
a) Roller bearing axle, as shown in Figure 12.
b) Plain bearing axle, as shown in Figure 13.
c) Roller bearing axle with thrust pads, as shown in Figure 14.
d) Plain bearing axle with thrust pads, as shown in Figure 15.
A.1.2.3 The branding shall be applied at the gear wheel end of a driven axle.
A.1.2.4 Axles supplied in the finish machined condition shall have the brandings as required
in A.1.1 and Figure 11 stamped onto the axle end.
A.1.2.5 This branding shall be identified by the use of ‘&’ either side of the additional
information, for example ‘& SP 95 SC5761 &’.
A.1.3 Axle end additional branding
A.1.3.1 Assembled axles shall have the axle end additionally branded as shown in:
a) Figure 14.
b) Figure 15.
A.1.3.2 The branding shall be dressed to remove any raised burrs.
A.1.3.3 For hollow axles, where the end cap is not removed for ultrasonic inspection of the
axle, it is permissible to etch additional branding inside in the bore.
A.2 Monobloc wheelset branding

A.2.1 Monobloc branding
A.2.1.1 Monobloc wheels shall be branded by stamping during manufacture, as shown in
Figure 16; wheel rims that have been ultrasonically tested shall include ‘UT’ in the
branding.
A.2.1.2 The cast identity shall be stamped.
A.2.1.3 Where practicable the oil injection plug shall be machined on the same radial line as
the branding.
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A.2.2 Monobloc wheelset branding

A.2.2.1 When assembled onto an axle, both monobloc wheels shall be branded on the inside
face of the wheel, as shown in Figure 17.
A.2.2.2 Where inside face branding is not practicable, because of the proximity of a gear
wheel, for example, then it is permissible to stamp on the outside of the wheel only, at
the same radial and circumferential location.
A.2.2.3 The branding shall be diametrically opposite the branding on the rim applied during
manufacture.
A.3 Tyred wheelset branding

A.3.1 Wheel centre branding
A.3.1.1 Wheel centres shall be branded during manufacture, as shown in Figure 18.
A.3.1.2 When machined, the oil injection plug shall be located diametrically opposite the
branding.
A.3.2 Tyre branding
A.3.2.1 Tyres shall be branded during manufacture, as shown in Figure 19.
A.3.2.2 The branding shall be below any last turning groove which may be present and shall
not intrude into the chamfer machined at the edge of the wheel tread.
A.3.2.3 The edge of the wheel tread shall not contain any notches or other stress raising
features.
A.3.3 Assembled tyre branding
A.3.3.1 When a tyre is fitted to a wheel centre the additional information, as shown in Figure
20 (items 12, 11 and 5) shall be cold stamped onto the tyre in the position shown.
A.3.4 Tyred wheelset branding
A.3.4.1 When assembled onto an axle, both tyred wheels shall be additionally branded on the
inside face of the wheels, as shown in Figure 20.
A.3.4.2 Where inside face branding is not practicable, because of the proximity of a gear
wheel, for example, it is permissible to brand the outside face adjacent to the brands
applied during manufacture.
A.3.4.3 The branding shall be diametrically opposite the branding on the tyre.
A.3.5 Material grades
A.3.5.1 The grade of material codes set out in Table 11 shall be used when branding wheels,
wheel centres and tyres. The branding requirements are as set out in this document.
Grade of material Code
BR Spec 107 A
BR SPEC. 100/108B B
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Grade of material Code
BR SPEC. 100/108C C
BR SPEC. 100/108D D
BR SPEC. 100/108E E
BR SPEC. 167(C52TS) F
BR SPEC. 118A H
BS 5892 Pt 4 Grade B5 5
ISO 1005 Pt 1
UIC. 810-1
BS 5892 Pt 4 Grade B6 6
ISO 1005 Pt 1
UIC 810-1
BS 5892 Pt 3 Grade R7E 7E
ISO 1005 Pt 6 Grade R7T 7T
UIC 810-3
BS 5892 Pt 3 Grade R8E 8E
ISO 1005 Pt 6 Grade R8T 8T
UIC 810-3
BS 5892 Pt 2 Untreated U
Normalised N
Table 11: Wheelset unique identification codes

A.3.5.2 At overhaul and reassembly of wheelsets:
a) The axle serial number shall be checked to establish that it is not duplicated.
b) The branding shall conform to the requirements of this document.
A.3.5.3 Where the number is not unique, has no assembler's code or is in any way deficient,
railway undertakings or ECMs shall require the latest assembler to allocate an axle
serial number from its own number series. The number shall be branded on the axle
according to the requirements of this document. The wheelset records shall be
endorsed, recording both the new serial number and the replaced serial number.
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A.3.6 Removal of branding codes

A.3.6.1 When it is necessary to erase the existing branding on a wheel, the marks shall be
peened out and erased by filing.
A.3.6.2 The new or reinstated data shall be cold stamped in the relevant location, as required
by this document.
A.3.7 Assembler’s identification
A.3.7.1 When the wheelset is repaired or overhauled by a different contractor from the
original assembling contractor, then on reassembly the latest assembler's code shall
be stamped on the axle end (see Figures 14 and 15), or stamped to comply with AAR
requirements, as appropriate.
A.3.8 Wheel branding
A.3.8.1 On reassembly the monobloc wheels shall be branded in accordance with one of the
following: as set out in A.3.5 or UIC or AAR requirements, as appropriate.
A.3.8.2 Tyred wheels shall be branded, as set out in A.3.6 or UIC requirements, as
appropriate.
A.3.8.3 The latest assembler's code shall be added where the wheel is not new and where the
wheelset has been repaired or overhauled by a different contractor from the original
assembler.
A.3.9 New tyre branding
A.3.9.1 When a wheel centre is re-tyred the new tyre shall have the branding completed, as
shown in Figure 20 (items 11, 12 and 5), or as set out in UIC requirements.
A.3.10 Axle geometry codes
A.3.10.1 The axle geometry codes set out in Table 12 shall be included in the axle branding for
the following axles:
a) Axles reclaimed by modifying their geometry.
b) Replacement axles where the geometry of the new axle differs from the original,
due to the inclusion of transition radii, stress relief grooves etc.
Code Reclaimed axle geometry
R Re-profiled
G Stress relieving grooves added
G1 25 mm (1 inch) stress relieving grooves added
WG Wide stress relieving grooves added
Table 12: Axle geometry codes

A.3.10.2 Table 13 gives the description of codes used in Figures 11 to 20.
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Code Description
1 Grade of material.
2 Manufacturing contractor's code.
3 Year of manufacture.
4 Cast identity.
5 Inspector's stamp (optional).
6 For ready identification of 140 mm diameter journals from 5½"

diameter journals (freight vehicles only):
• Stamp the number 140 on both ends
• Paint both ends with white paint to BR Catalogue NO 28/44300
7 Axle serial number (from assembling contractor's number allocation).
8 Axle geometry code, if applicable, to be cold stamped after the serial

number.
9 Original assembling contractor's code. See A.3.11
10 Tyre tread profile.
11 Date of assembly of tyre or wheel centre as applicable.
12 Latest subsequent assembling contractor's code. To be used when a

wheelset has been repaired or overhauled by a different contractor
from the original assembling contractor.
13 Ultrasonic code, wheel rims that have been ultrasonically tested shall be
stamped UT.
Table 13: Branding codes for axles
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Figure 11: As forged condition axle markings
Figure 12: Branding on finish machined roller bearing axles
Figure 13: Branding on finish machined plain bearing axle
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Figure 14: Axle end branding of roller bearing axles
Figure 15: Axle end branding of plain bearing axles
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Figure 16: Branding on monobloc wheels during manufacture
Figure 17: Branding on monobloc wheels after assembly
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Figure 18: Branding on wheel centre during manufacture
Figure 19: Branding on tyres during manufacture
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Figure 20: Branding on tyres and wheels following assembly

A.3.11 Manufacturing contractor codes
Guidance
G A.3.11.1 Table 14 lists the known wheelset manufacturing contractors' codes with their
associated companies and sites. The list exists only as a register of codes to allow
identification of wheelsets in accordance with Appendix A. The list has been compiled
of all known companies and sites with existing codes and inclusion in the list does not
imply that a given site is currently operational or that the site has approval or
accreditation.
G A.3.11.2 Codes for other companies / sites may be added by revision to this table and can be
requested by contacting RSSB through the RSSB Customer Self-Service Portal.
Branding Company Site Previous name
code
AB Wabtec Rail Scotland Kilmarnock, UK
AF Arlington Fleet Services Eastleigh, UK
AX Axiom Rail Ltd. Stoke, UK
BT Bahntechnik Brand-Erbisdorf Brand-Erbisdorf,
GmbH Germany
BTB Bahntechnik Brand-Erbisdorf Brand-Erbisdorf,
GmbH Germany
BTS Alstom Siegen, Germany Bombardier
Transportation
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code
BV Bochumer Verein Bochum, Germany
Verkehrstechnik GmbH
CHT Jinxi Axle Company Ltd. Shanxi Province, China
CM Matisa Materiel Industriel SA Crissier, Switzerland
CSC Comsteel Waratah, Australia
CW Masteel Co. Ltd. Maanshan City, China
E6 Wabtec Rail Limited Doncaster, UK
FY Valdunes Dunkerque Dunkerque, France
GE General Electric Traction Eire, USA
GHH Gutehoffnungshutte Radsatz Oberhausen, Germany
GmbH
JW Nippon Steel and Sumitomo Osaka, Japan
Metal Corporation
KLW KLW Wheelco Interpipe Dnepropetrovsk,
Ukraine
LCR Alstom Le Creusot Le Creusot, France
LH LH Group Services Barton-under-
Needwood, UK
LP Lucchini Poland Warszawa, Poland
LU Lucchini Sidermeccanica RS Lovere, Italy
SpA, Lovere
M3 Knorr-Bremse Rail Services Wolverton, UK Railcare, BRML
(UK) Ltd
M6 Alstom Crewe, UK Bombardier
Transportation
MAST MA Steel Rolling Stock Maanshan City, China
Company
MRF Standard Forged Products Inc. Pennsylvania, USA
MW MWL Brazil San Paulo, Brazil
MWSP Meridian Rail Lewiston, USA
PT Plasser & Theurer Linz, Austria
PU Pullman Rail Cardiff, UK
QW C.A.F. Beasain, Spain
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code
R&S Riley and son (E) Ltd. Bury, UK
RI BVV Ilsenburg Ilsenburg, Germany
ROB Robel Bahnbaumaschinen Freilassing, Germany
GmbH
RR DCD Ringroller Vereeniging, South
Africa
SC Knorr-Bremse RailServices (UK) Springburn, UK
Ltd
SDRE South Devon Railway Buckfastleigh, UK
SM Siemens Bogie Service Centre Lincoln, UK
SP Firth Rixson Rings Limited Rotherham, UK
SPG Siemens Mobility Graz, Austria
SSD Standard Steel LLC Burnham, USA
SW SWASAP (PTY) Ltd. Gauteng, South Africa
SWG SWG Gröditz, Germany
SWI Nippon Steel and Sumitomo Osaka, Japan Sumitomo Metal
Metal Corporation Industries Ltd
TB Lucchini UK Ltd, Wheel Manchester, UK Taylor Brothers
Systems Division
TWM DB Regio Tyne & Wear Ltd Newcastle, UK
TZ Taiyuan Heavy Industries Taiyuan City, China
(TYHI)
UV Valdunes Valenciennes Trith-St-Leger, France
ZB BONATRANS GROUP, a.s. Bohumin, Czech
Republic
Table 14: Manufacturing contractor codes
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Appendix B Wheelset and Tread Profile Gauging Systems

B.1 Wheelset and tread profile gauging systems
B.1.1 Gauges that have traditionally been used for checking many of the conditions
identified in this document and have a British Rail Catalogue Number (BR Cat No).
allocated are identified in the Table below. Figures 21 to 31 inclusive show typical
gauges.
B.1.2 Many of the Go / No Go gauges are set at the safety limit and so their use at routine
examinations will not ensure that the wheels do not exceed these limits at all times.
B.1.3 Other more recently developed gauging systems that fulfil the requirements of this
standard may be available.
B.1.4 The profile machining limit gauges for fitting into the profile sliding gauge assembly
BR Cat No. 39/28048 are shown in Table 15.
Figure 21: Profile sliding gauge
Gauge type Tread profile Drawing No. Cat. No.
Profile sliding gauge assembly All 90039352/01 39/28048
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Gauge type Tread profile Drawing No. Cat. No.
Profile machining limit gauge P1 B-A1-002331 39/28045
(Sliding gauge) B-A1-002334 39/28042

P5
P6 B-A1-002332 39/28044
P8 B-A1-002161 39/28047
P9 B-A1-002295 39/28046
P10 9007982 39/28051
P11 9016368 39/28049
Table 15: Sliding profile gauges
B.1.5 Profile machining limit gauges that are handheld directly to the wheel pan and used
for checking tread tolerance and permissible flange back wear are shown in Table 16.
Figure 22: Profile limit machining gauge and plug gauge
Tread profile Drawing No. Cat. No.
P1 B-A1-1324/01 39/29823
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Tread profile Drawing No. Cat. No.
P5 F-A2-4201 39/29792
P6 F-A2-4203 39/29786
P8 L-A1-10593 39/29827
P9 L-A1-10592 39/29825
P10 C1-A1-9007981 39/27968
P11 C1-C1-9016367 39/27972
RD9 B2-C1-9035015 39/29846
Table 16: Profile machining limit gauges
Gauge type Drawing No. Cat. No.
Plug gauge F-A3-4909/01 39/29763
Plug gauge (back flange B-A1-1324/02 39/29826

wear)
Flange height and F-A2-41 39/29967

thickness gauge
Go / No Go back-to-back gauge:
New and overhauled B-A1-1286/01 39/29832

(1360 to 1362)
Re-profiled (1360 to B-A1-1286/02 39/28114

1363.3)
Tread diameter F-S-4545 39/29975

comparison gauge
Tyre thickness gauge F-A2-5748 39/79929
Rim thickness gauge B2-C1-9038482/02 39/28032

(without magnet)
Rim thickness gauge (with B2-C1-9038482/03 39/28033

magnet)
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Gauge type Drawing No. Cat. No.
Throat thickness gauge F-A2-47/01 39/29968

30 mm
Throat thickness gauge F-A2-47/02 39/29969
36 mm
Adjustable throat B2-C2-9038488/02 39/28038
thickness gauge (P1, P5,
P6, P8, P10)
Surface finish sample Rubert & Co. No.120 39/29006
profile
Table 17: Other gauges
Figure 23: Adjustable flange thickness and height gauge
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Figure 24: Go / No Go back-to-back gauge
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Figure 25: External tread diameter comparison gauge
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Figure 26: Tyre thickness gauge
Figure 27: Rim thickness gauge
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Figure 28: Go / No-Go throat thickness gauge
Figure 29: Adjustable throat thickness gauge
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Figure 30: Go / No-Go flange thickness and height gauge
Figure 31: Go / No-Go restricted flange height gauge
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Appendix C Wheel Tread Defects

C.1 Wheelset defects
C.1.1 In addition to this appendix, see also BS EN 15313:2016 Annex C which provides
numerous examples and illustrations.
C.2 Cracking
C.2.1 Cracking can occur at any position on the wheel surface but is most common in the
tread area.
C.2.2 There are three main causes of cracking in the tread:
a) Thermal effects due to tread braking.
b) Rolling contact fatigue.
c) Thermal effects due to sliding.
Figure 32: Crack on flange
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Figure 33: Cracks on wheel tread extending down the chamfer
C.2.3 Thermal cracks will normally be found on the tread where the brake block acts on the
tread. Initially, it is seen as a network of fine cracks or ‘crazing’. It is similar in
appearance to the cracking shown in Figure 33 and is generally disposed laterally
across the tread.
C.2.4 Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) occurs due to the repeated loading and unloading of
the tread as it both rolls along tangent track and steers around curves. Initially, the
damage appears as a network of fine cracks similar in appearance to the thermal
effects of tread braking. However, RCF cracks tend to be positioned at an angle across
the tread as shown in Figure 34. Cracking of this type is generally acceptable but it is
recommended that regular measurements of the cracks be undertaken to monitor
their growth. RCF cracks do not generally result in wheel breakage but will tend to
result in the formation of cavities. It is therefore recommended that wheels that
exhibit cracks greater than 40 mm long be removed from service for re-profiling.
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Figure 34: Light cracking due to RCF
C.2.5 RCF cracks have a tendency to propagate radially and the surface condition may not
reflect the crack depth. A typical section through a wheel with RCF cracking is shown
in Figure 35. It can be seen that, although the damage at the tread surface is
relatively benign, the cracks extend some way into the rim. It may therefore be
prudent to re-profile wheels at regular set intervals, irrespective of the visible surface
condition, to avoid the formation of cavities and deep cracks that would necessitate
large cuts on a wheel lathe to remove all the cracking.
Figure 35: Section through a wheel with RCF
C.2.6 When a wheel slide occurs, the tread can reach elevated temperatures at the contact
patch of slide. Once the wheel starts to rotate again the localised temperature will
cool to the wheel bulk temperature. This rapid heating and cooling may result in a
change in the steel structure and the formation of martensite. Martensite is very
brittle and cracks will be able to develop more readily compared to the unaffected
parent material. These cracks will be coarser than those discussed previously and
there will probably be a group of them disposed laterally across the tread in the area
where the wheel slide occurred. Limited damage of this type is acceptable; that is, up
to 40 mm in length, as shown in Figure 36.
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C.3 Cavities
Figure 36: Typical damage associated with a wheel slide showing cracks and spalling
C.3.1 All cracking will eventually lead to the formation of cavities as shown in Figures 36
and 37. Taking remedial action by re-profiling wheels when the damage is relatively
benign may reduce the amount of material that has to be removed to restore the
wheel profile. In this way it could be possible to extend the overall wheel life.
Scheduling the vehicle on to the wheel lathe due to the presence of cracks may also
prevent an out of course machining due to unacceptable cavities.
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Figure 37: Long cavity
C.3.2 Limits for cracking in the wheel tread take into account the specific characteristics
and application of the wheelset concerned.
C.3.3 It is good practice for wheelsets with integral disc braked wheels to have the friction
surfaces examined for thermal cracks as defined by the vehicle maintenance plan.
C.3.4 Further investigation is advisable when a vehicle with cracks exceeding the limit is
identified to determine if it is an isolated incident or indicative of a wider problem.
Affected wheelsets can be quarantined to preserve the evidence.
C.4 Wheel flats

C.4.1 Under braking or traction where there is insufficient adhesion to allow transmission of
the braking and traction force between the wheel and rail, the wheel can ‘lock up’
and slide under braking, or spin under traction. This can result in the formation of
isolated or multiple flats on the wheel surface.
C.4.2 Where an isolated wheel flat is found, as shown in Figure 38, the length of the flat
around the circumference of the tread can be measured, including any regions of
discolouration due to heat conditioning. These usually occur on vehicles that do not
have a wheel slide protection (WSP) system fitted, or where the WSP system is faulty
or inoperative. Where such flats are observed, corresponding damage would be
expected to be found on the opposite wheel of the wheelset.
C.4.3 Multiple flats usually occur as a result of the slip / stick type phenomenon seen on
early high-speed disc-braked vehicles with a relatively ineffective WSP system. Where
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multiple flats within a damaged region are found, as shown in Figure 39, the lengths
of individual flats can be measured.
Figure 38: Isolated wheel flat showing measurement of length
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Figure 39: Multiple wheel flats
C.4.4 On modern vehicles with a more effective WSP, discernible flats tend not to occur.
However, discrete slipping or slides can occur of sufficient duration to generate heat,
resulting in localised phase change of the material and the formation of martensite.
The martensitic material will eventually fall out leaving a series of small cavities
generally arranged circumferentially around an arc of the tread. The cavities can be
sufficiently close to become linked if they are allowed to remain in service without
remedial action, resulting in a large damaged area on the tread.
C.4.5 Isolated or multiple flats are generally as a result of low adhesion and the lack of a
WSP system. Flats on a vehicle fitted with WSP may indicate a WSP system fault.
Additionally, but less frequently, wheel flats may be caused by dragging brakes.
C.4.6 Where damage is less than the lower limit no action is required. However, it is
suggested that where smaller defects are found, they are monitored and rectified
within two weeks. Consideration may also be given to restoring the tread profile at a
convenient point as subsequent damage, such as out-of-round or shelling, may result.
The most common method for the restoration of the wheel tread profile is by
machining on a wheel lathe. However, other methods such as grinding (using
purpose-built facilities) are acceptable. Hand techniques are not recommended.
C.5 Tread roll-over (burr)

C.5.1 Tread roll-over is the result of the wheel rolling action squeezing the material at or
close to the surface towards the rim face and forming a lip on the outside surface.
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Cracks can grow from the flange roll-over and, if propagating into the wheel rim, can
rapidly grow under the stresses experienced in the wheel rim and lead to fracture of
the wheel and potentially derailment.
C.5.2 An example of tread roll-over in the early stages is shown in Figure 40.
Figure 40: Tread roll-over
C.6 Flange build-up

C.6.1 See Figures 41 and 42. This damage usually occurs either:
a) When a vehicle is operating over a route where the curve population is such that
the flange spends a considerable amount of time in hard contact with the rail side
face; or
b) When the wheel diameters are unequal so that one wheel is constantly making
excessive contact with the rail gauge face during steering of the wheelset.
C.6.2 Wear of the back of the flange (flange back wear) can also occur. To avoid excessive
removal of wheel material during re-profiling, flange back wear of up to 1 mm is
allowed to remain after re-profiling.
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Figure 41: Flange toe radius build-up
Figure 42: Display of measured wheel profile with flange toe radius build-up
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Definitions
axle body run-out The total radial displacement measured at the centre of the axle
when it is rotated on rollers supporting the wheelset bearing
journals.
axlebox The structure, including cartridge bearing adaptor, which houses, or
is in contact with, the axle journal bearing and provides an
interface with the bogie and/or suspension arrangement.
Cold Stamping Alpha-numeric stamping performed on the component whilst it is
at ambient temperature.
cold stamping Alpha-numeric stamping performed on the component whilst it is
at ambient temperature.
Defect Any fault(s) in a component, or assembly, which may prevent the
component, or assembly, from fulfilling its design purpose.
defect Any fault(s) in a component, or assembly, which may prevent the
component, or assembly, from fulfilling its design purpose.
design life The total time or distance over which a wheelset is intended to
provide a defined standard of performance while subject to a pre-
defined regime of maintenance, repair and overhaul.
Economic Tread Turning The practice of re-profiling wheels to the design profile using a
(ETT) thinner flange within wear limits for that profile to extend the
useful life of a wheelset
freight vehicle or wagon Vehicles designed and used for carrying payloads which do not
include people.
hollow axles An axle that has a hole through its centre. Such axles may be
tested to a routine, internal, non-destructive testing process.
infrastructure manager Has the meaning given to it in the Railways and Other Guided
(IM) Transport Systems (Safety) Regulations 2006 (as amended), but is
limited to those infrastructure managers who hold a safety
authorisation issued in respect of the mainline railway. Source:
ROGS
inspect/inspection Check condition or conformity of a component or system, typically
by visual methods.
interference fit The shrink or press fit between a wheel centre and a tyre or
between the axle and any item, other than a wheelset bearing.
magnetic particle A method of detecting surface, or near surface, discontinuities in
inspection (MPI) magnetisable materials by the generation of a magnetic flux
within the material and the application of suitable ferromagnetic
particles to the surface, so as to render the discontinuity visible.
maintenance The routine process of examination, inspection, measurement and
lubrication which, together with the completion of identified
RSSB Page 97 of 102

RIS-2766-RST
repairs, ensures the wheelset remains safe throughout its current

service life.
manufacture All the processes and assembly operations which culminate in the
production of a completely new wheelset.
monobloc wheel A wheel comprising a hub, a wheel web and rim with the full wheel
tread profile manufactured from a single piece of steel as a single
entity.
non-destructive testing The process of examination of a component to enable its integrity
(NDT) to be assessed by a means which does not compromise the service
life or the design life of the component.
overhaul Any attention given to the wheelset when it is removed from a
vehicle or bogie and when an interference fit is broken (excluding
the removal of axle journal bearings).
personnel vehicles Vehicles used for the carriage of non-operational staff, including
contractors.
power cars A non-passenger vehicle which provides, as its principal function,
traction power for a trainset of which it is an integral part.
railway undertaking (RU) Has the meaning given to the term 'transport undertaking' in the
Railways and Other Guided Transport Systems (Safety) Regulations
2006 as amended, but is limited to any private or public
undertaking the principal business of which is to provide rail
transport services for goods and/or passengers, with a requirement
that the undertaking must ensure traction. Source: ROGS
repair The physical attention given to the wheelset to enable it to remain
safe throughout its current service life. Such attention does not
require the breaking of any interference fit. Re-profiling of wheel
treads is not deemed to be a wheelset repair.
retaining ring (Gibson ring) A split ring of material used to retain the tyre on the wheel centre.
roll-over A burr of extruded material forming on the outer rim side of the
wheel during service by plastic deformation.
rolling contact fatigue A series of fine, typically closely spaced cracks in the centre of the
wheel tread which eventually form a complete circumferential
band of cracks but may be more extensive.
service life The time or distance over which a wheelset safely continues to
meet defined technical standards before overhaul is required.
tread run-out The total radial displacement measured at the wheel tread when
the wheelset is rotated on rollers supporting the wheelset bearing
journals.
tyred wheel A wheel which comprises at least a wheel centre and a separately
manufactured tyre.
Page 98 of 102 RSSB

RIS-2766-RST
Union Internationale des Railway standards organisation now known as The Worldwide
Chemins de Fer (UIC) Railway Organisation.
ultrasonic testing A process in which high frequency sound waves are transmitted
through materials such that the reflections can be analysed to find
imperfections in the material. Ultrasonic axle testing (UAT) is when
the process is applied to railway axles.
wheel centre The wheel hub, web and rim on which a tyre is fitted.
wheel wobble The total axial displacement (run-out) of the internal wheel face
when the wheelset is rotated, measured at the flange back,
measured at 60 mm beneath the flange tip.
wheelset A complete unit comprising an axle and two complete wheels
together with any gear wheels, brake discs, etc, but without axle
bearings and their end caps, spacers, seals and other associated
fittings. The wheels may be either tyred or monobloc.
wheelset component These are the individual element(s) that when assembled in
accordance with the requirements of the requisite standards
produce a wheelset. The constituent components vary for different
types of wheelset but typically comprise; axle, monobloc wheel, (or
wheel centre, tyre, retaining ring), gear wheel, brake disc, etc.
wheelset database A documented, maintained set of up-to-date data for each
wheelset design, and each type of vehicle.
RSSB Page 99 of 102

RIS-2766-RST
References
The Standards Catalogue gives the current issue number and status of documents published by
RSSB. This information is available from http://www.rssb.co.uk/railway-group-standards.
RGSC 01 Railway Group Standards Code

RGSC 02 Standards Manual
Documents referenced in the text
Railway Group Standards
GMRT2100 Requirements for Rail Vehicle Structures

GMRT2466 Railway Wheelsets
RSSB Documents
RIS-2004-RST Rail Vehicle Maintenance

RIS-2700-RST Rail Industry Standard for Verification of Conformity of
Engineering Change to Rail Vehicles
RIS-2701-RST Rail Industry Standard for NDT Processes on Rail Vehicles
RIS-2702-RST In-Service Examination and Reference Limits for Freight Wagons
RIS-2704-RST Rail Industry Standard for Wheelsets Handling and Storage
RIS-2709-RST Rail Industry Standard for the Identification of Roller Bearings
Defects
RIS-2780-RST Rail Vehicle Structures
RIS-8250-RST Reporting High Risk Defects
T641 RSSB (2008) Cost effective turning of flange worn wheel profiles
T774 RSSB (2017) Axle End Re-Assembly Human Factors Guidance
T963 RSSB (2013) Improving wheelset life by better understanding the causes of
wheel damage
T1223 RSSB (2022) Wheelset Coating Systems and Good Practice Guidance: Technical
Guidelines for Wheelset Coating
Other References
BASS 503 Design Guide for the Calculation of Stresses in Axles Driven by Axle
Hung Traction Motors
BASS 504 Design Guide for the Calculation of Stresses in Non-Driving Axles
BS 5892-1:1992+A3:2009 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 1: Specification for axles for
traction and trailing stock
Page 100 of 102 RSSB

RIS-2766-RST
BS 5892-2:1992 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 2: Specification for forged

and rolled wheel centres
BS 5892-3:1992+A2:2009 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 3: Specification for
monobloc wheels for traction and trailing stock
BS 5892-4:1992 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 4: Specification for forged
and rolled tyres
BS 5892-5:1987+A2:2008 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 5: Specification for steel bars
for retaining rings for tyred wheels
BS 5892-6:1992 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 6: Specification for
wheelsets for traction and trailing stock
BS 5892-7:2014 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 7: Specification for product
and technical approval requirements for cast wheels
BS 5892-8:2012 Railway rolling stock materials — Part 8: Railway applications —
Wheelsets and bogies — Powered and non-powered wheelsets with
inboard bearings — Product requirements
BS 8535:2011 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Powered and non-
powered axles with inboard bearings. Design method
BS EN Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Non powered axles.
13103:2009+A2:2012 Design method (withdrawn)
BS EN 13103-1:2017 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies - Design method for
axles with external journals
PD CEN/TS 13103-2:2020 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies - Design method for
axles with internal journals
BS EN Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Powered axles. Design
13104:2009+A2:2012 method (withdrawn)
BS EN 13260:2020 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Wheelsets. Product
requirements
BS EN 13261:2020 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Axles. Product
requirements
BS EN 13262:2020 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Wheels. Product
requirements
BS EN 13715:2020 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Wheels. Tread profile
BS EN 13749:2021 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Method of specifying
the structural requirements of bogie frames
BS EN 13979-1:2020 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Monobloc wheels.
Technical approval procedure. Forged and rolled wheels
BS EN 15313:2016 Railway applications. In-service wheelset operation requirements.
In-service and off-vehicle wheelset maintenance
BS EN 15827:2011 Railway applications. Requirements for bogies and running gears
RSSB Page 101 of 102

RIS-2766-RST
BS EN ISO 10012:2003 Measurement management systems. Requirements for

measurement processes and measuring equipment
BS EN ISO 1302:2002 Geometrical product specifications (GPS). Indication of surface
texture in technical product documentation
BS ISO 281:2007 Rolling bearings. Dynamic load ratings and rating life
INF NTSN Infrastructure National Technical Specification Notice (INF NTSN).
Published by the Secretary of State on 1 January 2021 pursuant to
regulation 3B of the Railways (Interoperability) Regulations 2011.
This NTSN replaces and substantially reproduces the provisions of
Commission Regulation (EU) 1299/2014 of 18 November 2014
(the INF TSI) and includes relevant amendments made by
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/776 which came
into force in June 2019.
IRR 110/145 Institute of Rail Research report on Economic Tyre Turning: Wheel
Wear Predictions
LOC&PAS NTSN Locomotive and Passenger National Technical Specification Notice
(LOC&PAS NTSN). Published by the Secretary of State on 1 January
2021 pursuant to regulation 3B of the Railways (Interoperability)
Regulations 2011. This NTSN replaces and substantially reproduces
the provisions of Commission Regulation (EU) 1302/2014 (the
LOC&PAS TSI), and includes relevant amendments made by
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/868 of 13 June
2018, and Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/776
which came into force in June 2019.
M-107/M-208 AAR Manual of Standards and Recommended Practices - Wheels,
Carbon Steel
UIC 510-2 Trailing stock: wheel and wheelset, condition concerning the use of
wheel of various diameters
UIC 813 Technical specification for supply of wheelsets for traction and
trailing stock – tolerances and assembly
WAG NTSN Rolling Stock (Freight Wagons) National Technical Specification
Notice (WAG NTSN). Published by the Secretary of State on 1
January 2021 pursuant to regulation 3B of the Railways
(Interoperability) Regulations 2011. This NTSN replaces and
substantially reproduces the provisions of Commission Regulation
(EU) 321/2013 of 13 May 2013 (the WAG TSI), and includes
relevant amendments made by Commission Regulation (EU)
1236/2013 of 2 December 2013 and Commission Implementing
Regulation (EU) 2019/776 which came into force in June 2019.
Page 102 of 102 RSSB

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Page 2 of 102 RSSB

Section Description Page

Part 1 Purpose and Introduction 8

Part 2 Requirements for Design 9

Part 3 Requirements for Railway Wheelset Manufacture and Assembly 20

Part 4 Requirements for Wheelset Maintenance 29

RSSB Page 3 of 102

Part 5 Requirements for Wheelset Records 62

Part 6 Conformity Assessment 65

Page 4 of 102 RSSB

Figure 1: Carriage and coaching stock derivative wheels 24

Figure 2: Critical areas for cracks in wheel tread 43

Figure 3: Wheel tread roll-over 44

Figure 4: Definition of false flange 44

Figure 5: Definition of a sharp flange 45

Figure 6: Toe radius build-up 45

Figure 8: Example of flange back distortion 46

Figure 9: Wheel rim distortion 47

Figure 10: Permissible witness marks on re-profiled treads 54

Figure 11: As forged condition axle markings 72

Figure 12: Branding on finish machined roller bearing axles 72

Figure 13: Branding on finish machined plain bearing axle 72

Figure 14: Axle end branding of roller bearing axles 73

Figure 15: Axle end branding of plain bearing axles 73

Figure 16: Branding on monobloc wheels during manufacture 74

Figure 17: Branding on monobloc wheels after assembly 74

Figure 18: Branding on wheel centre during manufacture 75

Figure 19: Branding on tyres during manufacture 75

Figure 20: Branding on tyres and wheels following assembly 76

Figure 21: Profile sliding gauge 79

Figure 22: Profile limit machining gauge and plug gauge 80

Figure 23: Adjustable flange thickness and height gauge 82

Figure 24: Go / No Go back-to-back gauge 83

Figure 25: External tread diameter comparison gauge 84

Figure 26: Tyre thickness gauge 85

RSSB Page 5 of 102

Figure 27: Rim thickness gauge 85

Figure 28: Go / No-Go throat thickness gauge 86

Figure 29: Adjustable throat thickness gauge 86

Figure 30: Go / No-Go flange thickness and height gauge 87

Figure 31: Go / No-Go restricted flange height gauge 87

Figure 32: Crack on flange 88

Figure 33: Cracks on wheel tread extending down the chamfer 89

Figure 34: Light cracking due to RCF 90

Figure 35: Section through a wheel with RCF 90

Figure 37: Long cavity 92

Figure 38: Isolated wheel flat showing measurement of length 93

Figure 39: Multiple wheel flats 94

Figure 40: Tread roll-over 95

Figure 41: Flange toe radius build-up 96

Page 6 of 102 RSSB

Table 1: Examples of consistent sets of wheelset standards 9