2nd Year 12 To 21 Notes Short Anwser

KIPS COLLEGE GARDEN TOWN
CHAPTER #12 SHORT QUESTIONS

12.1 The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electrical field zero or
non-zero in this region? Explain.
When the potential is constant through a given region of space then electric field in this region will
be zero.
Reason: We know the relation between electric intensity and potential difference is
As potential is constant. V =0 Put in (i) eq. we get
E= 0 So electric field will be zero.
12.2 Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge. Do electric field and
the potential increases or decreases?
If we follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge then electric field and potential both
will decrease.
Reason: The formula for electric intensity and electric
potential are and
From these formulae we see that electric intensity is
inversely proportional to square of distance and electric potential is inversely proportional to the
distance therefore both will decrease.
r increase decreases
12.3 How can you identify that which plate of a capacitor is positively charged?
There are different methods by which we can identify that which plate of a
capacitor is positively charged.
(i) If a positive test charge is brought near the plate and if test charge will
repel then that plate will be positively charged.
(ii) The plate of a capacitor connected with the positive terminal of battery
will be positively charged.
(iii) A device called gold leaf electroscope can also be used for this purpose.
We will bring a positively charged electroscope close to the plate of a capacitor, if the leaves
will diverge then that plate will be positively charged.
12.4 Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed between parallel plates.
(a) With similar and equal charges. (b) With opposite and equal charges.
(a) When a positive point charge is placed between
parallel plates with similar and equal charge plates
then net force will be zero. + +
F1 F2
Reason: We know that the expression of electric force is + + +
F = qE + +
Here, | F1 | = | F2 | = F + +
i.e., magnitude of force is equal but in opposite direction
Net force = F1 + (F2) = F-F = 0 , Net force = 0
(b) When a positive point charge is placed between two
parallel plates with opposite and equal charges then + -
F1 F2
force will be double i.e., 2F. + -
As | F1 | = | F2 | = F Net force= F1 + F2 Net force = 2F +
+ -
In this case both forces are equal in magnitude and are in same + -
direction.
Prepared by; TAHIR SHAKEEL (Physics Lecturer at KIPS College Garden Town
12.5 Electric lines of force never cross. Why?
Electric lines of forces can never cross each other.
Reason: As electric intensity is a vector quantity and if two electric lines of forces cross
each other at a single point then electric intensity will have two E
different directions at a single point which is not possible E
because electric intensity is a vector quantity
and vector has only one direction.
12.6 If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines in the same
direction pointing, will it make a rectilinear motion? +
If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform
electric field, then there are two possibilities:
(i) If a point charge is released in a non-uniform field
produced by positive and negative charges then it will
move in curved path.
(ii) If a point charge is placed in non-uniform field produced
+
by a positive or negative charge then it will make a
rectilinear motion.
12.7 Is E necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is spherical? Assume that
charge is distributed uniformly over the surface.
Electric intensity inside a charged rubber balloon will be zero.
Reason: Consider a Gaussian surface inside the charged rubber balloon. R
As there is no charge at the center therefore q = 0.
According to Gauss‟s law P q=0
Also …………. (i) and ………… (ii

Comparing equations (i) and (ii) we get: E= 0 because
So, the electric intensity inside a charged rubber balloon is zero.
12.8 Is it true that Gauss‟s law states that the total number of lines of forces crossing any closed
surface in outward direction is proportional to net positive charge enclosed within surface?
We know that according to Gauss‟s law, total flux passing through any closed surface is equal to
times the total charge enclosed within the surface. i.e.,
Here
Here = flux which is total number of lines passing through a certain area and we see that it is
directly proportional to charge enclosed within the surface therefore given statement is true that the
total number of lines of forces crossing any closed surface in the outward direction is proportional to
net positive charge enclosed within the surface.
12.9 Do electrons tend to go to region of high potential or of low potential?
As electrons are negatively charged particle and will attract by a
positive charge therefore when they enter the electric field, they
will tend to go the region of high potential (positive terminal) from the
region of low potential (negative terminal)
13.1 A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the effect on the
drift velocity of free electron by?
(i) Increasing the potential difference.
(ii) Decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire.
(i) As we know that the drift velocity of free electrons is directly proportional to the potential
difference i.e. Vd 
Therefore, if potential difference is increases then the drift velocity of free electrons is also
increases.
(ii) As the resistance depends (i.e., directly proportional) upon temperature and length of the
conductor. R and R
So, on decreasing the temperature and length of the conductors, the resistance decreases.
So, drift velocity increases. Vd 
13.2 Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.
The resistance of conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A is given by
As
Where  is the resistivity, whose value depends upon the nature of the conductor? If length L
and cross-sectional area A of the wire is unchanged after bending then its electrical resistance
will remain same.
13.3 What are the resistances of the resistors given in the figures A and B? What is the tolerance
of each? Explain what is meant by the tolerance?
Brown Silver
Orange
Green White
Red Yellow
Gold
A B
Figure A
1st band in brown = 1, 2nd band in green = 5
3 band is red = 2 = No of zeros = 00, 4th band is gold which shows tolerance = 5% So the actual
rd
value of resistance = 1500  5% 

Figure B 1st band is yellow = 4, 2nd band is white= 9, 3rd band is orange = 3= No of zeros= 000
4th band is silver= Which shows tolerance=  10%So, the actual resistance = 49000  10%
Tolerance Tolerance means the possible variation from the marked value. For example, 1500
resistance with a tolerance of 5% will have an actual value of resistance b/w 1425 to 1575.
13.4 Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature?
As we know that resistance offered by a conductor to the flow
of current is due to the collisions, of free electrons with atoms
of lattice. As temperature of the conductor rises,
the amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the lattice
increases and hence the probability of their collisions
with free electrons also increases. R
Hence resistance of conductor rises with temperature.
13.5 What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys Ohm‟s law?
According to Ohm‟s law current is directly proportional to applied
potential difference providing physical state of conductor must
remain constant therefore when current passes through the
filament of bulb, initially the temperature of filament is low and
its resistance remains constant hence filament Obey‟s Ohm‟s law
but with the passage of time, its temperature increases, R 
so, resistance of filament increases therefore Ohm‟s law is not valid due to
increase in temperature.
13.6 Is filament resistance lower or higher in a 500W, 220 V light bulb than in a 100W, 220V bulb?
As we know that
CASE# 1 CASE# 2
. .
Result So, the resistance of 500-watt bulb is less than the resistance of 100 watt. But 500-watt
bulb will draw more current as compared to 100-watt bulb.
13.7 Describe a circuit, which will give a continuously varying potential?
For continuously varying potential, we can use
(i) Rheostat as potential divider. (ii) Potentiometer as potential divider.
Here we describe rheostat as potential divider.
A potential difference V is applied across the ends A and B of the
rheostat. The current I passing through R is I= V /R
The potential difference between B and C is VBC = Ir
Putting values of I
Where R = Resistance of wire AB. r = Resistance of portion BC of wire
The circuit shown can provide its output potential difference varying from zero to full potential
difference of battery depending on position of sliding contact C. From the equation we see that as
we move from B to A the potential difference will change from zero to V.
13.8 Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when the current
drawn from it is increased?
We know that the relation between terminal potential difference and emf is
Vt = E  Ir ( Here r is the internal resistance of cell.)
It is clear that when current I is large, the factor Ir becomes large and Vt becomes small. Thus, the
potential difference of a battery decreases when current drawn from it increases.
13.9 What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to determine an
unknown resistance?
Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit which is used to find
unknown resistance of a wire. Whenever bridge is balanced that is,
galvanometer shows no deflection then following condition is satisfied.
(In this circuit R1, R2, R3 are known.)
If R4 is unknown can be finding by
14.1 A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed along the x- axis. For
what orientation of the loop is the flux a maximum? For what orientation is the flux a minimum?
Case #1(Maximum flux) Case #2(Minimum flux)
When a conducting loop is held perpendicular to the When the conducting loop is held parallel to the
magnetic field (vector area is parallel to the magnetic magnetic field (vector area is perpendicular to the
field) then  = 0. field) then  = 90.
So, = B . A So,  = B . A
= BA cos  =BA cos 0 BA  = BA cos = BA cos 90
max.)  BA min.)  0
Hence flux will be maximum when plane of Hence flux will be minimum when plane of the
conducting loop is held perpendicular to the field. conducting loop is held parallel to the field.
14.2 A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field, which can be calculated using Ampere‟s law.
Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, what can you conclude about the magnetic
field due to stationary charges? What about moving charges?
Case #1(Stationary charge) Case #2(Moving charge)
A stationary charge cannot produce any magnetic field A moving charge can produce a magnetic field
but it produces only the electric field. around the path of its motion similar to the
As B = 0nI magnetic field produced around the current carrying
Charge is at rest it means flow is zero. Then I=0 conductor. As B= 0nI
So, B = 0n(0)=0 Charge is in motion it means flow is not zero.
B=0 Then I 0 So, B = 0nI 0
This show that magnetic field is zero. B 0 this show that magnetic field is not zero.
14.3 Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current I, if
(a)the length of the solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains the same and (b) the
number of turns is doubled, but the length remains the same.
We know that the expression for the magnetic field produced by a solenoid is given by
B=0nI also
So, B=0 I
Case #1 Case #2
Let B be the magnetic field when the length of Let B be the magnetic field when the number
the solenoid is doubled i.e., L = 2L and the of turns is doubled i.e., N = 2N and the length
number of turns, remains same. remains same.
As B =0 I As B =0 I
B =0 I B =0 I
B = (0 I) = B B = (0 I) = 2B
Hence the magnetic field becomes half if the length of Hence the magnetic field becomes double if the
solenoid becomes double but the number of turns number of turns of the solenoid becomes doubled
remain, same. but length remains same.
.
14.4 At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x-direction in a region where there is magnetic
field in the negative z-direction. What is the direction of the magnetic force? Will the proton
continue to move in the positive x-direction? Explain.
According to right hand rule, the direction of y
z
magnetic force is along y-axis. Because y
F = e( v  B )
B
F = e(v ̂ ̂
F = e(v ̂ ̂ x 
V
F = e(v ̂ (y-axis)
No, the proton will not continue to move in z
the positive x-direction but it will deflect
towards y-axis and circulate in xy-plane.
14.5 Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic field perpendicular
to their velocities. If charges are deflected in opposite directions, what can you say about them?
When the charge particles are projected across the magnetic field,
experiences a force. Fm= q ( v  B )
This magnetic force on the charge particle tends to
deflects the particles into a curved path. If the charge particles are deflected
opposite to each other, then the particles are oppositely charged.
Fm = -e ( v  B ) and Fm= e ( v  B )
If one particle positively charged then other must be negatively charged.
14.6 Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a
velocity v. Why is there no work done by the magnetic force that acts on the charge?
The magnetic force on the charged particle moving in a magnetic field is given by Fm= q ( v  B )
Due to the magnetic force, the charge particle will move in a circular
path. In circular path, the force Fm is perpendicular to the velocity v.
Hence magnetic force has done no work, i.e.,
W = F . d = Fd cos 
But  = 90 (The angle F and v is 90)
b/w So, W = Fd Cos90= 0
So, there is no work done by the magnetic force. This means that magnetic
force is only a deflecting force.
14.7 If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you say that the
magnetic field in the region is zero?
Case I: Yes the charge particle moves in a straight line if there is no external magnetic field.
F = qvB sin  If B = 0 then F = qv(0) sin 
Case II: No because the charge particle may be moving parallel or antiparallel to the externally applied
magnetic field. i.e.,= 0 or =180
As F= qvB sin Since sin 0 = 0and sin 180 = 0 Therefore F = 0
As there is no magnetic field acting on the charge particle so it will move in a straight line.
14.8 Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is brought near the screen?
As F = qvB sin  For electron q= - e So, F = - evB sin 
The picture on TV screen is due to the motion of charged particle (electron). As a magnet is brought
close to the TV screen, the path of electron is disturbed due to the magnetic force acting on them they
deflect and not hitting on the target. Hence the picture on TV screen is distorted.
14.9 Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform M.field such that the loop will not tend to rotate?
A current carrying loop when placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque. i.e.,
= BINA cos Where  is the angle between magnetic field B and plane of the loop)
When the plane of the loop is at right angle to the magnetic field i.e.,  = 90.
 = BINA cos 90= BINA (0) = 0
Hence the value of torque is zero so the loop will not tend to rotate.
14.10 How can a current loop be used to determine presence of a M.field in a given region of space?
A current carrying loop when placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque. i.e.,
= BINA cos Where  is the angle between magnetic field B and plane of the loop.)
When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field, at different orientations a torque is
produced in a loop. If the loop is deflected in that region, then we can say that magnetic field is present
due to torque otherwise not.
14.11 How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?
The isotopes of an element are projected perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field. Then they
follow different circular path due to difference in their masses in mass spectrograph apparatus.
So, according to formula for e/m of
= r m
So, isotopes of different masses will have different radii and they can be separated by a magnetic field.
14.12 What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque
acting upon the coils is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
The torque acting on rectangular coil of area A, magnetic field B, and current I, when placed in a
magnetic field is given by  = BINA cos  where  is the angle b/w plane of coil and B
Case #1(Maximum Torque) Case #2(Minimum Torque)
When the plane of the coil is parallel to the When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, i.e.,  = 0 = BINA cos 0 magnetic field i.e.,  = 90. So, = BINA cos 90
= BINA So, the torque will be maximum. = 0So, the torque acting upon coil is minimum.
14.13 A loop of wire is suspended between the poles of a magnet with its plane parallel to the pole
faces. What happens if a direct current is put through the coil? What happens if an alternating
current is used instead?
As plane of the coil is parallel to the pole faces i.e., plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field i.e.,  = 90. So,  = BINA cos 90= 0
Hence for both A.C and D.C, the coil will not tend to rotate.
14.14 Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?
In order to measure the current ammeter is always connected in series therefore the
its resistance should be very low so that it does not disturb the circuit. In the
construction of ammeter, a shunt (small) resistance is connected to a galvanometer
in parallel combination. Value of shunt resistance is given as
14.15 Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?
In order to measure the potential differences voltmeter is always connected in
parallel to the circuit. Therefore, its resistance should be very large so that it
does not draw any current through the circuit. In the construction of voltmeter,
a high resistance is connected to a galvanometer in series.
Value of resistance of voltmeter is given as
15.1 Does the induced emf in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced
current depend on the resistance of the circuit?
As we know that according to Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction.
“Induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the negative of rate of change of magnetic flux.
= N 
From this equation we see that induced emf depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux and induced
emf does not depend upon the resistance of the circuit but induced current depends on the resistance
because I= 
This shows that induced current is inversely proportional to resistance i.e., if resistance of conductor is
less than current will be more and vice versa.
15.2 A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal to the loop is
oriented parallel to the magnetic field. Is an emf induced in the loop? Give a reason
There will be no induced emf produced in the loop because we know that according to Faraday‟s law of
electromagnetic induction. = N
Here, =0
B
i.e., rate of change of magnetic flux is zero because normal of loop is oriented
parallel to the magnetic field.
According to the relation ^
n
= N
 = N (0)
 = 0
Hence no induced emf is produced
15.3 A light metallic ring is released from above into a vertical bar
magnet (figure). Viewed for above, does the current flow clockwise or
anticlockwise in the ring?
According to Lenz law the direction of induced current is opposite to the cause N N
which produces it, therefore when the metallic ring is released from above into the
S
bar magnet, the magnetic flux is changed in the ring and an induced emf is produced
in it and hence North Pole is developed in the ring towards the north pole of the bar S
magnet. As view above, the current flows in clockwise direction.
15.4 What is the direction of the current through resistor R in figure? As switch S
is (a)Closed (b)Opened
(a)When switch is closed, the current in the circuit increases from zero to
maximum. During this interval, magnetic flux in the second coil increases
from zero to maximum and an induced current is produced in it. The side of
current carrying coil facing the other coil becomes North Pole so the current S N
in the other coil must flow in anticlockwise direction shown.
(b) However, when switch is opened, the current in the circuit decreases from
+
maximum to zero and the flux links with other coil decrease and induced R
current is produced in reverse direction as shown in figure.
15.5 Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
No, because according to Lenz‟s law “The induced emf is always such as to oppose the cause which
produces it” therefore if magnetic flux increases then induced emf will act in
such a away to decrease the magnetic flux and if magnetic flux decreases then
induced emf will act to increase the magnetic flux. So induced emf does not
always act to decrease the magnetic flux.
For Example: when in a coil magnetic flux increases then induced emf will act
as decreasing it and vice versa.
15.6 When the switch in the circuit is closed, a current is established in the coil and the metal ring
jumps upward figure. Why? Describe what would happen to the ring if the battery polarity were
reversed?
When the switch in the circuit is closed, the current is setup in the coil. M etal ring
N
Magnetic flux changes through the metallic ring and an induced emf is
produced in it. The face of ring opposite to the coil develops similar poles
of magnet and experiences repulsion from the side of coil and the ring Coil +
jumps up. If the polarity of the battery is reversed then the ring will jump
upward also.
15.7 The figure shows a coil of wire in the xy-plane with a magnetic field directed along the Y- axis.
Around which of the three co-ordinate axes should the coil be rotated in order to generate an
emf and a current in the coil?
An emf and current in the coil is generated when it is rotated along x-axis. 
As = N Change and will Generated z


No change of flux takes place along y and z-axis
because the coil is parallel to the magnetic field B all the time. y
As = N and
will not Generated ( ) x
15.8 How would you position a flat loop of wire in a changing magnetic field so that there is no emf
induced in the loop?
If the plane of flat loop of wire is placed parallel to the magnetic field B, then there is no flux
changed through it and no emf is induced in the flat loop
In this case, the angle between magnetic field B and vector area A is 90 therefore
 = B.A  = BA cos  ^
 = BA cos 90  = BA (0)  n

 =0
As = N and will not Generated ( )
So no emf is induced in the flat loop of wire. O
90
15.9 In a certain region the earth‟s magnetic field points vertically down. When
a plane fly due north, which wingtip is positively charged?
As we know that the magnetic force on moving charge
particle in uniform magnetic field is F= q( v  B )
The direction of this force can be found by right hand rule
therefore when plane flies due north then according to right
hand rule magnetic force will act towards west therefore, its
west wingtip become positive charge.
15.10 Show that  and have same units.
Case #1  Unit of Unit of
= J/C = V (volts) ……………………..(1)
Case #2  Unit of Unit of
= = = J/C = V (volts) ……………………..(2)
From (1) and (2) It is clear that “  “ and have same units.
15.11 When an electric motor, such as an electric drill, is being used, does it also act as a generator? If
so what is the consequence of this?
Yes, when electric motor is running, its armature is rotating in a magnetic field.
As = BINA cos Where  is the angle between magnetic field B and plane of the loop.)
Also = N
A torque act on the armature and at the same time, magnetic flux is changing through the armature
which produces an induced emf. But this emf is back emf.
15.12 Can a D.C motor be turned into a D.C generator? What changes are required to be done?
Yes, a D.C motor can be turned into a D.C generator.
Changes.
 If battery from D.C motor is removed and connect these terminals to an external circuit.
 If the coil (armature) of the motor is rotated by some mechanical means such as by fuel or water fall,
then D.C motor is converted into D.C generator.
 Electromagnet is replaced by permanent magnet.
 Replace a single coil by many coils for smooth current.
BY these changes we can turned D.C motor into D.C generator.
15.13 Is it possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field passing through the loop
and still not have an induced emf in the loop?
As we know that  = B.A  = BA cos  = BA
If we increase B and decreases Area in equal ratio or vice versa then Magnetic flux remains same.
constant  = 0
As = N because and will not Generated ( )
Then according to Faraday‟s law Hence no emf is induced in the loop.
15.14 Can an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with the output from the
generator being used to operate the motor?
No, it is not possible that an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with the output from
the generator being used to operate the motor because if it is possible then
 It will be a self-operating system without getting energy from some external source and
 This is against the law of conservation of energy.
But an electric generator can be used to drive an electric motor with the output from the generator.
ELECTRIC NOT POSSIBLE ELECTRIC
MOTOR GENERATOR
POSSIBLE
15.15 A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in a horizontal plane. The oscillations are strongly
damped when a metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why this occurs?
As = N
The oscillating magnet produce change of magnetic flux close to it. The metal plate placed under it
experiences the change of magnetic flux. As a result, an induced emf is produced in the metal plate due to
the change in magnetic flux. According to Lenz law, induced current opposes its cause which are the
oscillation of the magnet. So, the oscillation of the magnet is strongly damped.
15.16 Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. What steps would you take to determine the
turns ratio?
There are two steps for checking the four unknown wires.
(1) Separate two coils into primary and secondary coil by checking continuity of wires by using ohm-meter.
(2) Apply alternating voltage of known value Vp to one of the coils and the voltage across the other coil is
measure by using voltmeter as Vs. Then by putting the values of Vp and Vs in
We can find the turn ratio. If the reading of voltmeter is less than input, then it is a step-down
transformer and if the reading of voltmeter is greater than input so it is a step-up transformer.
15.17 (a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?
(b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary.
How is, then the power transferred?
(a) No, a step-up transformer does not increase power level.
As P = VI
Hence a step-up transformer increases V by decreasing I and hence P = VI remains constant, otherwise it
will against law of conservation of energy.
(b) The two coils of the transformer are magnetically linked i.e.
= N
the change of flux through one coil is linked with another coil and induced emf is produced. Power is
transferred due to magnetic flux linkage.
15.18 When the primary of a transformer is connected to A.C. mains the current in it?
(a) Is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but.
(b) Increase when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
(a) As for a transformer
Input power = Output power
VpIp = VsIs
When secondary circuit is open, then Pout (VI) = 0, so input power must be zero or very small. So,
input current Ip is very small in primary coil.
(b) However, when load is applied to secondary coil, greater power output is needed.
Since Input power= Output
power VpIp = VsIs
So, greater current is required in primary to equalize the power in the secondary coil.
16.1 A sinusoidal current has rms (effective) value of 10 A. What is the maximum or peak value?
Root mean square value of sinusoidal current
Irms = 10A Using
√
Io = Irms √
= 10  √
= 10  1.414 = 14.14 A
So peak value of current = Io = 14.14 A
16.2 Name the device that will (a) permit flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating
current (b) permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.
(a) A device that will permit flow of direct current but opposes the flow of alternating current
is called an inductor.
For A.C f = 50 Hz For D.C f = 0 Hz
Then Then
is large as f is large is equal to 50 Hz. is small as f is small is equal to 0 Hz.
As is large then current cannot flow As is Zero then current can flow through it.
through it.
(b) A device that will permit the flow of alternating current (A.C) and not the direct current is
called a capacitor.
For A.C f = 50 Hz For D.C f = 0 Hz
Then Then
is small as f is large is equal to 50 Hz. is infinity as f is small is equal to 0 Hz.
As is small then current can flow As is infinity then current cannot flow
through it. through it.
16.3 How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when
connected to a 50 Hz source?
100 times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum Maximum
briliance
brilliance when connected to a 50 Hz source. The lamp will reach
maximum brilliance 100 times per second, because current becomes
maximum twice in a cycle. As frequency of A.C is 50 Hz. i.e.,
50 Cycle per second (Cps). Maximum
Maximum brilliance = 2  50 = 100 times per second briliance
16.4 A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a D.C.
source arranged in series. The switch is closed and after an
interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the
switch contacts?
 Consider a circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch
and a D.C source connected in series.
 When switch is closed, then current flows through the
inductor and energy is stored in it in the form of magnetic
field. When a switch is reopened then energy stored flows as
a high current through the switch and a spark jumps across the switch contacts.
16.5 How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) an inductor (b) a capacitor?
For an Inductor: For a capacitor
Then Then
If is double then is also double. If is double then become half.

if
Hence become double. become half)

16.6 In a R-L circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate by a vector diagram.
In R-L series circuit the current will lag the voltage by an
angle 
v
 =
VL = IXL
IZ
 V
=  =
 = \ I R
16.7 A chock coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an A.C. circuit causes the lamp to
become dim. Why is it so? A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be adjusted
until the lamp glows with normal brilliance. Explain, how this is
possible?
Case#1Consider a circuit in which a choke coil is placed in series with an
electric lamp in an A.C circuit as shown in figure. We know that reactance of an
inductor is XL = 2fL and in this case total impedance of circuit will be
Z=√
Case#2 When a variable capacitor is added in series with this circuit then at
resonance frequency reactance of capacitor will become equal to the reactance of
an inductor and total impedance of circuit will become minimum that is equal to
„R‟ therefore current will become maximum. So, bulb will glow with normal
brilliance. and in this case total impedance of circuit will be
Z=√
16.8 Explain the conditions under which electromagnetic waves are produced from a source?
 Electromagnetic waves can be produced by changing electric or
Transmitting
magnetic field or by accelerating the charge particles or oscillating antenna
the charge particles by connecting it to an alternating voltage source.
 Radio transmitting antenna provides a good example of generating
electromagnetic waves by acceleration of charges. It is charged by an
alternating source of potential of frequency f and time period T. As
the changing potential alternates the charges will be changes from +q
to q after regular time intervals this will change electric flux and it
will set up electromagnetic waves.
16.9 How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio set?
 The receiving antenna is used for reception of a particular radio
station is selected in our radio set.
 Receiving antenna consist of inductor and a variable capacitor
connected parallel which is called L C circuit. and
 its frequency is given by
√
 when frequency of electromagnetic waves match with the
frequency of L  C circuit then due to resonance circuit will be
tuned.
16.10 What is meant by A.M. and F.M.?
(i)A.M: The term A.M stands for amplitude modulation. A type of
Modulation in which amplitude of the carrier wave is increased o r
decreased as the amplitude of the superposing modulating signal increases
or decreases.
Range: The A.M transmission frequencies range from
540 KHz to 1600 KHz. The sound quality of A.M is not good.
(ii) F.M: The term F.M stands for frequency modulation. A type of
modulation in which frequency of carrier waves have increased or decreased
as the modulating signal amplitude increases or decreases but the carrier
wave amplitude remains constant.
Range: The F.M transmission frequencies range from
88 MHz to 108 MHz. F.M radio waves are less affected by electrical
interference therefore they provide high quality transmission of sound.
……………………………END………………………..
 Education is simply the

soul of a society as it
passes from one
generation to another.
17.1 Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.
(i) Crystalline Solid: The solids whose atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular manner which is
repeated periodically inside the crystal in three dimensions are called crystalline solids. e.g., metals such as
copper, iron, zinc, sodium chloride and ceramics. Note: They have definite melting point.
(i) Amorphous or Glassy Solids: The solids which have no regular arrangement of their atoms or
molecules are called amorphous solids. e.g., ordinary glass. Note: They have no definite melting point.
(ii) Polymeric Solids: Polymeric may be more or less solid materials with a structure that is intermediate
between order and disorder. So, we can say that such solids are partially or poorly crystalline solids. e.g.,
plastic and synthetic rubbers. Note: Their specific gravity is very low.
17.2 Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile, compressive and
shear modes of stress and strain.
Stress: The force per unit area is called stress. Mathematically Stress = = ( unit N/m2 or Pa)
Strain: The change in the dimensions of a body produced by the action of the deforming force is called
strain. It has no unit. There are three types
(i) Tensile Strain: When the deforming force changes the length of the body, it is called tensile strain. i.e.,
Tensile Strain
(ii) Volumetric Strain: When the deforming force changes the volume of the body, it is called volumetric
strain i.e., Volumetric strain
(iii) Shear Strain: When the deforming force changes the shape of the body, it is called shear strain i.e.
Shear strain =
17.3 Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and stress are the same.
Also discuss its three kinds.
Modulus of Elasticity: It is defined as the ratio of stress to strain. Modulus of elasticity =
Where stress is measured in N/m2 or Pa and strain has no unit so modulus of elasticity is measured in N/m2.
Hence the unit of modulus of elasticity and stress are same. There are three kinds of modulus of elasticity.
 Young‟s Modulus: The ratio of stress to tensile strain is called the young‟s modulus. Y=
 Bulk Modulus: The ratio of stress to volumetric strain is called the bulk modulus. K=
 Shear Modulus: The ratio of stress to shear strain is called shear modulus. G =
17.4 Draw stress-strain curve for a ductile material, and then define the terms. Elastic limit, yield
point and ultimate tensile stress.
The stress-strain curve for a ductile material is as shown in figure
C(m)
(i) Elastic Limit: It is defined as the greatest stress that a material can
endure without any permanent change in the shape or dimensions. It is B
() D()
denoted by e.
Stress ()
A
(ii)Yield Point: If we cross the elastic limit, then deformation becomes
permanent. It is represented by the point B known as yield point because
if we now cross the yield point then the length of wire increases more
o Strain()
rapidly as compared to the applied stress.
(iii) Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS): It is defined as the maximum stress that
a material can withstand and is represented by the point C.
Prepared by; TAHIR SHAKEEL (Physics Lecturer at KIPS College Garden Town)
17.5 What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined
from the force-extension graph?
Strain Energy: The potential energy stored in a body by virtue of an
elastic deformation equal to the work done that must be done to produce
this deformation is called strain energy.
According to force-extension graph Work done
Area of triangle = (base) (height)
Strain energy = (F) ( ) =
17.6 Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain the difference amongst
electrical behavior of conductors, insulators and semi-conductors in terms of energy band theory.
Electron of isolated atoms is bounded to the nucleus and can only have distinct energy levels.
However. When a large number of atoms N are brought close to one another to form a solid, each
energy level of the isolated atom splits into N sub-levels under the action of force exerted by
other atoms in the solid. These sub-levels are called energy state and they are very close to each
other so that we can say that they form continuous energy band. In b/w two energy bands, there is a
range of energy states which cannot be occupied by electron. These are called forbidden energy
states. There are three most important energy bands.
(i)Valence energy band. (ii) Conduction energy band. (iii) Completely field energy band.
Energy band theory can be applied to distinguish between insulators, conductors and
semi- conductors.
Insulator: Insulators are those substances in which valence electrons are bounded very tightly to their
atoms. An insulator has the following properties on the basis of energy band theory.
(i) Conduction band is empty.
(ii) Valence band is completely filled.
(iii) There is a large forbidden energy gap b/w them.
(iv) Example: wood, plastic and glass.
Conductors: According to energy band theory, in conductors, valence and conduction energy bands are
overlap each other. There is no physical distinction between the two bands. In conductors,
(i) Conduction band is partially filled.
(ii) Valence band is also partially filled.
(iii) There is no narrow-forbidden energy gap between conduction and valence bands.
(iv) Example: Metals (Fe, Cu, Zn)
Semi-Conductors: In terms of energy band theory, semi- conductors are those
materials which at room temperature have
(i) Partially filled conduction band
(ii) Partially filled valence band.
(iii) A very narrow forbidden energy gap between conduction and valence bands.
(iv) Example: Si and Ge.
17.7 Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors. How would you obtain n-type and p-
type material from pure silicon?
Semi-conductors in their purest form without any impurity are called intrinsic semi-conductors. Silicon and
germanium are intrinsic semi-conductors. Example: Si and Ge in pure form.
Extrinsic Semi-conductors: Those semi-conductors to which some impurities are added to obtain the
desired conduction properties are called extrinsic semi-conductors P-type and N-type are the extrinsic
semiconductors. Example: Si and Ge in doped form with Al or P.
N-type: When a silicon or germanium crystal is doped with pentavalent element
such as arsenic antimony or phosphorus, four valence electrons of impurity atom
form covalent bond with the four neighboring Si atoms in the crystal. Such a doped
substance is called N-type semi-conductor.
P-type: When a silicon crystal is doped with a trivalent element such as aluminum,
boron, gallium or indium etc., three valence electrons of the impurity atom form
covalent with three neighboring silicon atoms, where as one electron is missing for
the fourth Si atom i.e., a hole is created which is vacancy where an electron can be
accommodated. Such a semi- conductor is called p-type semi-conductor. The
figure shows the P-type semi-conductor.
17.8 Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure
semi- conductor element.
In pure semiconductors, number of “holes” is equal to “free electrons”. When a
certain amount of voltage is applied to a semiconductor, an electric field is
generated. Due to this electric field, the holes and free electrons
experience the effect of some force. Due to this electric force,
electrons get drift velocity on one direction whereas holes get drift
velocity in the opposite direction. This is the reason for conduction
of electric current inside semiconductors. The total current flowing
is equal to the sum of current due to motion of free electrons and
the current flowing due to holes.
17.9 Write a note on superconductors.
Superconductors are those conductors whose resistance reduces to zero below the critical temperature. A
ceramic material can work as a superconductor at 125K. YBa2Cu3O7 behaves as a superconductor even at
165K. used: Superconductors are being used in MRI, magnetic levitation trains, faster computer chips.A
current set up once in a superconductor ring will go on moving for indefinite period.
17.10 What is meant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for each.
 Paramagnetic Substances: The orbits and the spin axes of the electrons in an atom are so oriented that
their fields support each other and the atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Substances with such atoms are
called paramagnetic substances e.g. ozone and platinum.
 Diamagnetic substance are those substances in which magnetic fields produced due to the spin and orbital
motion of the electrons cancel each other effects so these substances cannot be magnetized e.g., copper,
bismuth, antimony etc.
 Ferromagnetic Substances: There are some solid substances in which the atoms co-operate with each
other in such a way so as to exhibit a strong magnetic effect. They are called ferromagnetic substance e.g.,
Fe, Co, Ni, and Alinco.
17.11 What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a transformer?
Hysteresis Loss: The area of the loop is a measure of the energy needed to magnetize and demagnetize the
specimen during each cycle of the magnetizing current. This is the energy required to do work against
internal friction of the domains. This work like all work that is done against friction is dissipated as heat so it
is called hysteresis loss.
 Use: In transformer the cores of electromagnets used for alternating currents where the specimen
repeatedly undergoes magnetization and demagnetization should have narrow hysteresis curves of small
area to minimize the waste of energy.
18.1 How does motion of an electron in a n-type substance differ from
motion of holes in a p-type substance?
As we know that the majority charge carriers in N-type substances are
free electron and majority charge carriers in P-type substances are holes.
Both electrons and holes are moving in opposite direction. The
motion of electrons in N-type substances is much faster than the
motion of holes in P-type substances.
18.2 What is the net charge on a n-type or a p-type substance?
P-type and N-type substances are neutral. Since they are made as a
result of combination of atoms of intrinsic semi-conductors and
atoms of impurity. Atom as whole is neutral therefore there is no
net charge on P-type or N-type substance.
18.3 The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its
cathode. Is it forward-biased?
Forward biased
Yes, it is forward biased. If the anode of the diode (P-type substance) P n
is at higher potential 0.2 volt (positive) with respect to cathode (N-type substance),
so, P-n junction is forward biased.
18.4 Why charge carriers are not present in the depletion region?
In p-n-junction, n-region contains free electrons and p-region contain
holes.
As electrons in the n-region due to their random motion diffuse into the p
region. As a result of their diffusion, the recombination of electrons and
holes take place within depletion region since the charge carriers are
removed so charge less region is formed in which charge carriers are not
present so, depletion region has no charge carriers.
18.5 What is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of a diode on the width of depletion region?
Case#1 When a diode is forward biased, the width of depletion region
decreases then forward resistance also decreases, forward current increases.
Case#2 while when a diode is reversed biased, the width of depletion
region is increased then reverse resistance increases, reverse current
decreases.
18.6 Why ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light?
There are two reasons for ordinary silicon diode do not emit light.
(i) Opaque nature of silicon.
(ii) In forward biased condition when electrons recombine with holes energy will
release in the form of photons whose wavelength will lies in invisible region
(Infrared radiation) because their wavelength will be greater than visible region.
18.7 Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?

Photodiode is basically the device used for the detection of light. In the
absence of light, current is negligible due to reverse biased state. As
light falls on it, then electron-hole pair is created due to which reverse
current increases and hence light can be detected.
18.8 Why is the base current in a transistor very small?
 As base is very thin of the order of 106 m then emitter and
collector and also impurity ratio in base is very small as
compared to emitter and collector.
 Secondary the voltage between collector to base is very large
as compared to voltage between base to emitter.
 That is why, the base current in a transistor is very small.
18.9 What is the biasing requirement of the junctions of a transistor for its normal operation? Explain
how these requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?
For normal operations of transistors,
 Batteries VBB and VCC are connected in such a way that its emitter-base
junction is forward biased and its collector-base junction is reverse biased.
 VCC is of much higher value than VBB.
For common emitter amplifier VBB forward biases, the base-emitter
junction and VCC reverse biases the collector base junction.
18.10 What is the principle of virtual ground? Apply it to find the gain of an inverting amplifier.
Figure shows operational amplifier as an inverting amplifier.
As V+ - V- ~
- 0 V+ ~- V-
For
= =
G=
Since V+ is at ground so V is virtually at ground potential i.e., V ~ 0. This is known as virtual ground
principle.
18.11 The inputs of a gate are 1 and 0. Identify the gate if its output is (a) 0, (b) 1.
The inputs of a gate are 1 and 0. Identify the gate if its input is (a) 0 and (b) 1.
(a)AND gate (b)OR gate
18.12 Tick () the correct answer ANSWERS.

(i) (c) (ii) (d) (iii) (d) (iv) (a) (v)(b)
(vi) (c) (vii) (a) (viii) (d) (ix) (a)
19.1 What are the measurements on which two observers in relative motion will always agree upon?
Two observers in relative motion will always agree upon that the measurements of
 Force
 Acceleration
 Velocity of light
by two observers in different inertial frames of reference will be identical.
19.2 Does the dilation mean that time really passes more slowly in moving system or that it only
seems to pass more slowly?
 Time dilation is a real effect and time really passes slowly.
 As
√
The time dilation is purely due to relative motion. It really happens when observers are in relative motion.
The result is applied to the timing process physical, chemical and biological.
For Example: Even aging process of the human body is slowed down by motion at very high speed. It should
be noted that we cannot detects such changes in daily life because we are not moving at speed comparable to
the speed of the light.
19.3 If you are moving in a spaceship at a very high-speed relative to the Earth, would you notice a
difference (a) in your pulse rate (b) in your pulse rate of people on Earth?
As
√
Also pulse rate =

(a) As you are in the frame of events so your pulse rate will remain same. The pulse rate of the person in
spaceship is the proper pulse rate. There will be no difference in the pulse rate as the inertial frame of
reference is same.
(b) But the people on earth are in relative motion with respect to the observer in the spaceship, so the time
with respect to observer will increase. So as time increases (dilate), the pulse rate of people on earth will
decrease relative to observer in spaceship.
19.4 If the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of relativity
reduce to?
When speed of light approaches to infinity then c =  then √ =√ =√ 
 Time: Dilated Time and Proper Time are equal.
√
 Length √ Contract length and Proper length are equal.

 Mass Variant mass and Proper mass are equal.
√
 Energy E=m =m = Energy become infinity.

So, there is no relativistic effect is observed under this condition. Thus, there is no change in mass, time,
length and if E = , which is impossible.
19.5 Since mass is a form of energy, can we conclude that a compressed spring has more mass than
the same spring when it is not compressed?
 From classical point of view the mass remain same.
 According to theory of relativity, change of mass is due to relative motion and not due to
position.
As m =
Because c2 is a very large quantity, this implies that significant changes in mass changes in require
very large energy. So compressed spring has more mass. In everyday world, energy changes are too
small to provide measurable mass changes.
19.6 As a solid is heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red?
As
also
So, 
We know that when a body is heated, it emits radiations. At low temperature, it emits radiations of
longer wavelength. Since the longest visible wavelength is red, so it first appears red.
19.7 What happens to total radiation from a blackbody if its absolute temperature is doubled?
According to Steffen Boltz man‟s law, the amount of energy radiated from the hot body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature i.e.,
E=T4
If T= 2T
Then E = (2T)4
= 16 T4
= 16 (T4)
E = 16E
Hence the total radiation from a black body increases 16 times if its absolute temperature is
doubled.
19.8 A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which beam
contains the greater number of photons?
The energy of the photon of light by Planck quantum theory is given by:
Where h is the Planck constant and f is the frequency of light. Let n be the number of photons of
light. As energy of photon is E = nhc/
As E, h and C are constant. So,
n  
As red light has longer wavelength than blue light, so red light contains greater no. of photons.
19.9 Which photon, red, green, or blue carries the most (a) energy and (b) momentum?
Blue photon carries more energy and momentum.
The expression for energy and momentum of a photon is given by
E = hf
and P = hf/c
As h and c are constant then E f
and P f
As blue light (photon) has highest frequency (lowest wavelength). So blue photon carries more energy
and momentum.
19.10 Which has the lower energy quanta? Radio waves or X-rays?
As the energy of photon is
E = hf
E f
As Energy depends upon frequency.
As Energy is directly proportional to frequency. Since frequency of radio waves is less than X-rays.
Therefore, radio waves have low energy quanta.
19.11 Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depend on the frequency of photons or on the
number of photons?
Brightness or intensity of light beam of specific color means the number of photons of light passing
per sec per unit area.
As B or I  n
The brightness or intensity of a beam of light depends upon no. of photons, not on the frequency.
E = hf
E f
 As Energy is directly proportional to frequency of radiations. The energy of photon depends
upon the frequency.
19.12 When ultraviolet light falls on certain dyes, visible light is emitted. Why does this not happen
when infrared light falls on these dyes.
E = hf
E f
 As Energy is directly proportional to frequency of radiations.
The ultraviolet light contains photons of high energy. They excite the atoms of dyes which emit
visible light on de-excitation. However, infrared has less energy, so on de-excitation of atoms,
invisible light is emitted. OR
As frequency of ultraviolet light is greater than that of infrared light.
19.13 Will bright light eject more electrons from a metal surface than dimmer light of the same
colour?
 As n (ejected electrons)  B or I 
 B or I  n (no. of photons)
As number of electrons depends on number of photon and bright light contains more photons, so it
will emit greater number of electrons provided its frequency is greater than threshold frequency of
metal.
19.14 Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons than low frequency light?
 As n (ejected electrons)  B or I 
 B or I  n (no. of photons)
No, because number of ejected electrons depend on the intensity of light and not on the frequency.
Therefore, higher frequency and lower frequency will eject same number of electrons.
19.15 When light shines on a surface, is momentum transferred to the metal surface?
Yes, momentum of photons is transferred to the atoms of the metal surface.
When light falls on metal surface, the photons are absorbed by the surface. Therefore, both energy
and momentum of the photons are transferred to the atoms of the surface. The exchange of energy
and momentum to the surface is so small that it hardly produces any disturbance in photo emissive
surface.
For Example: In photoelectric effect Energy and momentum of photons is transferred to the
atoms of the metal surface. When light falls on metal surface, the photons are absorbed by the
surface.
19.16 Why can red light be used in a photographic dark room when developing films, but a blue or
white light cannot?
Photographic films and materials concerned are least affected in the presence of red light than blue and
white light.
 As the energy of photon is
E = nhc/
E  1/
where  is greater for red light.
 Photons of red light in visible spectrum has the longest wavelength and the least energy. Therefore,
photographic films and materials concerned are least affected in the presence of red light than blue
and white light.
19.17 Photon „A‟ has twice the energy of photon „B‟ what is the ratio of momentum of „A‟ to that of
„B‟.
As, EA = hfA
EA =hc / λA =PA c ---------------------- (1) and
EB = hfB
EB = hc / λB =PB c ---------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2) So,
Since EA = 2EB
PA : PB = 2: 1
19.18 Why don‟t we observe a Compton effect with visible light?
No, we don‟t observe a Compton effect with visible light
As Photons of visible light (violet) are most energetic and have energy:
E = hc / λ = J
E= eV
E = 310 eV
E = 310 KeV
In order to observe Compton‟s effect, minimum energy of photon must be 0.51 MeV or greater as
photon of visible light does not has this energy range and momentum therefore Compton‟s effect
cannot be observed with visible light it can only be observed from X-rays.
19.19 Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain?
No pair production cannot take place in vacuum rather it must take place near a nucleus.
Reason Pair production takes place near the nucleus which takes recoil to conserve momentum.
Law of conservation of momentum and energy will hold.
Thus, law of conservation of momentum will be violated if
pair production takes place in vacuum. Hence, pair
production cannot take place in vacuum as it does not
contain matter.
19.20 Is it possible to create a single electron from energy?
No, it is not possible to create a single electron from energy.
Pair production takes place near the nucleus which takes
recoil to conserve momentum. Law of conservation of charge,
momentum and energy will hold.
As energy has no charge and electron has negative charge. So, a single electron cannot be created
from energy because it is against the law of conservation of charge and momentum.
19.21 If electrons behaved only like particles, what pattern would you expect on the screen after the
electrons pass through the double slit?
We will only observe the images of two slits on the
screen.
Reason. Electrons will strike only those points of the
screen which are Infront of double slits, causing it to
glow and produces exact images of the slits.
So, if electrons have particles like property diffraction
will not take place and electrons would pass straight
through the slits. Therefore, the interference pattern on
the screen will not be observed. We will only observe the images of two slits on the screen.
19.22 If an electron and a proton have the same de Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater
speed?
The wavelength associated with the particle of mass m when moving with velocity
v is given by
Since both electron and proton have the same de Broglie wavelength. Also “h” is constant
This shows that, if √
So,
√

As wavelength is same, speed is inversely proportional to mass therefore electron will have
greater speed as its mass is less than that of proton.
19.23 We do not notice the de-Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket ball. Explain why?
According to de-Broglie hypothesis, wavelength of moving particle is inversely proportional to
momentum.
√
So,
√
As wavelength is inversely proportional to mass. So,
Due to large mass the de-Broglie wavelength for a cricket ball is extremely small that it is not
measurable or detectable.
19.24 If the following particles all have the same energy, which has the shortest wavelength?
Electron, alpha particle, neutron and proton.
According to de-Broglie, the wavelength of the particle of mass m when moving with velocity v is
given by
√
As wavelength is inversely proportional to mass and energy. So, As E = eV
√
As all the particle have same energy. Also “h” is constant
then
√
As alpha particle has the greatest mass, so it has the shortest wavelength.
19.25 When does light behave as a wave? When does it behave as a particle?
 Light behaves as wave in
 Interference
 Diffraction,
 Polarization
 Reflection, refraction i.e., during its propagation.
 Light behaves as particle in
 Photoelectric effect,
 Compton‟s effect
 Pair Production and
 Black body radiation i.e., during its interaction with matter.
19.26 What advantages an electron microscope has over an optical microscope?
Resolving power of an electron microscope is greater than optical microscope.
As R =
This Show that Resolving power is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
Since wavelength of electrons is very short therefore its resolving power is very high.
19.27 If measurements show a precise position for an electron, can those measurements show precise
momentum also? Explain.
No, according to uncertainty principle “position and momentum of a particle cannot be measured
simultaneously with perfect accuracy”. So, if measurement show a precise position for electron in an
experiment then precise measurement of momentum of electron is impossible in that experiment.
Mathematical form: The Product of uncertainty in momentum and position is approximately equal to
plank‟s constant.
20.1 Bohr‟s theory of hydrogen atom is based upon several assumptions. Do any of these assumptions
contradict classical physics?
Yes, Bohr‟s first postulate contradict with classical physics. According to classical physics every
moving particle radiate energy continuously therefore, accelerated electron must radiate energy and will
fall into nucleus but according to Bohr‟s theory an electron does not radiate energy when moving around
the nucleus in a fixed orbit. It radiates energy when it jumps from higher to lower energy orbit.
20.2 What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how

line
spectrum can be used for identification of
elements?
When atoms of an element are excited by absorbing the
energy from the incident photon, the excited atoms
return to the ground state by the emission of energy
forms a spectrum of definite spectral lines, such a
spectrum is called a line spectrum.
A spectrum consists of discrete lines. Thus, we can
identify different elements because each element has
characteristic lines of definite wavelength.
For Example: line spectrum of Hydrogen atom.
20.3 Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom absorb a photon of energy 13.6 eV and
greater than 13.6 eV?
Yes, photon of energy 13.6 eV will be absorbed by the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom for
ionization because ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. But if energy of photon is greater than
13.6 eV then surplus energy is changed into kinetic energy of electron.
Absorbed energy greater than 13.6eV Ionization Energy + K.E of
(h ) Of Hydrogen atom Elecetron
20.4 How can the spectrum of hydrogen contain so many
lines when hydrogen contains one electron?
The spectrum of hydrogen contains so many lines when
hydrogen contains one electron because in an excited
hydrogen atom, electron falls back to ground state in
different steps, emitting lines of different wavelength.
 (For each orbit, photon of different wavelength emits).
So, that is why the spectrum of hydrogen contains so many
lines when hydrogen contains one electron.
20.5 Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light?
Yes, during excitation atom receives energy from some
external source and during de-excitation same energy is
emitted in the form of photon. This means that energy
absorbed by atom, during excitation is equal to the energy
emitted during de-excitation.
 For Example: For H-atom energy absorbed by atom,
during excitation is equal to the energy emitted during de-
excitation.
Hence
20.6 Explain why a glowing gas gives only certain wavelength of light and why that gas is capable of
absorbing the same wavelengths? Give a reason why it is transparent to other wavelengths?
A glowing gas gives only certain wavelengths because
in an atom there are only certain energy states and
transition between these states gives light of certain
wavelengths. Similarly, an atom can absorb only those
photons which have energy equal to energy difference
between these two states and gas atoms are transparent
to other wavelengths.

20.7 What do we mean when say that the atom is excited?
When electron jumps from lower energy level to high energy level
by providing some energy, the atom is said to be in excited state.

20.8 Can X-rays be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized
just like any other waves? Explain.
Yes, X-rays are electromagnetic waves and they can be diffracted, reflected, refracted and polarized
but their conditions may be different from that of ordinary light e.g., light can be diffracted by diffraction
grating but X-rays cannot be diffracted by grating.
 For Example: X-rays diffraction through Ni-crystal.
20.9 What are the advantages of lasers over ordinary light?
Laser light has following advantages over ordinary light:
(i) It is mono-chromatic i.e., single wavelength while ordinary light has many wavelengths.
(ii) It is phase-coherent while ordinary light has no phase coherent.
(iii) It is uni-directional while ordinary light spreads in all direction.
(iv) It is much more intense than ordinary light.
20.10 Explain why laser action could not occur without
population inversion between atomic levels?
 Population inversion means number of atoms in the
metastable state are greater than number of atoms in
ground state.
 Laser light is produced due to stimulated emission. For
this most of electrons should be in the excited state. So,
population inversion is necessary for laser action.
CHAPTER 21 SHORT QUESTIONS
21.1 What are isotopes? What do they have in common and what are their differences?
Isotopes can also be defined as those atoms of the same element which have different number of
neutrons within the nucleus.
Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having same atomic number (same number of Protons and
Physical properties) but different mass number (Number of neutrons and chemical properties).
Example: Hydrogen has three isotopes i.e., H1, H2, H3 Isotopes have got the same chemical properties but
their physical properties are different.
21.2 Why are heavy nuclei unstable?
A nucleus is unstable if it is too big that is its atomic number is greater than 82.
The heavy nuclei are unstable because these nuclei having large difference in number of protons and
neutrons. Also, their binding energy per nucleon is very small therefore, they are unstable and very small
amount of energy is required to split a heavy nucleus.
Example: Uranium‟s nuclei is heavy and unstable.
21.3 If a nucleus has a half-life of 1 year, does this mean that it will be completely decayed after 2
years? Explain.
No, that it will not be completely decayed after 2 years.
Reason: As Also n
The half-life (T1/2) of a radioactive element is the time in which half of atoms decay. This means that if
a given sample has half-life of one year, then 50% sample decay after one year and 50% will remain
while next one year 25% will decay and 25% will remain this mean that after two years 75% sample
will decay and 25% will left and so on.
So, For N
Therefore, an infinite time is required for complete decay of sample.
21.4 What fraction of a radioactive sample decays after two half-lives have elapsed?
Let N is the total number of atoms at any instant and is original number of atoms.
Then After first half-life, number of atoms decayed = T1/2
After 2nd half-life, number of atoms decayed = 2T1/2
Total number of atoms decayed after two half-lives
Fraction of sample decayed =
= 75%
So, the number of un-decayed atoms = 25%.
21.5 The radioactive element has a half-life of 1.6  103 years. Since the Earth is about 5 billion
years old, how can you explain why we still can find this element in nature?
Only half of the present number of atoms will decay after 1.6  103 years and so on. It means that
it will take infinite time to completely decay. So due to this fact is still available in nature.
Reason: As Also n
The half-life (T1/2) of a radioactive element is the time in which half of atoms decay. This means that if
a given sample has half-life of one year, then 50% sample decay after one year and 50% will remain
while next one year 25% will decay and 25% will remain this mean that after two years 75% sample
will decay and 25% will left and so on.
So, For N
21.6 Describe a brief account of interaction of various types of radiations with matter.
INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER
(a) Interaction of -particle with matter
(i) An -particle travels a well-defined distance in a medium before coming to rest, which is called
range of -particle.
(ii) As the -particle passes through a solid, liquid or gas, it loses its energy due to excitation and
ionization of atoms and molecules in the matter.
(iii) -particle ionizes, by direct elastic collision with electron.
(iv) Ionization of -particle is the main interaction with matter, which helps to detect the particle and
measure its energy.
(v) -particle is about 7000 times more massive than an electron, so it is not easy for it to change its
direction from its straight path unless it passes very close to the nucleus of the atom.
(vi) The -particle continues to ionize atoms of matter along their path straight paths till they come to
rest after losing their energies.
(b) Interaction of -particles with matter
(i) -particle lose their energy to ionize the atoms or molecules of the matter through which they
pass.
(ii) The range of -particles is 100 times more than that of -particles.
(iii) Path of -particles while passing through matter is not straight.
(iv) The range of -particle is measured by the effective depth of penetration into matter.
(v) The range of -particle depends upon the density of matter.
(vi) -particles when slowed down by electric field of particles radiate energy as x-ray photons.
(c) Interaction of -rays with matter
(i) -rays are unchanged (i.e., neutral), having zero rest mass, so they cannot be easily stopped.
(ii) -rays are electromagnetic waves having short wavelength and high frequency than that of x-rays.
(iii) Their ionizing power is very small but penetrating power is very high.
(iv) -rays interact with matter in three different ways depending on their energy.
21.7 Explain how  and -particles may ionize an atom without directly hitting the electrons?
What is the difference in the action of the two particles for producing ionization?
-particle will produce more ionization than -particle.
Reason: An -particle is positively charged particle so it causes ionization in matter due to
electrostatics force of attraction while as -particle is a negatively charged particle produces ionization
due to repulsion. Difference in their action is -particle pulls an electron from the atom but -particle
repels an electron out of the atom in ionizing the atom.
ence,-particle will produce more ionization than -particle.
21.8 A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. Why?
A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. (I 
Reason: As ionization power and penetrating power are inversely proportional to each and other.
A particle which produces more ionization loses a part of its energy during each collision with an
atom. The process of ionization continuous till the particle loses all its energy and comes to rest.
Therefore, it has less penetrating power.
Example:
As -particle is highly ionizing therefore its penetration is less than -particle.
21.9 What information is revealed by the length and shape of the tracks of an incident particle in
Wilson cloud chamber?
By observing the length and shape of tracks of incident particles we can study the nature and
energy of that particle.
(i) -particle: If the track is thin, straight
continuous and smaller in length then it will represent
-particle because ionization power of -particle is
large but range is small.
(ii) -particle: If the track is thin, discontinuous and
long then the track will represent -particle whose
ionization power is small.
(iii) -particle: -rays leave behind no definite tracks
which is proportional to the energy of incident particle 
because ionization power of -rays is very small. - Particle B-particle. g-Particle
21.10 Why must a Geiger Muller tube for detecting -particles have a very thin end window? Why
does a Geiger Muller tube for detecting -rays not need a window it all?
A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. ( I 
A Geiger Muller tube has a very thin end window for detecting -particles because -particles possess
less penetrating power and very small range as compared to  and -rays. Therefore, a window allows
their entry into the tube easily. The G.M tube does not need a thin window for detecting -ray because of
the high penetrating power.
21.11 Describe the principle of operation of a solid-state detector of ionizing radiation in terms of
generation and detection of charge carriers.
Solid state detector is a specially designed P-N junction. It is always operated
in reverse biased. Normally no current flows through the circuit. When an
incident particle penetrates through the depletion region it produces electron
hole pairs. These mobile charge carriers move towards the respective sides due
to applied electric field. This gives rise to a current in the external circuit due
to which a pulse of voltage is generated across the resistance R. The size of the
pulse is found proportional to the energy absorbed of the incident particle.
21.12 What do we mean by the term critical mass?
Critical mass:
Such a mass of uranium in which one neutron out of all the neutrons produced
in one fission reaction produces further fission.
The volume of this mass of uranium is called the critical mass.
Example:
Critical mass of U-235 is approximate 47 kg.
Conditions:
 speed of reaction increases.
 speed of reaction will remain same.
 no fission reaction will occur.
21.13 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power compared to the use of fossil fuel
generated power.
Nuclear power Fossil fuel
Advantages
(1) It produces a large amount of energy. (1) It produces a limited amount of energy.
(2) 1 kg of uranium produces 2  10 kwh of energy (2) The same amount of energy is produced by using.
7
during fission process.

(3) It does not produce smoke. So, atmosphere is (3) It produces smoke and causes pollution in air.
free of pollution.
(4) The cost of electricity produced by nuclear plant (4) The cost of electricity produced by it is high.
power is cheap.
(5) Waste product can be reprocessed. (5) Waste products cannot be used.
(6) It is permanent for a given time. (6) It is not permanent for a given period of time.
Disadvantages
(1) Its fuel is not easily available in the market. (1) Its fuel is easily available.
(2) Its handling is dangerous. (2) It is not dangerous.
(3) Its waste products are dangerous to be handled. (3) Its waste products are not dangerous.
(4) It cannot control easily. (4) It can control easily.
21.14 What factors make a fusion reaction difficult to achieve?
When two light nuclei are brought together, a strong force of repulsion comes into
play. This force of repulsion prevents the nuclei to fuse together.
 To overcome this difficulty the nuclei should be at very high velocity, which
needs temperature of the order 107 K. Such a high temperature cannot be
produced on earth by any other means.
 This reaction required large amount of energy and temperature up to millions
degree centigrade. So, these requirements are not possible to achieve so the fusion
reaction is very difficult to achieve.
 For Example: Formation of He from hydrogen is require large amount and high temperature.
21.15 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fusion power from the point of safety.
Pollution and resources.
Advantages
(1) The fusion reaction is free from radioactive products so it will be safe from pollution and
resources.
(2) This reaction produces more energy per nucleon.
(3) The energy produced by fusion is cheaper than other sources.
(4) It does not produce smoke. So, atmosphere is free of pollution.
Disadvantages
(1) It is difficult to control this reaction.
(2) It is difficult to start the fusion reaction.
(3) Its handling is dangerous.
(4) Its waste products are dangerous.
21.16 Do you understand by “background radiation”? State two sources of this radiation?
Back ground radiation, are the low intensity radiation resulting from the bombardment of the cosmic
rays and from the presence of naturally occurring radioactive nuclei in rocks, soil, air and building
materials.
Sources:
The two sources of these radiations are K40 and C14.
21.17 If you swallowed an , -source, which would be the more dangerous to you? Explain why?
As A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. (I 
If you swallowed an , -source, which would be the more dangerous to you then -particles are
more dangerous than -particles because -particles have greater ionizing power as compared to -
particles. -particles can cause more damage to tissues.
 Due to greater ionizing power as compared to -particles -particles will damage DNA.
 The alpha particles are about 20 times as likely to lead to cancer, for the same dose in terms of
energy per unit mass.
21.18 Which radiation dose would deposit more energy to your body (a) 10 mGy to your hand, or
(b) 1 mGy dose to your entire body?
We know that
Dose =
E = m.D
Let m1 be the mass of hand and E1 be the energy.
E1 = m1 (10 mGy) ………………(1)
m2 be the mass of entire body and E2 be the energy.
E2 = m2 (1 mGy) ………… (2)
Since the mass of the entire body is far greater than mass of hand. Therefore 1 mGy dose will
deposit more energy.
21.19 What is a radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicine, agriculture and
industry.
A radioactive isotope behaves in just the same way as the normal isotope inside a living organism.
But location and concentration of a radioactive isotope can be determined by measuring radiation
it emits. Thus, a radioactive isotope acts as a tracer.
Uses of Tracers
(1) In medicine: The tracers are used in medicine to detect the malignant tumors.
(2) In understanding of photosynthesis: This technique has helped to understand more clearly
the complex process of photo synthesis.
21.20 How can radioactivity help in the treatment of cancer?
Radiation therapy kills cancer cells or slows their growth by damaging their DNA.
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) is a cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation
to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors.
Examples:
 Radioactivity with -rays from cobalt 60 is often used in the treatment of cancer. The -rays
are carefully focused on the malignant tissue. Similarly,
 Radioactive iodine 131 is used to combat cancer if the thyroid gland.
 For skin cancer P-32 and Sr-90 is used.
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KIPS COLLEGE GARDEN TOWN

CHAPTER #12 SHORT QUESTIONS

Also …………. (i) and ………… (ii

value of resistance = 1500  5% 

If R4 is unknown can be finding by

As = N Change and will Generated z

 = BA cos 90  = BA (0)  n

If is double then is also double. If is double then become half.

Hence become double. become half)

 Education is simply the

Strain energy = (F) ( ) =

18.7 Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?

18.12 Tick () the correct answer ANSWERS.

Also pulse rate =

 Length √ Contract length and Proper length are equal.

 Energy E=m =m = Energy become infinity.

20.2 What is meant by a line spectrum? Explain, how

during fission process.

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