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Mathematics Statistics

Statistics topic summary

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21 views

Mathematics Statistics

Statistics topic summary

Uploaded by

msibisiyabonga691
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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STATISTICS

Key Concepts
1. Statistics:
• The study of data collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization.
• It helps make decisions based on data and predict trends.
• It involves summarizing large amounts of data in a way that is easy to understand
and analyze.
2. Types of Data:
• Qualitative (Categorical) Data: Data that describes qualities or characteristics (e.g.,
colors, gender, names).
• Quantitative (Numerical) Data: Data that represents numbers and can be measured
(e.g., height, weight, age).
3. Data Collection Methods:
• Primary Data: Data collected firsthand through surveys, experiments, or
observations.
• Secondary Data: Data collected by someone else and used by the researcher for
analysis (e.g., census data, research papers).
4. Sampling:
• Population: The entire group being studied.
• Sample: A subset of the population, often used when studying the whole population
is not feasible.
• Sampling Methods:
• Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
• Systematic Sampling: Select every n-th member from a list.
• Stratified Sampling: Divide the population into subgroups (strata) and
sample from each subgroup.
• Convenience Sampling: Use data that is easiest to collect.

1. Measures of Central Tendency


These are used to describe the center or average of a data set.
• Mean (Average):
• The sum of all data points divided by the number of data points.
Mean=n∑x
Where ∑x is the sum of all data points, and n is the number of data points.
• Median:
• The middle value of the data when arranged in ascending or descending order.
• If there is an odd number of data points, the median is the middle value.
• If there is an even number, the median is the average of the two middle values.
• Mode:
• The value that appears most frequently in a data set.
• A data set can have no mode, one mode, or multiple modes (bimodal or multimodal).

2. Measures of Dispersion (Spread)


These measure how spread out or varied the data is.
• Range:
• The difference between the highest and lowest values in the data set.
Value ValueRange=Maximum Value−Minimum Value
• Variance:
• A measure of how much each data point differs from the mean. It is the average of
the squared differences from the mean.
• Formula for population variance σ2:
σ2=N∑(x−μ)2
Where x is each data point, μ is the mean, and N is the number of data points.
• Formula for sample variance s2:
s2=n−1∑(x−xˉ)2
Where xˉ is the sample mean and n is the number of data points in the sample.
• Standard Deviation:
• The square root of the variance. It is a measure of how spread out the data is around
the mean.
• Population standard deviation σ is the square root of population variance σ2.
σ=σ2
• Sample standard deviation s is the square root of sample variance s2.
s=s2

3. Probability
Probability is the measure of the likelihood that a certain event will occur.
• Basic Probability:
• The probability of an event A occurring is given by:
of favorable outcomes number of outcomesP(A)=Total number of outcomesNumber of favo
rable outcomes
• Complementary Events:
• The probability of the complement of event A, denoted A′, is:
P(A′)=1−P(A)
• Addition Rule (for two events):
• If events A and B are mutually exclusive (they cannot happen at the same time), then:
P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)
• If the events are not mutually exclusive (they can happen at the same time), then:
P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)−P(A∩B)
• Multiplication Rule (for independent events):
• If events A and B are independent, then:
P(A∩B)=P(A)×P(B)
• Conditional Probability:
• The probability of event A given that event B has occurred is:
P(A∣B)=P(B)P(A∩B)

4. Data Representation
Various methods exist to represent data visually.
• Bar Graphs:
• Used for categorical data, where the height of each bar represents the frequency or
count of each category.
• Histograms:
• Used for continuous numerical data. The data is divided into bins, and the height of
each bar represents the frequency of data points in that bin.
• Pie Charts:
• Used for categorical data. The circle is divided into sections to represent different
categories or proportions.
• Line Graphs:
• Used to display data points in a continuous time series (e.g., stock prices over time).
• Box-and-Whisker Plots:
• Used to represent the distribution of data based on five-number summary (minimum,
first quartile, median, third quartile, and maximum).
• Scatter Plots:
• Used to show the relationship between two variables by plotting data points on a
Cartesian plane.

5. Measures of Position
• Quartiles:
• Divide a data set into four equal parts.
• First Quartile (Q1): The median of the lower half of the data (25th percentile).
• Second Quartile (Q2): The median of the entire data set (50th percentile).
• Third Quartile (Q3): The median of the upper half of the data (75th percentile).
• Interquartile Range (IQR):
• The difference between the third and first quartile. It represents the spread of the
middle 50% of the data.
IQR=Q3−Q1
• Z-scores:
• The Z-score indicates how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean.
Z=σx−μ
Where x is a data point, μ is the mean, and σ is the standard deviation.

6. Correlation and Regression


• Correlation:
• Measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables.
• Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r):
r=[n∑x2−(∑x)2][n∑y2−(∑y)2]n∑xy−(∑x)(∑y)
• r ranges from -1 to 1:
• r=1 means a perfect positive correlation.
• r=−1 means a perfect negative correlation.
• r=0 means no linear correlation.
• Linear Regression:
• A method to model the relationship between two variables by fitting a straight line to
the data.
• Equation of the line:
y=mx+c
Where m is the slope and c is the y-intercept.

7. Key Formulas Summary


• Mean: xˉ=n∑x
• Variance (Population): σ2=N∑(x−μ)2
• Variance (Sample): s2=n−1∑(x−xˉ)2
• Standard Deviation (Population): σ=σ2
• Standard Deviation (Sample): s=s2
• Probability: outcomes outcomesP(A)=total outcomesfavorable outcomes

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