Discrete Mathematics-Mid- Semester Answer sheet

1. Explain the Binomial Coefficients with the expansion of (3x+4y)4

 (x+y)2 = x2 +2xy +y2
 (x+y)3 = x3 +3x2y+3y2x + y3
 (x+y)4 = x4 + 4x3y +4y3x + y4
 Binomial Coefficients conditions

Binomial Coefficient:-

The Binomial Coefficients are coefficients that appear in the expansion of a binomial expression (x + y )n
using the Binomial Theorem. For an expression (a+ b)n the Binomial Theorem states:

(( ))
n
(a+ b) =∑ n a n−k b k
n

k=0 k

where ((nk))are the binomial coefficients, given by:

((nk))= k ! ( n−k
n!
)!

Example Expansion for (3 x +4 y )4

Let's apply the Binomial Theorem to expand (3 x +4 y )4 :

1. Identify a=3x, b=4y, and n=4.

4
2. Use the formula (a+ b) =∑ 4 (3 x) (4 y)
4

k=0 k
4−k k
()
This gives us:

k () k () k
4 2

k ()
4
()
3

k ()
(3 x +4 y ) = 4 (3 x) (4 y) + 4 (3 x ) ( 4 y ) + 4 (3 x) (4 y ) + 4 (3 x) (4 y) + 4 (3 x ) (4 y )
4 4 0 4 1 4 4

Evaluating each term:

1. ( 4k ) .(3 x) .(4 y ) =1.81 x .1=81 x

4 0 4 4

2. ( 4k ) .(3 x) .(4 y) =4.27 x .4 y=432 x y

3 1 3 3

3. ( 4k ) .(3 x) .(4 y ) =6.9 x .16 y =8 64 x y

2 2 4 2 2 2

4. ( 4k ) .(3 x) . (4 y ) =4.3 x . 64 y =768 x y

1 3 4 3 3

5. ( 4k ) .( 3 x ) .( 4 y ) =1.1 .256 y =256 y

0 4
4 4
So, the expansion of (3x+4y)4(3x + 4y)^4(3x+4y)4 is:
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
(3 x +4 y ) =81 x + 432 x y +864 x y + 768 xy +256 y

2. Explain the seven Quadrilaterals using the sides and angles

3. Explain the Bijective and Serjective Function with the conditions for a
function to be Bijective and Serjective.
Bijective Function:-
 The bijective function can also be called a one-to-one corresponding function or bijection.
 One to one function (injection function) and one to one correspondence both are different
things. So we should not be confused about these.
 A function will be known as bijection function if a function f: X → Y satisfied the properties of
surjective function (onto function) and injective function (one to one function) both.
o Each and every X's element must pair with at least one Y's element.
o X's element may not pair with more than one Y's element.
o Each and every Y's element must pair with at least one X's element.
o Y's element may not pair with more than one X's element.

Serjective Function: -
A surjective function is a type of function in which its image and codomain are similar to each other.
o In a surjective function, the range and codomain are also equal to each other.

 In the surjective function, not even a single element is left out. This is because all the
elements of Y are mapped with some element of A.
  When we have a case where every y codomain has a minimum of one pre-image x domain,
then the function will be known as the surjective function.
 Each and every element of the surjective function in the codomain must be assigned a
minimum one value in the domain.
 There will be a right inverse for every function that is surjective. In other words, we can say
that every function that contains a right inverse will be considered a surjective function.
 If the range and co-domain of a function f are equal to each other, then this function f: A →
B will be onto function.
4. Draw the pascal triangle for the permutations series of 15 and also
assign the binary code for each series in the triangle

Pascal’s Triangle is a numerical pattern arranged in a triangular form. This triangle provides the
coefficients for the expansion of any binomial expression, with numbers organized in a way that they
form a triangular shape. i.e. the second row in Pascal’s triangle represents the coefficients in (x+y)2
and so on.
In Pascal’s triangle, each number is the sum of the above two numbers. Pascal’s triangle has various
applications in probability theory, combinatorics, algebra, and various other branches of
mathematics.

Row nnn Elements (Binomial Coefficients) Binary Codes

0 1 0000

1 1, 1 0001, 0001

2 1, 2, 1 0010, 0011, 0010

3 1, 3, 3, 1 0011, 0100, 0100, 0011

4 1, 4, 6, 4, 1 0100, 0101, 0110, 0101, 0100

 5 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 0101, 0110, 1010, 1010, 0110, 0101

6 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1 0110, 0111, 1111, 10100, 1111, 0111, 0110

7 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1 0111, 1000, 10101, 100011, 100011, 10101, 1000, 0111

1, 8, 28, 56, 70, 56, 28, 1000, 1001, 11100, 111000, 1000110, 111000, 11100,
8
8, 1 1001, 1000

1, 9, 36, 84, 126, 126, 1001, 1010, 100100, 1010100, 1111110, 1111110,
9
84, 36, 9, 1 1010100, 100100, 1010, 1001

1, 10, 45, 120, 210, 252, 1010, 1011, 101101, 1111000, 11010010, 11111100,
10
210, 120, 45, 10, 1 11010010, 1111000, 101101, 1011, 1010

1, 11, 55, 165, 330, 462, 1011, 1100, 110111, 10100101, 101001010, 111001110,
11
462, 330, 165, 55, 11, 1 111001110, 101001010, 10100101, 110111, 1100, 1011

1, 12, 66, 220, 495, 1100, 1101, 1000010, 11011100, 111101111,

12 792, 924, 792, 495, 1100011000, 1110011100, 1100011000, 111101111,
220, 66, 12, 1 11011100, 1000010, 1101, 1100

1, 13, 78, 286, 715, 1101, 1110, 1001110, 100011110, 1011001011,

13 1287, 1716, 1716, 1287, 1111101111, 1101010100, 1101010100, 1111101111,
715, 286, 78, 13, 1 1011001011, 100011110, 1001110, 1110, 1101

1, 14, 91, 364, 1001, 1110, 1111, 1011011, 101101110, 1111101001,

2002, 3003, 3432, 3003, 11111010010, 10111011011, 11010111000,
14
2002, 1001, 364, 91, 14, 10111011011, 11111010010, 1111101001, 101101110,
1 1011011, 1111, 1110

1, 15, 105, 455, 1365, 1111, 10000, 1101001, 111000111, 10101010101,

3003, 5005, 6435, 6435, 10111011011, 10011100001, 11001000011,
15
5005, 3003, 1365, 455, 11001000011, 10011100001, 10111011011,
105, 15, 1 10101010101, 111000111, 1101001, 10000, 1111

5. Explain the term Handshake Lemma with suitable example

The Handshake Lemma (or Handshake Theorem) is a principle in graph theory that states:

In any undirected graph, the sum of the degrees of all vertices is equal to twice the number of edges.

This result is derived from the fact that each edge in an undirected graph contributes to the degree (or
"handshake") count of two vertices (one at each end).

Handshake Lemma Formula

If a graph has nnn vertices and mmm edges, and the degree of vertex viv_ivi is d(vi)d(v_i)d(vi), then:

∑i=1nd(vi)=2m\sum_{i=1}^{n} d(v_i) = 2mi=1∑nd(vi)=2m

Example
Consider a simple undirected graph with 4 vertices AAA, BBB, CCC, and DDD and 3 edges connecting
them as follows:

 Edge between AAA and BBB

 Edge between BBB and CCC
 Edge between CCC and DDD

The degrees of each vertex are:

 AAA: Degree = 1
 BBB: Degree = 2
 CCC: Degree = 2
 DDD: Degree = 1

Adding these degrees:

1+2+2+1=61 + 2 + 2 + 1 = 61+2+2+1=6

Since there are 3 edges, twice the number of edges is:

2×3=62 \times 3 = 62×3=6

Thus, the Handshake Lemma holds, as the sum of the degrees (6) is indeed twice the number of edges (6).

6. Prove the theorem of De morgan Law for the sets and Relations with
appropriate example

De Morgan's Laws are fundamental rules in set theory and logic that describe the relationship between
union, intersection, and complement operations. The laws state:

1. (A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc(A \cup B)^c = A^c \cap B^c(A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc

2. (A∩B)c=Ac∪Bc(A \cap B)^c = A^c \cup B^c(A∩B)c=Ac∪Bc

These laws show how to distribute a complement over a union or intersection.

Proof of De Morgan's Laws for Sets

Let UUU be the universal set, and let AAA and BBB be subsets of UUU.

1. Proof of (A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc(A \cup B)^c = A^c \cap B^c(A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc

 Left Side: (A∪B)c(A \cup B)^c(A∪B)c is the set of all elements in UUU that are not in A∪BA \cup BA∪B.
 Right Side: Ac∩BcA^c \cap B^cAc∩Bc is the set of all elements in UUU that are not in AAA and are not in
BBB.

Reasoning:

1. If an element x∈(A∪B)cx \in (A \cup B)^cx∈(A∪B)c, then xxx is not in AAA and not in BBB. Thus, x∈Acx \in
A^cx∈Ac and x∈Bc x \in B^cx∈Bc.
2. Therefore, x∈Ac∩Bcx \in A^c \cap B^cx∈Ac∩Bc, which means (A∪B)c⊆Ac∩Bc(A \cup B)^c \subseteq A^c \
cap B^c(A∪B)c⊆Ac∩Bc.
Similarly, if x∈Ac∩Bcx \in A^c \cap B^cx∈Ac∩Bc, then xxx is not in AAA and not in BBB, so xxx is not
in A∪BA \cup BA∪B. Thus, x∈(A∪B)c x \in (A \cup B)^cx∈(A∪B)c, which implies
Ac∩Bc⊆(A∪B)cA^c \cap B^c \subseteq (A \cup B)^cAc∩Bc⊆(A∪B)c.

Since both directions are true, (A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc(A \cup B)^c = A^c \cap B^c(A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc.

2. Proof of (A∩B)c=Ac∪Bc(A \cap B)^c = A^c \cup B^c(A∩B)c=Ac∪Bc

 Left Side: (A∩B)c(A \cap B)^c(A∩B)c is the set of all elements in UUU that are not in A∩BA \cap BA∩B.
 Right Side: Ac∪BcA^c \cup B^cAc∪Bc is the set of all elements in UUU that are not in AAA or not in BBB.

Reasoning:

1. If an element x∈(A∩B)cx \in (A \cap B)^cx∈(A∩B)c, then xxx is not in A∩BA \cap BA∩B, meaning xxx is not
in AAA or not in BBB. So, x∈Acx \in A^cx∈Ac or x∈Bc x \in B^cx∈Bc, which implies x∈Ac∪Bc x \in A^c \cup
B^cx∈Ac∪Bc.
2. Therefore, (A∩B)c⊆Ac∪Bc(A \cap B)^c \subseteq A^c \cup B^c(A∩B)c⊆Ac∪Bc.

Similarly, if x∈Ac∪Bcx \in A^c \cup B^cx∈Ac∪Bc, then xxx is not in AAA or not in BBB, so xxx is not
in A∩BA \cap BA∩B. Thus, x∈(A∩B)c x \in (A \cap B)^cx∈(A∩B)c, which implies Ac∪Bc⊆(A∩B)cA^c
\cup B^c \subseteq (A \cap B)^cAc∪Bc⊆(A∩B)c.

Since both directions are true, (A∩B)c=Ac∪Bc(A \cap B)^c = A^c \cup B^c(A∩B)c=Ac∪Bc.

Example

Let U={1,2,3,4,5,6}U = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}U={1,2,3,4,5,6}, A={1,2,3}A = \{1, 2, 3\}A={1,2,3}, and

B={3,4,5}B = \{3, 4, 5\}B={3,4,5}.

1. Compute (A∪B)c(A \cup B)^c(A∪B)c:

o A∪B={1,2,3,4,5}A \cup B = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}A∪B={1,2,3,4,5}
o (A∪B)c=U−(A∪B)={6}(A \cup B)^c = U - (A \cup B) = \{6\}(A∪B)c=U−(A∪B)={6}

2. Compute Ac∩BcA^c \cap B^cAc∩Bc:

o Ac=U−A={4,5,6}A^c = U - A = \{4, 5, 6\}Ac=U−A={4,5,6}
o Bc=U−B={1,2,6}B^c = U - B = \{1, 2, 6\}Bc=U−B={1,2,6}
o Ac∩Bc={6}A^c \cap B^c = \{6\}Ac∩Bc={6}

Thus, (A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc(A \cup B)^c = A^c \cap B^c(A∪B)c=Ac∩Bc, confirming the first De Morgan law.