UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCE 211/F: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Name of Teacher: Engr. DANNY MAR NAIPA

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF
THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL
 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Table of Contents

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying................................................ 2

Course Outline Policy.................................................................................................................... 2
Course Information ....................................................................................................................... 5
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4a ...................................................................................................... 6
VERTICAL PARABOLIC CURVES .............................................................................................................. 6
LET’S ANALYZE ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4b .................................................................................................... 12
UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES ........................................................................................... 12
LET’S ANALYZE ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4c..................................................................................................... 17
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................................................................ 17

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying

Course Coordinator: Engr. Danny Mar Naipa

Email: dnaipa@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: -
Phone: (082) 296 1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 162 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: DRAW 101/D – Engineering Drawing 1
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 3.0 units lecture / 2.0 units laboratory
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 54 including the face-to-face or
virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions shall include
the summative assessment tasks (exams) since this
course is crucial in the licensure examination for civil
engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 5th , 9th , 14th
and 18th week of the semester. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title of
the assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. The document should be emailed to
the course coordinator. It is also expected that you
already paid your tuition and other fees before the
submission of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.

Since this course is included in the licensure examination

for civil engineers, you will be required to take the
Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the University.
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

This should be scheduled ahead of time by your course

coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all licensure-
based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment tasks
(if necessary) are required to be submitted through Turnitin with a
maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This means
that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students will
either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in writing
addressed to the course coordinator the reasons for the
similarity. In addition, if the paper has reached more than
30% similarity index, the student may be called for a
disciplinary action in accordance with the University’s
OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to complete
the task for you have severe punishments (reprimand,
warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be submitted
and approved by the course coordinator. If necessary,
you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

program coordinator shall communicate with the

students on the approval and disapproval of the
request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE Referencing

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources of
the course. All communication formats: chat, submission
of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the
portal and other university recognized platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program coordinator
may provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of
the deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However,
the alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning outcomes.
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator

Jetron J. Adtoon
jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
09055267834

CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
Ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu,ph
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu,ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC
Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu,ph
09513766681

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CC’s Voice: Good day dear students! Welcome to this course CE 311/F – Surveying 1 (Elementary
and Higher Surveying). By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a civil
engineer and that you visualized yourself already in the field doing site measurements
and investigations. This course deals with the fundamentals of surveying applied to civil
engineering problems.

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1: Understand the appropriate surveys and investigations required for various civil
engineering projects.
CO 2: Know the requirements of various surveys and investigations
CO 3: Know the methodologies of carrying out the more common surveys and
investigations such as topographic surveys.

Let us begin!

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4a. Be able to analyze solve and plot Symmetrical
Parabolic Curves and understand their uses in the actual roadway construction.

VERTICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

Vertical curves are used to provide gradual change between two adjacent vertical grade lines.
The curve used to connect the two adjacent grades is parabola. Parabola offers smooth transition
because its second derivative is constant. For a downward parabola with vertex at the origin, the
standard equation is

x2=−4ay or y=−x24a

Recall from calculus that the first derivative is the slope of the curve.

y′=−x/2a

The value of y' above is linear, thus the grade diagram (slope diagram) for a summit curve is
downward and linear as shown in the figure below. The second derivative is obviously constant

y′′=−1/2a

which is interpreted as rate of change of slope. This characteristic made the parabola the desirable
curve because it offers constant rate of change of slope.

Elements of Vertical Curve

• PC = point of curvature, also known as BVC (beginning of vertical curve)
• PT = point of tangency, also known as EVC (end of vertical curve)
• PI = point of intersection of the tangents, also called PVI (point of vertical intersection)
• L = length of parabolic curve, it is the projection of the curve onto a horizontal surface which
corresponds to the plan distance.
• S1 = horizontal distance from PC to the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
• S2 = horizontal distance from PT to the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve

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• h1 = vertical distance between PC and the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
• h2 = vertical distance between PT and the highest (lowest) point of the summit (sag) curve
• g1 = grade (in percent) of back tangent (tangent through PC)
• g2 = grade (in percent) of forward tangent (tangent through PT)
• A = change in grade from PC to PT
• a = vertical distance between PC and PI
• b = vertical distance between PT and PI
• H = vertical distance between PI and the curve

SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE

In this section, symmetrical parabolic curve does not necessarily mean the curve is
symmetrical at L/2, it simply means that the curve is made up of single vertical parabolic curve. Using
two or more parabolic curves placed adjacent to each other is called unsymmetrical parabolic curve.
The figure shown below is a vertical summit curve. Note that the same elements holds true for vertical
sag curve.

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Properties of Parabolic Curve and its Grade Diagram

1. The length of parabolic curve L is the horizontal distance between PI and PT.

2. PI is midway between PC and PT.

3. The curve is midway between PI and the midpoint of the chord from PC to PT.
4. The vertical distance between any two points on the curve is equal to area under the grade diagram.
The vertical distance c = Area.
5. The grade of the curve at a specific point is equal to the offset distance in the grade diagram under
that point. The grade at point Q is equal to gQ.

Formulas for Symmetrical Parabolic Curve

The figure shown above illustrates the following geometric properties of parabolic curve. Note that
the principles and formulas can be applied to both summit and sag curves.

rise = run × slope

a=0.5g1L
b=0.5g2L

Neglecting the sign of g1 and g2

S1/g1=L/(g1+g2)

S2/g2=L/(g1+g2)

vertical distance = area under the grade diagram

h1=0.5g1S1
h2=0.5g2S2

Other formulas

H=(1/8)L(g1+g2)
x2y=(0.5L)2/H

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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
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EXAMPLES FOR SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

Problem 1
A grade of -4.2% grade intersects a grade of +3.0% at Station 11 + 488.00 of elevations 20.80
meters. These two center gradelines are to be connected by a 260 meter vertical parabolic curve.
1. At what station is the cross-drainage pipes be situated?
2. If the overall outside dimensions of the reinforced concrete pipe to be installed is 95 cm, and the
top of the culvert is 30 cm below the subgrade, what will be the invert elevation at the center?

d=S1−130=151.67−130
d=21.67 m

The cross-drainage pipe should be at the lowest point of the curve. Stationing of the lowest point
indicated as point A in the figure:
Sta A=Sta PI+d
Sta A=11488+21.67=11509.67
Sta A=11+509.67 km

Vertical distance between PC and PI:

a=130(0.042)

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a=5.46 m

Vertical distance between PC and the lowest point A:

A1=0.5S1(0.042)=0.5(151.67)(0.042)
A1=3.18 m

Elevation of the lowest point A:

Elev A=Elev PI+a−A1
Elev A=20.80+5.46−3.18
Elev A=23.08 m

Elev of invert =Elev A−0.30−0.95

Elev of invert =23.08−0.30−0.95
Elev of invert =21.83 m

Problem 2
A grade line AB having a slope of +5% intersect another grade line BC having a slope of –3%
at B. The elevations of points A, B and C are 95 m, 100 m and 97 m respectively. Determine the
elevation of the summit of the 100 m parabolic vertical curve to connect the grade lines.

Horizontal distance between A and B = (100 - 95)/0.05 = 100 m

Horizontal distance between B and C = (100 - 97)/0.03 = 100 m

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The figure above placed the parabolic curve at the middle-half:

Elev PC=Elev A+50(0.05)
Elev PC=95+2.5
Elev PC=97.5 m

Distance from PC to the summit:

S1/0.05=100/0.08
S1=62.5 m

Elevation of the summit:

Elevation of the summit=Elev PC+0.5S1(0.05)
Elevation of the summit=97.5+0.5(62.5)(0.05)
Elevation of the summit=99.0625 m

LET’S ANALYZE
Problem 1
A descending grade of 6% and an ascending grade of 2% intersect at Sta 12 + 200 km whose
elevation is at 14.375 m. The two grades are to be connected by a parabolic curve, 160 m long. Find
the elevation of the first quarter point on the curve.

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Problem 2
A highway engineer must stake a symmetrical vertical curve where an entering grade of
+0.80% meets an existing grade of -0.40% at station 10 + 100 which has an elevation of 140.36 m. If
the maximum allowable change in grade per 20 m station is -0.20%, what is the length of the vertical
curve?

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4b. Be able to analyze solve and plot Unsymmetrical
Parabolic Curves and understand their uses in the actual roadway construction.

UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

Unsymmetrical or Asymmetrical Parabolic Curves are curves with unequal tangents or a
compound curve where one parabola extends from the P.C. to the point directly below the vertex
and a second parabola which extends from this point to the P.T.
𝟐𝑯𝑳𝟐
𝑳𝟏 =
𝑳𝟐 (𝒈𝟏 − 𝒈𝟐) − 𝟐𝑯

An unsymmetrical vertical curve is a curve in which the horizontal distance from the PVI
to the PVC is different from the horizontal distance between the PVI and the PVT. In other words,
L1 does NOT equal L2. Unsymmetrical curves are sometimes described as having unequal tangents
and are referred to as doglegs. Figure below shows an unsymmetrical curve with a horizontal
distance of 400 feet on the left and a horizontal distance of 200 feet on the right of the PVI. The
gradient of the tangent at the PVC is –4 percent; the gradient of the tangent at the PVT is +6 percent.
Note that the curve is in a dip. As an example, let’s assume you are given the following values:

Elevation at the PVI is 332.68

Station at the PVI is 42 + 00
L1 is 400 feet
L2 is 200 feet
g1 is –4%
g2 is +6%

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To calculate the grade elevations on the curve to the nearest hundredth foot, use table
provided below. The table shows the computations. Set four 100-foot stations on the left side of the
PVI (between the PVI and the PVC). Set four 50-foot stations on the right side of the PVl (between
the PVI and the PVT).The procedure for solving an unsymmetrical curve problem is essentially
the same as that used in solving a symmetrical curve. There are, however, important differences you
should be cautioned about. First, you use a different formula for the calculation of the middle
vertical offset at the PVI. For an unsymmetrical curve, the formula is as follows:

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In this example, then, the middle vertical offset at the PVI is calculated in the following manner:

e = [(4 x 2)/2(4 + 2)] x [(+6) - (-4)] = 6.67 feet.

Second, you are cautioned that the check on your computations by the use of second difference
does NOT work out the same way for unsymmetrical curves as for a symmetrical curve. The second
difference will not check for the differences that span the PVI. The reason is that an unsymmetrical
curve is really two parabolas, one on each side of the PVI, having a common POVC opposite
the PVI; however, the second difference will check out back, and ahead, of the first station on each side
of the PVI. Third, the turning point is not necessarily above or below the tangent with the lesser slope.
The horizontal location is found by the use of one of two formulas as follows:

from the PVC

or from the PVT

The procedure is to estimate on which side of the PVI the turning point is located and then use
the proper formula to find its location. If the formula indicates that the turning point is on the opposite
side of the PVI, you must use the other formula to determine the correct location; for example, you
estimate that the turning point is between the PVC and PVI for the curve in figure 11-19. Solving the
formula:

xt= (l1)2 (g1)/2e xt= [(4)2(4)]/(2 x 6.67) = 4.80, or Station 42 + 80.

However, Station 42 + 80 is between the PVI and PVT; therefore, use the formula:

xt= (l2)2 (g2)//2e xt= [(2)2

(6)]/(2 x 6.67) = 1.80, or station 42 + 20.

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Station 42 + 20 is the correct location of the turning point. The elevation of the POVT, the
amount of the offset, and the elevation on the curve is determined as previously explained.

LET’S ANALYZE
Problem 1:
The following two problems refer to the illustration shown.

a. A symmetrical vertical curve with an entering grade of +3% and a length of 9.5 full stations
must provide 14 ft of clearance under a bridge that passes over it at elev 60.51 ft. The PVC is
at sta 93+82.16 and has an elevation of 41.76 ft. Station 96+98.83 on the vertical curve occurs
directly below the bridge. What is the exiting grade that will provide the required clearance?
b. What is the station and elevation of the PVT in the vertical curve illustrated?
Problem 2:
A manhole is located in a street that has a 4 in parabolic crown. It is 16.16 ft from the
centerline and the street is 42 ft wide. What is the elevation of the center of the manhole if the
elevation at the street centerline is 277.18 ft?

Problem 3:

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A vertical curve must begin at the center of manhole 1 (sta 44+00, elev 741.25 ft) and end at
manhole 2 (sta 52+72.43, elev 737.25 ft) as illustrated. The entering grade of 4% and the exiting
grade of +3% cannot be changed. At what distance from manhole 1 will the grade 4% intersect the
grade +3% from manhole 2?

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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4c. Be able to apply horizontal and vertical curve
analysis on calculating the volume of earthworks on a roadway construction.

Essential Knowledge
I. CONSTRUCTION SITE EARTHWORK CALCULATION
With advancement of Technology there is a lot of progress in the way we take Ground
reading. Earlier only Auto Levels were used, whereas now Total Station, GPS, LIDAR are being used
to take ground reading. Previously Earthwork Calculations were simply done on paper followed by
some simple computer applications. Now, however, either Spread Sheets likes Excel are used or
advanced software products which are specifically designed for earthwork calculation are used. But
volumetric calculations done by software still have to presented in understandable manner even
while getting different results from different software products.
Earthworks are required for many types of construction such as roads and railways, dams,
tunnels, buildings, swimming pools and tanks. For many of these construction projects, the surveyor
is required to set out the extent of excavation and calculate quantities of material to be exported or
imported. Many volumes encountered in engineering surveying appear at first glance to be rather
complex in shape but usually they can be split into basic geometric shapes (or solids) – prisms,
wedges and pyramids together with truncated prisms. The volume of complex figures can then be
computed as a sum of volumes of constituent parts. In addition to these basic geometric shapes,
many volumes encountered in engineering can be represented as solids known as prismoids, a
particular type of solid having a relatively simple volume formula. Descriptions and formulae of
basic geometrical figures encountered in engineering surveying problems are set out below.

II. EARTHWORKS
There are three different methods popularly used for doing Earthwork Calculation for
Cutting/Filling Projects. Before discussing these in detail let us try to understand Some Basic
definition of Terms related to Earthwork Calculation.
Earthworks are engineering works created through the moving and/or processing of
massive quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earthwork is done to reconfigure the topography of a
site to achieve the design levels. Earthwork involves cutting and filling to achieve the required
topography.

CUTTING
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Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a work location to achieve the
desired topography.

FILLING
Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to a work
location to achieve the desired topography.

III. BASIC GEOMETRICAL FIGURES

III-A. PRISM

This is a solid whose ends are parallel, polygonal and equal in size and shape and whose side
faces are parallelograms. If the end faces are perpendicular to the axis of the prism then it is known
as a right prism and the side faces will be rectangles.

III-B. WEDGE

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This is a solid of five sides; a rectangular base, two rhomboidal sides meeting in an edge and
two triangular side faces. The triangular side faces are not necessarily parallel or perpendicular to
the rectangular base. The edges a, b and c are parallel.

III-C. PYRAMID

A solid figure having a polygonal base, the sides of

which form the bases of triangular surfaces meeting at a
common vertex.

III-D. TRUNCATED RIGHT PRISM

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A Truncated Right Triangular Prism is a prism where the end faces ABC (the triangular base)
and EHK are not parallel. The side faces ABEH, BCKE and CAHK are perpendicular to the base ABC.

Let A be the area of the base ABC (and DEF, a section

parallel to the base) h1, h2, h3, be the heights AH, BE, CK, and a be the perpendicular height of
triangle DEF. The volume of the Truncated Right Triangular Prism is the sum of the volume of the
prism ABCDEF plus the volume of the pyramid EDHKF.

III-E. TRUNCATED RIGHT REGULAR PRISM

A Truncated Right Rectangular Prism is a prism where the end faces ABCD (the rectangular
base) and EFGH are not parallel. The side faces are perpendicular to the base.
In a similar manner to the Truncated Right Triangular prism, the volume of the Truncated
Right Rectangular Prism is given by

III-F. PRISMOID

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A prismoid is a solid figure having parallel end faces, not necessarily similar or having the
same number of sides, and having side faces which are plane figures (parallelograms, rectangles,
trapezia, triangles etc) extending the full length of the solid.
A prismoid is shown in Figure 1.6. L is the perpendicular distance between end faces, A1, A2
the areas of the end faces and Am is the area of the mid-section. Note that the mid-section is parallel
with the end faces but its area is not necessarily the mean of A1 and A2 . The volume is given by the
Prismoidal Formula

IV. VOLUME COMPUTATION

IV-A. Volume by End Area Method

For
many volume

computations, the solid, whose faces are planes extending the whole length of the solid, has end
faces, which are vertical planes. Such figures arise in earthworks for roads where the end faces are
vertical sections at regular chainages along the center line.

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If A1 and A2 are the areas of two cross-sections distance L apart, then the volume between
the two is given by the End Area Formula

For n sections, each a distance L apart then the total volume is given by

IV-B. Comparison of End Area and Prismoidal Formulae

The figure above shows a prismoid where the end faces are vertical planes and the side faces
are batter planes of slope 1 in 2 (1 vertical to 2 horizontal). The base of the prismoid is a horizontal
plane and the top is a sloping plane. The top and bottom of the vertical cross sections are level lines.
The areas of the cross sections are:

Volume by End Area Formula:

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Volume by Prismoidal Formula

The volume obtained by the Prismoidal Formula, (46000 m3) is correct and the volume obtained by
the End Area Formula is greater by 2000 m3. This overestimation is the general rule when computing
volumes using the End Area Formula. If the section areas are not changing rapidly then the error is
usually negligible and is ignored in practice.

IV-C. Prismoidal Correction

If the volume computed by the End Area Formula is considered to be in excess of the true
volume by a significant amount, the true volume can be obtained by applying the Prismoidal
Correction (P.C.)

Where w1 and w2 are the horizontal components of the natural surface distances between
batter slopes and c1 and c2 are the centre line depths of cut (or heights of fill) for the cross sections.

Example:
For the prismoid shown in Figure 2.2, the volume by the End Area Formula was 48000 m3.
With w1 = 60, w2 = 100, c1 = 10, c2 = 20 and L = 60 m. The Prismoidal Correction is

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2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

The true volume is then

This is the volume obtained by the Prismoidal Formula. In practice, this formula
(correction) is rarely used and the field procedure is tailored to accord with the End Area method
of volume computation.

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