S2 CHEMISTRY NOTES BY Jean Claude

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit1: Chemical bonding
Unit2: Trends in properties of elements in the periodic table
Unit3: Water pollution
Unit4: Effective ways of waste management
Unit5: Categories of chemical reactions
Unit6: Preparation of salts and identification of ions
Unit7: The mole concept and gas laws
Unit8: Preparation and classification of oxides
Unit9: Electrolysis and non-electrolytes
Unit10: Properties of organic compounds and uses of alkanes
UNIT1: CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Stability of atoms
An atom is most stable when its outermost energy level is completely filled with electrons (i.e.
2electrons for helium or 8 electrons for others).
PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

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Therefore, atoms of noble gases are stable because their outermost energy levels are
completely filled up with electrons. They include helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton
(Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn).
Noble Symbol Atomic Electronic Number of
number configuration electrons in
gas outermost
shell
Helium He 2 2 2
Neon Ne 10 2,8 8
Argon Ne 18 2,8,8 8
Krypton Kr 36 2,8,18,8 8
Xenon Xe 54 2,8,18,18,8 8
Radon Rn 86 2,8,18,32,18,8 8
2. Instability of atoms
Atoms whose outermost shells are not filled with either 2 or 8 electrons are instable.
Therefore, atoms of these element, will lose, gain or share electrons in order to become stable
like noble gases.
 Metals lose electrons from their outermost shells to become stable.

 Non-metals gain or share electrons to become stable atoms.
Example
The following diagrams represent electron models of certain elements.
i) Give the names of elements a, b, c, d, and e.

ii) Comment about the number of electrons in the outermost energy level in each of the
elements. iii) State whether each element is stable or unstable.

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Answer
Name of element Number of electrons Stability
a) Hydrogen 1 Unstable
b) Helium 2 Stable
c) Oxygen 6 Unstable
d) Lithium 1 Unstable
e) Neon 8 Stable
3. Formation of ions from atoms

 Atoms are electrically neutral (because the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to
the number of electrons in the shell). This means that atom has no charge.
 When atoms lose or gain electrons, they form ions.
 An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom.
 Atoms of metal elements lose electrons from their outermost shells to form positively
charged ions (Cations).
 Atoms of non-metal elements gain electrons to form negatively charged ions (Anions).
i) Formation of cations
Atoms of metal elements lose electrons from their outermost shells to form positively
charged ions (Cations).
Examples
 Formation of sodium ion
 Formation ion calcium ion

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 Formation of aluminium ion
ii) Formation of anions

Atoms of non-metal elements gain electrons to form negatively charged ions (Anions). 
Formation of fluoride ion
 Formation of nitride ion
4. Chemical bonding
A chemical bond is the force that holds atoms (or ions) together.

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Types of chemical bonds

There are three types of chemical bonds:
 Ionic bonds
 Covalent bonds  Metallic bonds
1. Ionic bonding
An ionic bond is the force that holds the ions together in an ionic compound.
i. Formation of ionic bond

 Ionic bond is formed between metals and non-metals atoms.
 It is formed by transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. Metal
atoms lose their outermost electron(s), forming cations and non-metal atoms gain
electron(s) to fill their outermost shell, forming anions.
 The electrostatic force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions that holds the
ions together is called ionic bond.
Examples:
When a hot sodium atom is placed in chlorine gas, a reaction takes place resulting in
formation of sodium chloride.
1. Formation of sodium chloride (using diagram)
The resulting compound is called sodium chloride, NaCl.
A dot ( • ) and a cross ( × ) diagram is used to represent ionic bonding that results into ionic
compound.
2. Formation of magnesium fluoride

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 The magnesium ion and fluoride ions are attracted to one another by ionic bonds.
 The resulting compound is called magnesium fluoride, MgF2.
3. Formation of magnesium oxide (MgO)
The table below shows some of the common ionic compounds, their formulae and ions present
in them.
Names of ionic compounds Formula Ion present
Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Al3+ and O2−
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl NH4+ and Cl−
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ and OH−
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 Ca2+ and NO3−
Calcium oxide CaO
Magnesium chloride Ca2+ and O2−
MgCl2 Mg2+ and Cl−
Potassium chloride KCl
Sodium hydroxide K+ and Cl− Na+
NaOH
Sodium carbonate and OH− Na+
Na2CO3
Copper sulphate and CO3− Cu2+
CuSO4
and SO42−
ii. Physical properties of ionic compounds

 Ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling point.
 They have high densities.
 Most are soluble in water.
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten (liquid) or in aqueous solution
(dissolved in water), because their ions are free to move from place to place.

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 Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity when solid, as their ions are held in fixed
positions and cannot move.
 They are crystalline solids at room temperature.
Note:
 Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turn into liquid.
 Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into gas.
 The temperature of a solid and a liquid remains the same once melting and boiling has
been started.
Exercises
1) a) What is a chemical bonding?
b) Define an ionic bonding.
c) How ionic bonding is formed?
2) Fill in the missing words in the following sentences.
a) Ionic bonding is a type of attraction between …………….and………………..charged
ions. It is formed when there is a complete transfer of electrons from atoms of a
………………to atoms of a……………………..
b) When atoms lose electrons they form ……………..charged ion called…………….. The
lost electrons are gained by other atoms which become ……………..charged ions and
are known as ……………………..
3) Choose the best answer.
Ionic bonding usually occurs between what type of atoms? i)
Metal and metal ii) Non-metal and non-metal iii) Metal and
non-metal.
4) Draw dot and cross diagrams to show formation of ionic bonding in the following
compounds and derive the chemical formulae of the compounds formed. a) Magnesium
oxide
b) Calcium oxide
c) Sodium chloride
d) Sodium sulphide
e) Magnesium chloride
f) Aluminium oxide
g) Sodium oxide
h) Magnesium nitride
5) a) Give five examples of ionic compounds.
b) Explain five properties of ionic compounds.
c) Why do ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water?
e) Explain the following physical properties of ionic compounds.

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i) Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten and in aqueous form but not in
solid.
ii) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
6) Sodium chloride is an ionic compound. It is formed when sodium reacts with chlorine.
The atomic number of sodium and chlorine is 11 and 17 respectively.
a) Draw and label dot and cross diagrams to show the arrangement of the electrons in
the atoms of sodium and chlorine.
b) Draw and label dot and cross diagrams to show the arrangement of the electrons in
the ions formed when sodium reacts with chlorine.
c) Give the symbols of sodium ion and chloride ion formed.
d) Explain why solid sodium chloride does not conduct electricity but when molten it
does conduct electricity.
2. Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms.
i. Formation of covalent bond
 It is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms of non-metal only.
The sharing of electrons between atoms is called a covalent bond, and the electrons that join
atoms in a covalent bond are called bonding pair of electrons. A discrete group of atoms
connected by covalent bond is called a molecule.
 Each atom contributes one electrons to the pair that is being shared.
 When electrons are shared in this way, molecules are formed, not ions.
 The compounds containing covalent bonds are known as covalent compounds.
 Covalent bonds are found in:
• Non-metal elements such as Oxygen, Hydrogen, Fluorine, Nitrogen, Chlorine,
Bromine, Carbon, Phosphorus and Sulphur. (Similar elements)
• Compounds made of two or more different non-metal elements such as ammonia
(NH3), Water (H2O), Methane (CH4), Carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.
 A dot (•) and a cross (×) diagram are used to represent covalent bonding that results
into covalent compound.
a) Covalent bonds in elements

One covalent bond, two covalent bonds, three covalent bonds and four covalent bonds.
i) One covalent bond is formed when one pair of electrons is shared between atoms.

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Examples:
 Formation of chlorine molecule
ii) Two covalent bonds are formed when two pair of electrons are shared and Three
covalent bonds are formed when three pair of electrons are shared.
Example:
 Formation of oxygen molecule and nitrogen molecule
b) Covalent bonds in compounds

i. Formation of water molecule (H2O)
ii. Formation of ammonia molecule (NH3)

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iii. Formation of carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)
The table below shows some covalent compounds and their formulae and names.
Names of covalent Formula of Elements present
compounds covalent
compounds
Methane CH4 C and H

Ammonia NH3 N and H
Hydrogen sulphide H2S H and S
Carbon dioxide CO2 C and O
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 C and Cl
Ethane C2H6 C and H
Water H2O H and O
Hydrogen chloride HCl H and Cl
ii. Properties of covalent compounds

 Covalent compounds have low melting point and boiling point.
 Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because they do not contain ions.
 They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent like ethanol.
 They have low densities.
 They are usually liquids, gases or solids. For example, alcohol, water, cooking oil are
liquids. Methane, ethane and chlorine are gases. Iodine, Silicon dioxide, Diamond and
graphite are solid.

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iii. Differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds

Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
 Ionic compounds are crystalline  Covalent compounds are usually

solids solids, liquids and gases
 Ionic compounds have high melting  Covalent compounds have usually
point and boiling point low melting point and boiling point
 Ionic compound conduct electricity  Most covalent compounds do not
when dissolved in water or melted conduct electricity
 Ionic compounds are usually  Covalent compounds are usually
soluble insoluble in water (except sugar,
in water glucose)
Exercises
1) What do you mean by a covalent bond? 2)
Choose the correct answer.
a) What does a covalent bond involve?
i) Sharing electrons
between atoms ii)
Moving electrons
between atoms iii)
Forming free electrons.
b) How many electrons are involved in each covalent bond?
i) One ii) Two iii)
Three
3) I) Draw dot and cross diagrams to show the bonding in:
a) Fluorine molecule (F2)
b) Hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl)
c) Methane molecule (CH4)
d) Chlorine molecule (Cl2)
e) Ammonia molecule (NH3)
f) Water molecule (H2O)
g) Oxygen molecule (O2)
h) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
i) Nitrogen molecule (N2)

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j) Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)
II) How many covalent bonds are there in each molecule above?
4) Study the following atomic models
a) Name the types of covalent bonds shown in structures (a) and (b).
b) Give the name and the chemical formula of molecules (a) and (b).
5) a) Name five examples of covalent compounds. Also write their chemical formulae.
b) Explain the properties of covalent compounds.
c) Why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water.
6) a) Distinguish between covalent bond and ionic bond.
b) Explain the differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds.
5. Giant covalent structures

Structure refer to the arrangement of the bonded atoms, ions or molecules. A
giant covalent structure has a network of covalently bonded atoms.
Example: Graphite and Diamond have giant covalent structure
a) Graphite
i) Bonding in graphite
Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms hexagonally arranged in
flat parallel layers.

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ii) General properties of graphite

 Graphite is insoluble in water.
 Graphite conducts electricity because there are free electrons available to carry electric
charges.
 It has high melting point (35000C)
 It has a low density  It is black in color.
 It is soft and greasy.
iii) Uses of graphite

 Graphite is used as an electrode in dry cells and during electrolysis. Because it is a
good conductor of electricity.
 It is used as a lubricant. Because it is slippery.
 Graphite is used in the manufacture of “lead” in pencils. Because it is soft.
Note:
“Lead” is the black or grey part of the pencil used to write.
b) Diamond
i) Bonding in diamond
In diamond, every carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms tetrahedrally
arranged.
ii) General properties of diamond

 Diamond is insoluble in water.
 Diamond does not conduct electricity because there are no free electrons available to
carry electric charges.
 It has high melting point (37000C)
 It has a high density
 It is colorless, transparent and dazzling (sparkles), hence beautiful.
 It is the hardest naturally occurring substance.

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iii) Uses of diamond

 Diamond is used in making jewellery. Because it has a sparkling (shining) surface.
 Diamond is used in the manufacture of glass cutters. Because it is very hard.
 It is used for making drilling bits. Because it is very hard.
 It is used to cut metals. Because it is very hard.
 Making different objects like watches (isaha), ornaments (imitako), etc.
Exercises
1) a) What structure?
b) Name two substances which have giant covalent structure.
2) a) Draw the structure of graphite and explain the arrangement of atoms.

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b) Explain the physical properties of graphite.

c) Write three uses of graphite.
3) a) Draw the structure of diamond and explain the arrangement of atoms.
b) Explain the physical properties of diamond.
c) Write three uses of diamond.
4) The following diagrams show the structure of two forms of carbon (graphite and
diamond). Study them and answer the questions that follow:
a) State what is labelled as I and II in graphite.

b) Give one use of graphite that depends on its slippery nature.
c) Explain how bonding in graphite makes it conduct electricity.
d) State a use of graphite that depends on its electrical conductivity.
e) State two properties and two uses of diamond.
5) The following table gives information about six substances (the letters do not represent
the actual chemical symbols)
Substance Melting point Boiling point Electrical Electrical
0C 0C conductivity as conductivity as
a solid a liquid
A 801 1413 Poor Good
B -210 -196 Poor Poor
C 776 1497 Good Good
D -117 78 Poor Poor
E 1607 2227 Poor Poor
F -5 102 Poor Poor
a) Which substance has a giant covalent structure?

b) Which substances are solids at room temperature?
c) Which substance could be sodium chloride?
d) Which substance is an ionic compound?
e) Which substances are liquids at room temperature?
f) Which substance is most suitable for making of a cooking pot?

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3. Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions.
The force which binds various metal atoms together is called metallic bond.
In the metal, each metal atom gives up its electron(s) in the outermost energy level to form a
sea of delocalized electrons, which move about freely in the metal structure. This partial
removal of the electron(s) from metal atom creates a positive metal ion or positive core that is
the rest of the atom excluding the outermost energy level electrons.
Consequently, an electrostatic force of attraction develops between the positive metal ion
and the sea of electrons and this is the metallic bond. Note:
The more electrons that are given up to the sea of electrons, the stronger the metallic bond.
Example:
 The metallic bond in magnesium is stronger than that in sodium metal because
magnesium gives two electrons to the sea of delocalized electrons than sodium which
gives only one electron.
 Aluminium forms stronger metallic bond than magnesium metal.
a. Bonding in metals
Example

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b. Physical properties of metals

 Since electrons are able to move freely, they can easily transfer (conduct) heat and
electricity through the metal. The reason why Metals are good conductors of electricity and
heat.
Note: Conduction of electricity

A substance can conduct electricity if:
• It contains charged particles (electrons or ions) and These
particles are free to move from place to place.
• In ionic compounds, the particles that carry electric current are called
ions while in the wires, the particles that carry electric current are
called electrons.
Examples
Silver metal is the best conductor of electricity; copper is the next best conductor. Gold,
Aluminium and Tungsten are also good conductor of electricity.
 Metals are solids at room temperature except Mercury (Hg) which is liquid at room
temperature.
 Metals have high density and are very heavy.
 Metals are malleable, means that they can be beaten (hammered) into very thin
sheets. This property of metals is called malleability. Gold and Silver are the most
malleable metals.
 Metals are ductile, means that they can be drawn into thin wires. Gold and Silver are
the ductile metals.
 Metals have high melting points and boiling points.
 Metals are sonorous, means that they can make sound when hit.
 Metals are lustrous, means that they have a shining surface.
 Metals are hard except sodium and potassium which are soft and can be cut with a
knife.
c. Uses of metals
 Metals are used for manufacturing of building equipments like doors, windows and
roofing sheets.
 They are used in making saucepans, dishes, spoons, knives, forks, etc.
 Metals like copper and aluminium are used for making electric wires.

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Exercises
1) Describe the nature of metallic bonding.
2) Explain the properties of metals.
3) Explain why metals are good conductor of electricity?
4) State two general uses of metals.
5) Explain the terms:
i) Malleable
ii) Ductile
6) State a use of metals based on:
i) Malleabil
ity ii) Ductility

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UNIT 2: TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS IN THE

PERIODIC TABLE
1. Classification of elements into metals, metalloids and non-

metals
Elements can be grouped broadly as Metals, Non-metals or Metalloids.
Metals
 Atoms of metal elements have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outermost energy levels. 
Metal elements are in groups Ia, IIa, and IIIa of the periodic table.
 Group number: is indicated by number of electrons in the outermost shell of an
atom.
 Period number: is indicated by the number of electrons shells in an atom.
Examples of metal elements are:

Lithium, Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium, Potassium, etc.
Apart from groups Ia, IIa, and IIIa elements, most metals are transition elements. Examples
of transition metal elements are:
Silver(Ag), Iron (Fe), Copper(Cu) and Chromium(Cr).
Non-metals
 Non-metal elements have 4, 5, 6,7 and 8 electrons in their outermost energy level.
 They are found in groups IVa, Va, VIa, VIIa and VIIIa.
 Non-metals are found in blue color.
Examples of non-metal elements are:

Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S) and Chlorine (Cl), etc.

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Metalloids
Metalloids are elements which have both characteristics of metals and non-metals.
They are found in between metals and non-metals in the periodic table. Metalloids
elements are:
Boron (B), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Tellurium (Te) and
Polonium(Po).
The following periodic table indicates the groups and periods in which each element
belongs.
 Vertical columns of elements are called groups. Elements in the same group have the
same number of electrons in the outermost shell. This number of electrons which are in
the outermost shell is the same as group number.
 Horizontal rows of elements are called periods. Elements in the same period have the
same number of shells (energy level). This number of shells is the same as the number
of period.
a) Elements “A” are called representative elements or main group elements.

From group Ia, IIa, …………………VIIIa.
b) Elements “B” are called Transition metals.

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2. Physical properties of metals and non-metals

Physical properties of metals Physical properties of non-metals
Metals are good conductors of electricity Non-metals do not conduct heat and
and heat because they contain free electrons electricity because they have no free electrons
which are necessary to conduct electricity which are necessary to conduct heat and
electricity. Except carbon in the form of
graphite which is a good conductor of
electricity.
Metals are malleable, means that they can Non-metals are non-malleable, this
be beaten (hammered) into very thin sheets. This means that they cannot be made into sheets.
property of metals is called malleability. Gold and
Silver are the most malleable metals.
Metals are ductile, means that they can be Non-metals are not ductile, means that
drawn into thin wires. Gold and Silver are the they cannot be drawn into sheets.
ductile metals
Metals have high melting points and Non-metals have low melting points and
boiling points. boiling points. Only one non-metal called
diamond (Allotropic form of carbon) which has
high melting point. The melting point of
diamond is 35000C.
Metals have high density and are very heavy Non-metals have low density, that is
they are light substance.
Metals are sonorous, means that they can Non-metals are non-sonorous, means
make sound when hit. that they do not produce ringing sound when
hit.
Metals are lustrous, means that they have Non-metals are not lustrous, means
a shining surface. that they do not have a shining surface. The
only non-metal having a shining surface is
iodine.

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EXERCISES
1) An element has an electron arrangement 2,8,3. Is the element a metal or non-metal?
2) What meant by saying that the metals are malleable and ductile?
3) With the help of example, describe how metals differ from non-metals.
4) Name one metal and one non-metal which exist in liquid state at room temperature.
5) a) What are metalloids?
b) Give three examples of elements which are metalloids.

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3. Trends in reactivity for metals and non-metals

Chemical reactivity is the relative tendency of an element to lose or gain electrons in
chemical combinations.
a) Variation of chemical reactivity in a group
 While moving from top to bottom in a group of metals (IA, IIA, IIIA) in a periodic
table, the atomic size increases with increment in the number of shells and the force of
attraction between the nucleus and valence shell decreases. This is the reason why bigger
atom/s can lose the valence electron/s more easily than the smaller atom/s. thus, the
tendency of losing the valence electron/s increases and the chemical reactivity increases
on moving from top to bottom in a group of metals.
NOTE: The chemical reactivity in metals depends on the tendency to lose electrons.
Group 1
Li Least reactive
Na
K Reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group
Rb
Cs Most reactive
Example: Why is potassium highly reactive than the sodium?
In group 1, potassium is more reactive than sodium which in turn is more reactive than
lithium. This is because a potassium atom loses its valence electron more easily than
sodium atom since the atomic size of potassium is bigger than the atomic size of
sodium. and so on.
 While moving from top to bottom in a group of non-metals (VA, VIA, VIIA, VIIIA),
the atomic size increases with the addition number of shells and the force of attraction
between the nucleus and valence shell decreases. The smaller atom/s can gain the valence
electron/s more easily than the bigger atom/s. thus the tendency of gaining electron/s in
the valence shell decreases as well as the chemical reactivity also decreases on moving from
top to bottom in a group of non-metals.
Note: The chemical reactivity in non-metals depends on the tendency to gain electrons.
Group VII

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F Most reactive
Cl
Br Reactivity of non-metals decreases on going down in a group. I
Least reactive
Example: Why is fluorine highly reactive than the chlorine?
F is more reactive than Cl because fluorine atom can gain one electron more easily than
chlorine since the atomic size of fluorine is smaller than the atomic size of chlorine.
and so on.
b) Variation of chemical reactivity in a period
 While moving from left to right in a period, the chemical reactivity of metal
elements decreases because the number of valence electrons a metal has to lose increases.
Period 3: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
More Least More
reactive reactive reactive
Reactivity decreses Reactivity increases
 Sodium is the most reactive than magnesium because sodium atom can lose one
electron more easily to form cation than magnesium which loses two electrons.
 Magnesium is most reactive than aluminium because a magnesium atom loses two
electrons more easily than aluminium which loses three electrons.
 While moving from left to right in a period, the chemical reactivity of non-metal
elements increases because the number of valence electrons a non-metal has to gain decreases.
N O F
Least Most reactive reactive
P S Cl
Least Most reactive
Reactive
 Chlorine is most reactive than Sulphur because chlorine can easily gain one electron
than Sulphur which gains two electrons.
 Phosphorus accept 3 electrons to form anion but it has lower tendency to accept
electrons compared to Sulphur which can accept electrons more easily.
Exercise

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1) a) How does the reactivity of metal elements vary down groups and across a period?
b) Give examples to support your ideas in (1) (a).
2) By using examples, explain how reactivity of non-metals vary down groups and vary
across a period?
3) The following figure shows the reactivity of elements in period 3.
From the graph, the following observations are made. Explain each of them.
a) Sodium is more reactive than magnesium.
b) Silicon has a very low reactivity.
c) The reactivity of chlorine is almost the same as that of sodium.
d) The reactivity of Argon is zero.
4) The following is a periodic table showing some elements. Use the table and the elements
shown to answer the questions that follow.
I II Groups III IV V VI VII VIII

H He
C N O F Ne
Na Mg TRANSITION METALS Al P S Cl
K Ca Br
a) How many electrons does an atom of element F contains?

b) Write the electronic configuration of the elements C and K.
c) Give the symbols of two elements the belong to alkali metals? Alkaline earth metals?
Halogens? Noble gases?
d) Give the formula of the compound formed between element Mg and P.
e) i) Which of the elements Na and K is more reactive? ii) Which of the elements Mg
and Al is more reactive?
f) i) Which of the elements Cl and Br is more reactive?
ii) Which of the elements O and N is more reactive?

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4. Chemical properties of metals
a) Reaction of metals with water

Metals react with water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Examples

Sodium, Potassium and Calcium react with cold water to form metal hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Metal + water Metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) Sodium
Cold water Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Potassium Cold water Potassium hydroxide Hydrogen
2Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium Cold water Calcium hydroxide Hydrogen

Magnesium reacts with both hot water and steam (Very hot gaseous form of water)
but it does not react with cold water.
2Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Hot water Magnesium hydroxide Hydrogen
2Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + H2(g)

Magnesium Steam Magnesium oxide Hydrogen
When magnesium reacts with hot water, it forms magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas
and it reacts with steam to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.  Metals such as
Aluminium, Iron and Zinc do not react with either cold or hot water.
They react with steam to form metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
Al(s) + 3H2O(g) Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Alumium Steam Aluminium oxide Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Zinc Steam Zinc oxide Hydrogen
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

Iron Steam Iron oxide Hydrogen
 Some metals do not react with cold water, hot water and even with steam.
Examples: Copper, Gold, Silver and Mercury.
Cu(s) + H2O(g) No reaction
Copper water (or steam)

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b) Reaction of metals with acids

Metals usually react with dilute acids, to give salts and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Dilute acids Salt + Hydrogen
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + 2H2SO4 (aq) 2Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Note: Copper (Cu), Gold and Silver do not react with dilute acids (Hydrochloric acid,
Sulphuric acid and nitric acid)
Cu(s) + HCl(aq) No reaction
c) Reaction of metals with halogens

Heated metals react with halogens to form salts (or metal halides)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
2Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s)
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
2Cu(s) + Cl2(g) CuCl2(s)
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) ZnCl2(s)
Note: All metal chloride are ionic compounds. d)
Reaction of metals with oxygen
Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
4K(s) + O2(g) 2KO(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
NOTE: Silver(Ag) and gold (Au) do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.
5. Chemical properties of non-metals

a) Reaction of non-metals with water and dilute acids
Non-metals neither react with water nor dilute acids.
b) Reaction of non-metals with halogens (say chlorine)

Non-metals react with chlorine to form covalent chlorides. Non-metal chlorides are usually
liquids or gases. They do not conduct electricity. Examples:
C(s) + 2Cl2(g) CCl4(g)
Carbon tetrachloride

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P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) 4PCl3(l)

phosphorus chloride
c) Reaction of non-metals with oxygen

Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides or neutral oxides.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Carbon dioxide (acidic oxide)
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)

6. Differences between chemical properties of metals and non-
metals
Metals Non-metals
Usually have 1 – 3 valence electrons Usually have 4 – 8 valence electrons
Metals form basic oxides Non-metals form acidic oxides or
neutral oxides
Tend to lose valence electrons Tend to gain electrons
Combine with non-metals to Combine with non-metals to
produce ionic compounds produce covalent compounds
7. Uses of some metals and non-metals

 Metals like copper and aluminium are used for making electric wires and cooking
utensils.
 Gold and silver are used for making jewellery.  Silicon is used in making
computer chips.
 Tungsten is used in making filaments of bulb.
 Sulphur is used for making gun powder and sulphuric acid.
 Oxygen is used for the respiration of living things.
 Argon is used in electrical bulbs.

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Exercises
1) Complete and balance the following chemical equations.
a) Na(s) + H2O(l)
b) Ca(s) + H2O(l)
c) K(s) + HCl(aq)
d) Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq)
e) Mg(s) + H2O(g)
f) Mg(s) + H2O(l)
heat
g) Na(s) + O2(g)
h) C(s) + O2(g)
i) Mg(s) + O2(g)
2) Magnesium reacts with dilute acids. Name two products of such reactions.
3) Elements M belongs to group IIIa of the periodic table.
a) How many electrons does M have in the outermost shell?
b) Write the formula for:
i) The oxide of M. ii) The chloride of M.
iii) The nitride of M.
4) a) Name the three sub-atomic particles of an atom.
b) An atom of magnesium is represented as: 2412𝑀𝑔

i) State the number of each of the three sub-atomic particles that the atom has. ii) Give its
electronic arrangement.
iii) Give the formula and electron arrangement of the most stable ion that the atom can form.
5) State the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the aluminium ion shown below:
2713𝐴𝑙3+
6) Element X and Y (not actual chemical symbols) have atomic number 12 and 16
respectively.
a) To which group of the periodic table do element X and Y belong to?
b) Classify the elements as a metal and a non-metal.
c) Name type of bond expected when element X and Y react.
d) Draw dot and cross diagram to show bonding in the compound formed when element
X and Y react.
e) Deduce the formula of the resulting compound.

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7) Study the following table showing data for the atoms A, B, C, D and E.
Atoms Electrons Protons Neutrons

A 8 8 8
B 13 13 14
C 16 16 16
D Y 11 11
E 8 Z 10
a) Work out the values of Y and Z.

b) Work out the approximative relative atomic mass of C.
c) Write the electronic configuration of the following ions and atoms.
i) C
ii) 𝐀𝟐− iii) 𝐁𝟑+ iv) 𝐃
d) Which atoms:
i) Are isotopes.
ii) Belong to the same group in the periodic table.
iii) Belong to the same period in the periodic table.

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UNIT3: WATER POLLUTION

1) Definition of water pollution
Water pollution is the addition of harmful substances into water sources (e.g. lakes, rivers,
oceans, etc.)
2) Main water pollutants

Pollutants are substances which make water to be harmful.
The main water pollutants include:
a. Sewage: Is waste water from toilets, bathrooms, industries, etc.

b. Fertilizers: fertilizers used by farmers run off by rain water from the fields adding
nutrients to water sources.
c. Faeces and urine: Human and animal wastes such as faeces and urine pollute water.
These wastes contain germs. When passed in water, they make the water unsafe for
drinking and for domestic use.
d. Soaps and detergents: From homes and dry cleaning industries.
e. Chemical wastes (are also called industrial wastes): The water bodies get polluted
with chemicals likes dyes; detergent; compounds of Mercury, Cadmium, Lead, Nickel,
etc.
f. Oil spillage: Oil and oil wastes enter water bodies (from storage tanks, Automobile
waste oil, refineries, and industries) affect aquatic life as well as birds.
g. Plastic: Plastic wastes like polythene bags and other plastic containers when dumped
in a water sources the accumulate in it.
h. Radioactive waste: Is a waste that contains radioactive substance. (Wastes from
nuclear plants, wastes of uranium and thorium during their mining)
i. Hot water: By adding hot water into the water body, it rises the temperature which
results in the death of many aquatic organisms.
3) Dangers of polluted water

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 When consumed polluted water, people can get water borne diseases like cholera,
diarrhea, dysentery, and typhoid.
 Polluted water causes death of aquatic (water) animals like fish, crabs, birds and
dolphins. When acidic fertilizers and other acidic wastes are dumped in water bodies,
they make water acidic. This affects the survival of aquatic plants and animals.
 Polluted water also causes eutrophication. Eutrophication is the rapid growth of

water plants due to over fertilization of the water. Rapid growth of these plants covers
the entire surface of water and blocks oxygen from atmosphere and light to reach under
water. The reduced oxygen level can lead to death of aquatic animals.
4) Prevention of water pollution
 Avoid urinating or defecating in or near the water.
 Encourage people to build toilets and site for wastes.
 Do not throw rubbish/litter in water bodies.
 Do not overuse fertilizers and pesticides in fields.
 Do not throw oils, paints, chemicals and medicine in water bodies.
 Avoid bathing, watering animals and washing clothes in water sources.
 Recycling materials whose production creates pollution.
 Encourage people to use biological manures.
 Practicing farming methods that reduce soil erosion like terrace farming.
Example: In Rwandan regulations, it is prohibited to practice any agriculture activity in less
than 50 m from shores of lakes, rivers and swamps.
EXERCISES
1) What is water pollution?
2) Identify four water pollutants
3) Suggest three ways you can use to avoid pollution of water.
4) Describe three effects (health hazards) of polluted water to humans 5) Describe the
dangers of polluted water.

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UNIT4: EFFECTIVE WAYS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

a) Definition of wastes
 Wastes are things that we do not need.
 Waste management is all the processes of handling waste and reduce it.
b) Steps of effective waste management

There are six steps of effective waste management
1. Prevention: Means avoiding waste completely.

2. Minimization: Means reducing the creation of waste material.
3. Reuse: means using a material that has been used before for another purpose.
Example: plastic bottle
4. Recycling: involves reprocessing (or transform) used materials(wastes) into new useful
products.
Example: plastic bottle
5. Energy recovery: means converting waste into usable heat, electricity or fuel.
6. Disposal: refers to dumping of wastes in specific places. These places are called
landfills.
c) Importance and benefits of waste recycling
1. Recycling keeps the environment clean and fresh: When wastes are recycled,
pollution of the air, water and soil is reduced.
2. Recycling conserves natural resources: When materials and products are recycled,
they reduce the exploitation of natural resources.
Examples:
 If paper and other timber products are recycled, there will be reduced need of harvesting
trees.

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 If metallic materials are recycled, they will slow down extraction of their ores.
3. Recycling saves energy: It takes much less energy to make products using recycled
materials as compared to making products from raw materials.
4. Recycling creates jobs (employment): People are employed to collect, sort and work
in recycling companies.
d) Effects of wastes and poor disposal
1. Soil pollution: Soil on which sewage and solid wastes are dumped is unsuitable for
cultivation of crops.
2. Air Pollution: When wastes are rotting, bad smell is produced.
3. Water Pollution: When wastes are dumped in water sources, they change its physical
properties and composition. such water is unsuitable for human use.
4. Spread of diseases: Due to flies, mosquitoes which are carriers of illnesses after
breeding on solid wastes. Also when wastes such as human faeces are not properly
disposed, they can contaminate food and water. This can result into water-borne
diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid.
5. Poor disposal of waste may cause injury.
6. Blockage of waterways: Solid wastes block waterways and this can lead to flooding.
Exercises
1) Describe the term “waste management”
2) Describe the steps which can be taken to achieve effective waste management.
3) Explain the importance and benefits of waste recycling.
4) Discuss the various effects of waste materials and poor waste disposal.
5) If well managed, wastes from the kitchen and food leftovers can be beneficial to us and
other organisms. explain
6) State 2 dangers of the materials that do not decay (rot) when they are dumped in
composts
7) Burning is one of the ways of managing wastes. Identify a negative consequence of this
practice on the environment.

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UNIT5: CATEGORIES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1) Types of chemical reaction

Chemical reactions can be classified as follows:
1. Combination reaction: Two or more substances combine to form a single product.

A + B C
Examples
a) H2 + Cl2 2HCl
b) 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
c) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s)
d) NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
2. Decomposition reactions: A compound breaks into parts. Heat is enough to cause the
reaction of decomposition. AB A + B
Examples:
a) CaCO3(s) heat CaO(S) + CO2(g)
b) 2KClO3(s) heat 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
c) CuSO4.5H2O(S) heat CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
d) 2H2O2(l) sunlight 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

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3. Single displacement reactions: A single element replaces an element in a compound. A

+ BC AC + B
Examples:
a) Mg(s) + CuO(s) MgO(s) + Cu(s)
b) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
c) Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
d) Cl2(g) + 2NaI(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + I2(s)
e) Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) +2Ag(s)
Note: In single replacement reactions, more active metals displace less active metal (or
hydrogen) from their compounds. Below is the arrangement of elements in decreasing order of
their ability to replace elements (metal ion) in aqueous solution. This series is known as
reactivity series.
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Cr > Fe > Ni > Sn > Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Au
The above series show that potassium (K) is the most reactive metal and gold (Au) is the least
reactive metal.
4. Double displacement reactions: Two compounds (reactants) exchange their cations and
anions.
AB + CD AD + CB
Double displacement reactions include:
 Precipitation reactions and 
Neutralization reactions
i. Precipitation reactions: Two soluble salts (or ionic compounds) are mixed and form an
insoluble salt called precipitate.
Examples:
a) BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
b) AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
c) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Note: Precipitate is a solid that is thrown down when two aqueous solutions are mixed
together.
ii. Neutralization reactions: Neutralizations reaction is a reaction in which an acid and a

base react to form salt and water only. Acid + Base Salt + water Examples:
a) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
b) 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
c) KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H20(l)

37
5. Combustion reactions: are the reactions of an element or compound with oxygen.

Heat energy and light are given out during combustion.
A + B AB Where B is oxygen Examples:
a) C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

b) 2H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)
c) CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H20(l)
d) C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20
2) Classification of chemical reactions as endothermic and exothermic

reactions
a) Endothermic reaction: Is a chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed.
Examples:
a) CaCO3(s) heat CaO(S) + CO2(g)
b) 2KClO3(s) heat 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
c) CuSO4.5H2O(s) heat CuSO4(S) + 5H2O(l)
d) 6CO2 + H2O sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2
b) Exothermic reaction: Is a chemical reaction in which heat energy is released.
Examples:
a) H2O(l) cool H2O(s)
b) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ∆H= -46.2 KJ/mol
c) H2 + Cl2 2HCl ∆H= -860 KJ
3) Ionic equations and rules of writing ionic equations

There are three types of chemical equations:
 Word equations
 Formula equations  Ionic equations

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In this unit we are going to look at the ionic equations. Remember that word equations and
formula equations have been studied in S1.
Ionic equation is the equation that shows the ions actually participating in the reaction.
During the reaction, there are some ions which simply watch the reaction and we can refer to
them as spectator ions. Spectator ions are the ions that appear exactly the same on each side
of the ionic equation.
Rules of writing an ionic equation

1) Write formula equation and balance it if necessary.
2) Break the ions for aqueous compounds (write the ions separately)
3) All solids, liquids and gases do not form ions. (write the full formula)
4) Cancel out spectator ions (ions that appear the same on each side of the ionic equation)
Example1:
Write ionic quation for the reaction of magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid to form
magnesium chloride and hydrogen.
Solution:
Rule1: Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Rule2 and 3: Split dissolved ionic substances into separate ions.
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) + H2(s)
Rule4:Concel out spectator ions (ions that appear the same on both side)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) + H2(s)
Then balanced ionic equation is
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Example2:
Write ionic equation for the reaction between sodium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid to
form sodium chloride and water.
Solution:
1. Formula equation:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2. Split aqueous compounds into ions (ionic compounds)
Na+(aq)+ OH−(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Concel out spectator ions:
Na+(aq)+ OH−(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l)
Then balanced ionic equation is
OH−(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l)

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Example3:
Write the ionic equation for the following reaction formula equation:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) +
2KNO3(aq)
Solution:
Split aqueous compounds(ionic compounds) into ions

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I−(aq) PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3−(aq)
Therefore, balanced ionic equation is:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I−(aq) PbI2(s)
Exercises
1) a) What is a chemical reaction?
b) Name six types of chemical reaction. 2) a)
What is combination reaction?
b) Write three examples of combination reactions. 3) a)
What is decompositin reaction?
b) State three examples of decomposition reactions. 4) a)
Explain what a single displacement reaction is?
b) Give three examples of single displacement reactions. 5) a)
What is a neutralisation reaction?
b) Give three examples of neutralisation reactions. 6) a)
What is a preciptation reaction?
b) Write three examples of precipitation reactions. 7) a)
What is a combustion reaction?
b) Give three examples of combustion reactions.
8) Classify the following reactions into decomposition, combustion, single displacement,
precipitation, neutralisation and combination.
a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
b) 2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
c) 2KNO3(s) 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
d) Fe(s) + CuCl2(aq) FeCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
e) 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
f) CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
g) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) 9) a) What is an
endothermic reaction?

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b) State two reactions that are endothermic. 10) a)

What is an exothermic reaction?
b) State two reactions that are exothermic.
11) Use the words given below to fill in the following sentences correctly.(release,
exothermic, absorb, endothermic).
Exothermic reactions ………………..heat to the surrounding whereas endothermic
reactions…………………heat from the surrounding. If the temperature rises during a reaction,
it is…………………reaction. If the temperature drops during a raction then it is
…………………….
12) a) what are ionic equations?
b) what is the name of the ions that do not undergo any change during chemical
reaction?
c) work out the ionic equations for the reactions below:
i) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ii) Cu(s) +
2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s) iii) BaCl2(aq) +
(NH4)2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + NH4Cl(aq) iv) 2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g)
2FeCl3(aq)
13) Dilute sulphuric acid is added to aqueous barium nitrate. An insoluble precipitate of
barium sulphate is formed.
a) Which type of reaction takes place.
b) Write a full chemical equation for the reaction.
c) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.

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UNIT6: PREPARATION OF SALTS AND IDENTIFICATIONS OF

IONS
1) Solubility of salts
Sodium chloride (NaCl) mixes with water uniformly to form a homogeneous mixture. In this
sense, sodium chloride salt is soluble in water and dissolves in it. The sodium chloride (NaCl)
is a solute, the water is a solvent and the mixture is a solution.
Defition of some terms:
 A solute is a substance (Salt) that dissolves in a solvent.  A solvent is a liquid that

dissolves the solute (say water)  A solution is a uniform mixture of solute and solvent.
 Dissolve refers to crystals or solid breaking up and disappering in a solvent (water)
 Solubility is the amount of solute (in grams) required to form a saturated solution in 100
grams of solvent(water) at a given temperature.
 Soluble: when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
 Insoluble: when a solute does not dissolve in a solvent.
2) Concept of saturated, unsaturated and supersuturated.
Activity
Material required:
 Three hard glass beakers (500 ml)
 Sugar
 Water
 Spoon
Procedure
 Fill all three beakers with equal amount of water.

42
 Label them A, B and C.

 Add one teaspoons sugar in beaker A, Two teaspoons sugar in beaker B, and Three
teaspoons in beaker C.  Stir with spoon.
Observe the beaker
Observation: In this activity,

 Solution in beaker A is unsaturated. (contains less solute than it could hold) 
Solution in beaker B is unsaturated. (contains less solute than it could hold) 
Solution in beaker C is saturated. (contains what it should hold)
• Heat the beaker C and observe the beaker.

• Let beaker C sit uncovered for some days to evaporate ½ of water.
Conclusion:
 After heating, sugar left in beaker C and also dissolves completely, so the solution in
beaker C is unsaturated.
 After evaporating ½ of water, beaker C contains 3 teaspoons of dissolved sugar. Now

the solution in beaker C is supersaturated (contains more solute than saturated
solution).
3) Definitions of some terms

 Saturated solution is a solution which cannot dissolve anymore solute at a given
temperature.

43
• Contains maximum amount of solute at given temperature.

• Contains what it should hold.
• If additional solute is added it will not dissolve.
 Unsaturated solution is a solution which can dissolve anymore solute at a given

temperature.
• Contains less solute than saturated solution. Contains less solute than it
could hold.
• Additional solute can dissolve in an unsaturated solution.
 Supersaturated solution is a solution in which more solute is dissolved by increasing

the temperature of a saturated solution.
• Contains more solute than a saturated solution.
• Contain more than it should hold.
• Additional of more solute causes the excess solute to precipitate.
Note
 When a saturated solution is heated, the solution becomes unsaturated.
 When more water is added to a saturated solution, the solution also becomes
unsaturated.
 When a saturated solution cools down, a supersaturated solution is formed.
4) Factors influencing solubility of different salts

a) Nature of solute: A solution can easily dissolve in a solvent and dissolve with
difficulty into another.
Example: Some solutes such as NaCl, KCl, KNO3, etc are soluble in water. On the other
hand they are not soluble in ethanol, CCl4.
b) Temparature: The solubility of most of the ionic compounds increases with increase
in temperature. On the other hand, some compounds dissolve better by decreasing
the temperature.
Note:
 The solubility od solids and liquids increases with increase in temperature.
 The solubility of gases always decreases with increase in temperature.
 Temperature increases the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent.

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5) Solubility curve
Activity 1
Study the solubility curve of a salt shown below and answer the questions that follow:
Solubility of salt X is 60 g/100g of water at 400C. 60 g of this salt was dissolved in 100g of
water and allowed to cool.
a) At what temperature from the graph is the solution unsaturated? Explain.
b) At what temperature from the graph is the solution saturated? Explain.
c) At what temperature from the graph is the solution supersaturated?
d) In which beaker can crystals be formed when allowed to stay overnight? Explain.
Answer
a) At 70 0C (Point below the line)
b) At 40 0C (Point on the line)
c) At 10 0C (Point above the line)
d) Crystals can be formed in beaker a, where the solution is supersaturated and in beaker
b, where the solution is saturated.

45
Activity2:
Study the solubility curves for potassium nitrate and potassium chloride below.
a) What is the solubility of potassium nitrate at 200C?

b) What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of potassium chloride in water?
c) Were the solubility of two salts determined at the same temperatures?
d) What is the importance of solubility curves?
Activity3:
Study the solubility curves for substance X and Y.

46
a) What mass of substance X will dissolve in 100grams of water at 300C.

b) What mass of substance Y will dissolve in 100grams of water at 600C.
c) At what temperature will 40 grams of substance X form a saturated solution when
added to 100 grams of water?
d) What is the total mass of compound X that can be dissolved in 20 grams of water at
260C.
e) What is the total mass of compound Y that can be dissolved in 20 grams of water at
600C.
Answers
a) 46 grams/ 100 grams of water.
b) 18 grams/ 100 grams of water.
c) At 260C.
d) At 260C, 100g of water can only hold 40g of compound X.
So at 26 , Then X= 10 grams
e) At 60 C, 100g of water hold 18g of compound Y.
0
1g of water hold of compond Y
20g of water hold of cpompound Y

= 3.6 grams of compound Y

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6) Calculation of solubility
Solubility × 100 (At a particular temperature)

Note: Solubilty has no unit.
Examples:
1) The solubility of a solute at 300C is 40. What amount of water is rquired to make saturated
solution of 80 grams of a solute?
Answer
Weigt of solute = 80grams
Solubility at 300C = 40
Weigt of solvent (say water) = ?
Solubility × 100
Weigt of solvent = × 100 ×100 = 200grams

2) At300C, 7grams of sugar dissolves in 5 grams of water to form a saturated solution. Find
the solubility of sugar.
Answer
Mass of solute = 7g
Mass of solvent (water) = 5g
Solubility × 100
The solubility of sugar at 300C is 140
3) 7 grams of saturated solution of salt saturated at 600C is evaporated to dryness; 2grams of

white residue is left behind. What is the solubility of salt at that temperature?
Answer
Weigt of saturated solution = 7 grams Weigt
of solute (salt) = 2 grams Solubility of salt at
600C =?
Weigt of saturated solution = Weigt of solute + Weigt of solvent
Weigt of solvent = Weigt of solution − Weigt of solute
= 7 g −2g = 5g

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Solubility × 100
The solubility of salt at 600C is 40.
7) Different ways of preparing normal salts
i) Preparing salts from reaction of acid with active metals

Metal + Dilute acids Salt + Hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g) 2Na(s) +
2H2SO4 (aq) 2Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g) Mg(s) +
2HCl(aq) 2MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
ii) Reacting a dilute acid with metal oxide

Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water
Example:
CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
iii) Reaction with bases
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with basic oxides and alkalis to give salt and water.
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(g)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: The reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water only is known as
neutralization reaction.
iv) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give metal
carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
v) Precipitation method
Two soluble salts (or ionic compounds) are mixed and form an insoluble salt called
precipitate.
Examples:
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

49
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
vi) Reacting metal oxide with non-metal oxide

Na2O(s) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(s)
CaO(s) + SO3(g) CaCO4(s)
MgO(s) + CO2(g) MgCO3(s)
vii) Reacting base with non-metal oxide

Pass carbon dioxide gas through limewater (calcium hydroxide) and sodium hydroxide.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O (l)
Lime water white ppt
CO2(g) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
8) Uses of salts
Salt Uses
Sodium chloride (NaCl)  Flavouring food

 Food preservative
 Making glass
Sodium carbonate  Softening hard
decahydrate water
 Manufacture of soap
(Na2CO3 .10H2O) also called
washing soda.
Sodium hydrogencarbonate
(NaHCO3) also called  Used in medicines
baking soda  It is added to dough
to raise it

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Potassium carbonate  Making soft soaps

(K2CO3)  Making hard glass
9) Identification of cations and anions i)

Identification of cations
Cations are positively charged ions. The cations you are expected to identify at this level are:
.
These cations are identified by using Sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH(aq), as reagent.
Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution is added to a solution containing the suspected ion.
The bable below shows the observations made.
Cation Add few drops of NaOH(aq) Add excess NaOH(aq)
white precipitate is formed White precipitate is insoluble

white precipitate is formed White precipitate is insoluble
white precipitate is formed White precipitate dissolves
blue precipitate is formed blue precipitate is insoluble
green precipitate is formed green precipitate is insoluble

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brown precipitate is formed brown precipitate is insoluble

Ammonia gas is released when the mixture is heated
 To distinguish between 𝐀𝐥𝟑+, 𝐙𝐧𝟐+ and 𝐏𝐛𝟐+
Reagent: ammonia solution, NH3(aq) is used as reagent

Cation Add few drops of 𝐍𝐇𝟑(𝐚𝐪) Add excess 𝐍𝐇𝟑(𝐚𝐪)
white precipitate White precipitate is insoluble

𝑨𝒍𝟑+
white precipitate White precipitate is insoluble
𝑷𝒃𝟐+
white precipitate White precipitate is soluble
𝒁𝒏𝟐+
 To distinguish between 𝐏𝐛𝟐+ and 𝐀𝐥𝟑+
Cation Reagent Observation

Add potassium iodide solution , KI(aq) yellow ppt is formed
𝐏𝐛𝟐+ ions
Add potassium iodide solution , KI(aq) no precipitate is formed
𝐀𝐥𝟑+ ions
 To distinguish between 𝐌𝐠𝟐+ and 𝐂𝐚𝟐+
Cation Reagent Observation

52
Add ammonia solution , NH3(aq) also white ppt is formed

𝐌𝐠𝟐+ ions written as NH4OH(aq)
Add ammonia solution , NH3(aq) also no precipitate is formed
𝐂𝐚𝟐+ ions written as NH4OH(aq) (no change)
ii) Identification of anions
a) Tests for sulphate 𝐒𝐎𝟐𝟑− ions and 𝐒𝐎𝟐𝟒− ions in solution
Anion Reagent Observation
𝐒𝐎𝟐𝟑− ions Add barium chloride (BaCl2) solution

followed by addition of dilute hydrochloric white precipitate which
acid (HCl) dissolves in dilute
hydrochloric acid.
ions Add barium chloride (BaCl2) solution

followed by addition of dilute hydrochloric white precipitate which does
acid (HCl) not dissolve in dilute
hydrochloric acid.
b) Tests for chloride 𝐂𝐥− ions, iodide 𝐈− ions and nitrate 𝐍𝐎−𝟑 ions in solution
Anion Reagent Observation
𝐂𝐥− ions 𝐂𝐥− ions form white

Add Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution precipitate with silver
followed by excess dilute nitric acid nitrate. The precipitate does
(HNO3) to salt solution. not dissolve in excess dilute
nitric acid
𝐈− ions yellow

53
Add Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution 𝐈− ions formwith

followed by excess dilute nitric acid precipitate silver
(HNO3) to salt solution. nitrate.
𝐍𝐎−𝟑 ions No precipitate is formed

Add Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution with NO−3
followed by excess dilute nitric acid
(HNO3) to salt solution.
c) Tests for carbonate 𝐂𝐎𝟐𝟑− ions in solution

 Reagent: Use Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Observation: Effervescence (bubbles) of colorless gas of carbon dioxide forms when
carbonates react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
d) Tests for nitate ions 𝐍𝐎−𝟑 ions in a solution

 Reagent: Add iron (II) sulphate solution (FeSO4(aq)) followed by concentrated
sulphuric acid (conc. H2SO4)
 Observation: A brown ring forms between sulphuric acid and the rest of the
solution (i.e mixture of FeSO4 solution and nitrate solution). Then, the ring
disappears when the solution is shaken.
iii) Identification of gases

a) Test for oxygen (O2) gas
 Reagent: Use a glowing splint of wood.
 Observation: A glowing wooden splint relights in a test tube of oxygen.
b) Test for hydrogen (H2) gas

 Reagent: Use a lit splint of wood.
 Observation: “Pop” sound with a lighted splint in a test tube of hydrogen is
observed.

54
c) Test for chlorine (Cl2) gas

 Reagent: Use moist blue litmus paper.
 Observation: Blue litmus paper turns red and then is bleached white.
d) Test for ammonia (NH3) gas

 Reagent: Use moist red litmus paper.
 Observation: Red litmus paper turns blue.
Or
 Reagent: Use concentreted hydrochloric acid.
 Observation: Ammonia forms dense white fumes of NH4Cl with hydrogen
chloride gas.
e) Test for carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
 Reagent: Use limewater, Ca(OH)2(aq) (It is colorless) 
Observation:
• CO2 turns limewater milky due to formation of white precipitate of calcium
cabonate.
• White precipitate disappear if CO2 is passed through the solution in excess.
Exercises
1) a) Define the term “ solubility”
b) Brine is a concentrated solution of sodium chloride. Identify the solute and solvent in
brine
c) What happens to the salt dissolved when the amount of water in which it is dissolved
is reduced by evaporation?
d) Classify the following salts as soluble or insoluble.
NaCl, NH4NO3, ZnCO3, PbCl2, Na2CO3.
2) Define the following terms:

55
a) Saturated solution
b) Unsaturated solution
c) Supersaturated
3) Choose the best answer:
a) The solubility of many salts…………………when temperature decreases. i) Increases
ii) Decreases iii) Double
b) Solubility of salt increases when…………………
i) More salt is added to the
solution ii) Salt solution is
heated.
iii) The solution is stirred.
c) A solution which can not dissolve any more solute at a given temperature is
called……………..
i) Supersaturated ii)
Unsaturated solution iii)
Saturated solution.
4) What are the factors that influence the solubility of solts?
5) a) Answer the following questions using the solubility graph below:
i) How much sodium nitrate will dissolve at 30 0C?

ii) Which salt is most soluble at 60 0C? iii) Which salt is least soluble at 40 0C? iv)
At what temperature will 60 g of sodium sulphate dissolve in 100 g of water.
b) The solubility of a salt at 30 0C is 40. What amount of water is required to make

saturated solution of 80 g grams of a solute?
c) At 30 0C, 14 grams of sugar dissolves in 10 grams of water to form a saturated solution.

Find the solubility of sugar
6) Complete the following table.

56
Experiment Observation Conclusion

A blue precipitate
Add NaOH solution to
solution X
Solution Y contains 𝐅𝐞𝟐+
solution Y
A white precipitate
that dissolves in
excess NaOH
solution Z
Solution W contains 𝐂𝐎𝟐𝟑−
Add HCl solution to
solution W
A white precipitate
Add barium chloride tha dissolves in
solution followed by dilute HCl
dilute HCl to solution D
7) State a reagent that can be used to distinguish between the following pairs of ions and
state the observable change in each case:
a) and Cl−
b) Cu and Ca2+
2+
c) Fe3+ and Fe2+

d) Zn2+ and Fe2+
8) With the help of equations wher possible, state the chemical test that would be used to
distinguish each pair of the following substances and the observation in each case: a)
Zn(NO3)2(aq) and Fe(NO3)2(aq)
b) NaCl(aq) and Na2NO3(aq)
c) Pb(NO3)2(aq) and Cu(NO3)2(aq)
d) CuSO4(aq) and FeSO4(aq)
e) FeSO4(aq) and Fe2(SO4)3(aq)
9) Give a reagent that can be used to test for the presence of 𝒁𝒏𝟐+ ions in a solution and the
observation made.
10) Drinking water was suspected to be contaminated with the following ions.
Cu2+, Fe3+, SO24− and CO23−. A sample of the water was divided into several portions and tested
for the presence of the above ions.
a) The first portion was mixed with nitric acid and there was no observable change.
Wthat conclusion can be made from this observation and explain your answer.

57
b) A second portion was tested using aqueous ammonia solution. A few drops of
ammonia solution were added, followed by excess ammonia. Describe what would be
observed if Cu2+ ions were present.
c) How would you test for the presence of SO24− ? State the reagent and the expected
observation for a positive result.
d) Another portion was mixed with a reagent which removed Cu2+. If the remaining
solution contained Fe3+, what test would confirm the presence of Fe3+ ? State the
reagent and observation.
e) Rust contains a compound of iron (III).
i) State the conditions necessary for rusting to take place.
ii) Give two methods of preventing rusting.
iii) Give one similarity and one difference between rusting and combustion. ( N. E:
2013)
Practice question
11 You are provided with solid Q, which contains a single cation.perform the following tests on
the solid and hence identify the cation present in Q.
Test Observation Deduction / Conclusion

58
a) Solid dissolved easily. Q is a soluble salt. Possibly a

nitrate.
Dissolve Q in about
5 cm3 of water. Divide
the resulting solution
into three equal
portions of about 1
cm each in separate
3
test tubes.
i) White precipitate formed,
To the first portion dissolved in excess to give
add aqueous NaOH a colourless solution.
until in excess.
White precipitate formed,
ii) To the second portion insoluble in excess.
add aqueous NH3 until in
excess.
Yellow precipitate formed
iii) To the third portion add
aqueous KI.
Identify the cation present in solid Q.
UNIT7: THE MOLE CONCEPT AND GAS LAWS
1. Avogadro number and the mole concept

In science, the mole is a term referring to a definite quantity. In everyday life we use various
terms to refer to definite quantities of things. The table below shows some of these terms
we use in everyday life.

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Term Number of items Counted items

Pair 2 Shoes, Socks, Hand gloves, earrings
Dozen 12 Books, Pens, Pencils, Cups, Plates
Decade 10 Years
Tray 30 eggs
If you request to be sold a dozen of exercises books; a dozen of pencils; a dozen of pen; or a
dozen of cup; the actual number of each item will be 12. However, their masses will be
different.
 Mole is a unit just like dozen that is used to describe a certain number of elementary
particles such as atoms, molecules, ions and electrons that are involved in chemical
reactions.
 These particles are very small and cannot be counted industrially because they cannot
be seen with naked eye.
 The term “mole” refers to a particular number of particles, known as the Avogadro’s
number or Avogadro’s constant.
 Avogadro’s number, NA is equal to 6.022×2023 particles.
 The particles in consideration may be electrons, ions, molecules, protons or atoms.
Example
6.022×2023 atoms of the same kind make one mole of that particular substance.
2. Definition of mole
The mole is the amount of substance that contains 6.022×2023 particles.
The amount of substance can be mass or volume of a gas or volume of solution.
3. Calculation of the number of moles

The number of moles =
𝑵
Then n = where n: Number of moles
N: Given number of particles
NA: Avogadro’s number, equal to 6.022 × 2023
The SI unit of mole is “ mol ”
Example1
Calculate the number of moles of 12.044 × 1023 helium atoms.
Answer number of moles = mol

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Example2 number of moles = mol

How many moles are in 3.011 × 1023 hydrogen atoms? Solution:
Example
How many atoms are there in 0.1 moles?
Answer
Number of atoms = number of moles × Avogadro number
= 0.1 × 6.022 × 1023
= 0.6022 × 1023 atoms
Exercises
1) Calculate the number of moles are there in:
a) 3.011 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
b) 12.04 × 1023 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
c) 1.8066 × 1023 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
d) 1.5055 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2) Calculate the number of moles of 12.044 × 1023 helium atoms.
3) Calculate the number of particles in:
a) 0.1 moles of carbon atoms
b) 0.4 moles
c) 5 moles
4. Definition of relative atomic mass

The relative atomic mass(RAM) is the average mass of all atoms in an element compared to
one twelfth ) the mass of carbon-12 isotope.
It is expressed mathematical as follows:
RAM of an element =
 The relative atomic mass is a pure number and has no unit
Table below shows the relative atomic masses of some elements.
Name of element Symbol Relative atomic mass

61
Hydrogen H 1.008 4.003

Helium He 6.941 9.012
Lithium Li 10.81 12.01
Beryllium Be 14.01 16.00
Boron B 19.01 22.18
Carbon C 22.99 24.31
Nitrogen N
26.98 28.09
Oxygen O
30.97 32.06
Fluorine F
Neon Ne 35.45 39.95
Sodium Na 39.10
Magnesium Mg 40.08
Aluminium Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca
Note:
 Rounded relative atomic masses are often used in calculations.
Example: K=39 , Na=23 , Mg=24 , Cl=35.5 , H=1 
RAM has no units
5. Definition and calculation of relative molecular mass(RMM)

The relative molecular mass is defined as the sum of all the individual atomic masses of all
atoms in the formula.
Example:
a) RMM of hydrogen gas (H2) is 2×RAM of H =2×1=2
b) RMM of water (H2O) is (2×RAM of H) + (1×RAM of O) = (2×1) + (1×16)
= 2+16 =18
c) RMM of glucose(C6H12O6) is (6×RAM of C) + (12×RAM of H) + (6×RAM of O)

= (6×12) + (12×1) + (6×16) =72 + 12 +96 =180
Note:
 RMM has no units
 RMM is used for molecular or covalent compound or elements.

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6. Definition and calculation of relative formula mass(RFM)

Relative formula mass is the sum of relative atomic masses of atoms in a formula unit. It
applies to both ionic and molecular compounds.
Example
a) Calculate the RFM of NaCl. (Na=23, Cl=35.5 ) Answer:
RFM of NaCl= (1×RAM of Na) + ( 1×RAM of Cl)
=(1×23) + (1×35.5) =58.5
b) Calculate the RFM of K2CO3 ( K=39, C=12, O=16)

RFM of K2CO3 = (2×RAM of K) + (1×RAM of C) + (3×RAM of O)
=(2×39) + (1×12) + (3×16) = 78+12+ 48 = 138
Note:
 RFM has no units
Exercise
Calculate the relative formula mass, RFM of the following:
a) Lead(II) nitrate, (RAM of Pb = 207, N = 14, O =16)

b) Sulphuric acid, (RAM of H = 1, S = 32, O =16)
c) Calcium hydrogen carbonate, (RAM of Ca = 40, H= 1, C =12, O =16)
d) Zinc oxide, (RAM of Zn = 65, O =16)
e) Sodium carbonate, (RAM of Na = 23, C= 12, O =16)
7. Calculation of molar mass

Definition
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of an element or a compound. It is expressed in units of
grams per mole.

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i) Molar mass for an element = Relative atomic mass of that element in grams per mol if
element is made of atoms.
Examples
 Molar mass of carbon is 12g/mol
 Molar mass of magnesium is 24g/mol
ii) Molar mass for an element= Relative molecular mass in grams per mol if the element is
made of molecule.
Examples
 Molar mass of water (H2O) =(2×RAM of H) + (1×RAM of O)
= (2×1) + (1×16)=18g/mol
 Molar mass of ammonia (NH3) = (1×14) + (3×1) = 14+ 3=17g/mol  Molar
mass of oxygen (O2) = (2×16) =32g/mol
iii) Molar mass for a compound = Relative formula mass of that compound in grams per mol.
Means that for a compound, molar mass is the sum of relative atomic masses of all the atoms
in the formula unit in grams per mol.
Examples
 Molar mass of sodium chloride (NaCl) is
= (1×RAM of Na) + (1×RAM of Cl) = (1×23) + (1×35.5)= 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g/mol
 Molar mass of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is
= (2×RAM of K) + (1×RAM of C) + (3×RAM of O)
= (2×39) + (1×12) +( 3×16) = 72 +12+ 48 =138g/mol
 Molar mass of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is
= (2×1) + (1×32) + (4×16) = 98g/mol
Exercise
Calculate the molar masses of the following substances:
a) Hydrochloric acid, HCl

b) Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
c) Nitric acid, HNO3
d) Copper sulphate pentahydrate, CuSO4•H2O
e) Sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
(Atomic masses of H =1, Cl = 35.5, Na =23, C = 12, O = 16, N = 14, Cu =63.5, s =32)
8. Relationship between number of moles, mass and molar
mass
Number of moles of substance X =

64
𝐦
n= wheren= number of moles in mol
𝐌𝐦 m= mass in g
Mm= molar mass in g/mol
This means that mass= moles× molar mass, m= n×Mm and
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐦 molar mass = ; Mm
=
𝐧
Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of 16.2 g of water (H=1, O=16).
Answer m=
16.2g
Mm of H2O = (2×1) + (1×16) = 18 g/mol
Number of moles
n= mol of water
2. Calculate the number of moles of magnesium atoms in 2.4 g. (Mg=24) Answer
n= = 0.1 mol of Mg atoms.

3. What is the mass of 0.04 moles of potassium? (K=39)
Answer
𝒎
n= m = n×Mm
𝑴𝒎 m = 0.04 mol × 39 g/mol
m = 1.56 g of K
Note:
The following relationship is used to calculate the number of molecules or
number of atoms in a certain mass of a substance.
Number of molecules of a substance = × Avogadro number
then N = × NA Or N = n × NA where N = Number of molecules, atoms.

m= mass of substance
Mm = molar mass
NA = Avogadro number.
Number of molecules or atoms = Number of moles × Avogadro number

65
Example
The antibiotic penicillin has the molecular formula C16H18N2SO4. One injection of penicillin
contains 500 mg of penicillin. When one intra-muscular injection of penicillin is administered.
a) How many moles of penicillin are administered?
b) How many molecules of penicillin are administered?
c) How many atoms of nitrogen are injected?
Answer
Molar mass of penicillin (C16H18N2SO4) = (16×12) + (18×1) + (2×14) + (1×32) + (4×16)
= 334g/mol
Mass of penicillin = 500mg = 0.500g
a) Number of moles of penicillin = 0.001497006 mol

b) Number of molecules = Number of moles × Avogadro number
= 0.001497×6.022×1023 = 0.00901497 ×1023 molecules of penicillin
c) 1molecule of penicillin contains 2 atoms of nitrogen
0.00901497×1023 molecules of penicillin contain 2×0.00901497×1023
= 0.01802994×1023 molecules of nitrogen.
Exercises
1) Calculate the number of moles of the following:
a) 84 g of nitrogen gas, N2 (N =14)
b) 96 g of oxygen gas, O2 (O =16)
c) 74.2 g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, (Na =23, C =12, O =16)
d) 50 g of copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate, CuSO4•5H2O
(Cu =63.5, S =32, O =16, H =1)
e) 114.4 g of sodium carbonate decahydrate Na2CO3•10H2O
(Na =23, C =12, O =16, H = 1)
f) 4.83 g of sodium nitrite, (Na =23, N =14, O =16) 2) Calculate the mass of the
following:
a) 6.9 moles of carbon dioxide, CO2 (C =12, O =16)
b) 500 moles of ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 (N =14, H =1, O =16)
c) 1.5 moles of ethanol, C2H5OH (C =12, H =1, O =16)
d) 8.5 moles of copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate, CuSO4•4H2O
(Cu =63.5, S =32, O =16, H =1)
3) How many atoms and S8 molecules are present in 50 g of Sulphur? The relative atomic
mass of Sulphur is 32.
4) Calculate the number of molecules of chloroform (CHCl3) weighing 0.0239 g (H =1, C
=12, Cl = 35.5)
5) Find the number of atoms in the following:
a) 52 mol of Ne
b) 52 g of Ne (Ne = 20, Avogadro’s number = 6.022 × 1022)

66
6) How many molecules are present in:

a) 9 g of water
b) 17 g of ammonia
(H= 1, O= 16, N= 14, Avogadro’s number = 6.022 × 1022)
9. Molar gas volume

Definition
The molar gas volume is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas under standard conditions
of temperature and pressure.
These conditions are:
 At standard condition of temperature and pressure (STP), (temperature is 00C or
273K and pressure is 1atm or 760mmHg), 1mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm3 or
22400cm3 of volume.
 At room temperature and pressure, (rtp), (temperature is 250C or 298K and
pressure is 1atm or 760mmHg), 1mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24dm3 or
2400cm3.
Example
 At standard temperature and pressure(stp):
 1mole of oxygen gas (O2) weighs 32g and will occupy a volume of 22.4dm3.
 1mole of ammonia (NH3) gas weighs 17g and will occupy a volume of 22.4 dm3 
1mole of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas weighs 44g and will occupy a volume of 22.4dm3.
Converting known volumes of gases to moles
Number of moles (n) of a given gas
NOTE:
 At stp, Vm =22.4 dm3/mol
 At rtp, Vm = 24 dm3/mol
Then n = and V = n × 22.4 dm3/mol at STP or
n= and V= n × 24 dm3/mol at rtp

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Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of 5.6 dm3 of NH3 gas at stp.
Answer
Given: V = 5.6 dm3
Vm = 22.4 dm3/mol ( at stp)
Then n = mol
2. Calculate the moles of 1.12 dm3 of hydrogen gas at stp.
Answer
n= =0.05mol
3. How many molecules are there in 5.6 dm3 of ammonia gas at stp?
Answer
Number of moles in 5.6 dm3 of NH3
n= mol
 Then, number of molecules = moles × Avogadro number

= 0.25 mol × 6.022× 1023molecules /mol
= 3.01× 1023molecules
4. Find out the volume of 14 g of nitrogen gas at stp. (N=14)
Answer
 Number of moles = 0.5 mol
 Then, n = and V= n × 22.4 dm3/mol

V= 0.5 mol× 22.4 dm3/mol
V= 11.2 dm3
5. Find out the volume of 6.022 × 1022 molecules of ammonia (NH3) gas at stp.
Answer
 Number of moles = = 0.1 mol
 Then n = V = n × 22.4
V = 0.1 mol × 22.4 dm3/mol
V = 2.24 dm3

68
Exercises
1) Calculate the number of moles in each of the following:
a) 11 g of CO2 (RAM of C =12, O =16)
b) 3.01 × 10 molecules of CO2
22 (Avogadro’s number = 6.022 × 1023)
c) 1.12 litres of CO2 at STP (molar gas volume at stp = 22.4 l) 2) Find out
volume of the following at STP.
a) 14 g of nitrogen gas.
b) 6.022 × 1022 molecules of ammonia (NH3)
c) 0.1 moles of Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
(N =14, Avogadro’s number 6.022 × 1023, molar gas volume at STP = 22.4 l)
10. Calculation of mass percentage composition of an element

in a compound
Percentage by mass of an element y= × 100
Examples
1. What is the percentage by mass of nitrogen in the following compounds? a)
NH3
b) (NH4)2SO4
c) NaNO3
(N= 14, H=1, S=32, O=16, Na=23)
Answers
a) RFM of NH3 = (1×14) + (3×1) = 17
RAM of N=14
Number of atoms of N × RAM of N = 1×14 =14
% of N %
b) RFM of (NH4)2SO4 = (2×14) + (8×1) + (1×32) + (4×16) = 132
Number of atoms of N × RAM of N = 2×14 = 28
% of N = %
c) RFM of NaNO3 = (1×23) + (1×14) + ( 3×16) = 85 Number of
atoms of N × RAM of N = 1× 14 = 14
𝟏𝟒
% of N = × 100 = 16.47 %
2. Calculate the percentage of oxygen in aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3 (Al=27,
S=32 and O=16)

69
Answer
RFM of Al2(SO4)3 = (2×27) + (3×32) + (12×16) = 342 Number of
atoms of O × RAM of O = 12 × 16= 192
𝟏𝟗𝟐
% of O = ×100 = 56.1 %
𝟑𝟒𝟐
3. Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in washing soda whose formula is
Na2CO3.10H2O. (Na=23, C=12, O=16, H=1)
Answer
RFM of Na2CO3.10H2O = (2×23) + (1×12) + (13×16) + (20×1) = 286 Mass of
H2O = 10 × {(2×1) + 16} = 10 + 18= 180
𝟏𝟖𝟎
% of H2O = × 100 = 62.94 % by mass
4. What is the percentage composition of oxygen in hydrated sodium sulphate,

Na2SO4.10H2O? ( Na=23, S=32, O=16, H=1)
Answer
RFM of Na2SO4.10H2O = (2×23) + (1×32) + (14×16) + (20×1) = 322 Number of
atoms of O × RAM of O = 14 × 16 = 224
𝟐𝟐𝟒
% of O = × 100 = 69.56 %
𝟑𝟐𝟐
Exercises
1) Calculate the percentage of carbon in the following compounds.
a) Carbon dioxide, CO2 (RAM of C = 12, O =16)
b) Methane, CH4 (RAM of C = 12, H =1)
c) Calcium carbonate, CaCO3 (RAM of Ca = 40, C = 12, O =16)
d) Ethanol, C2H5OH (RAM of C = 12, O =16, H = 1)
2) Calculate the percentage composition of oxygen in sodium sulphate decahydrate,
Na2SO4•10H2O. (Na =23, S =32, O =16, H = 1)
3) Calculate the percentage composition of phosphorus in calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2.
(Ca = 40, P =31, O = 16)
4) Hydrated magnesium sulphate has the formula, MgSO4•7H2O.
a) Determine the percentage composition of each element present by mass.
b) Calculate the percentage composition of water of crystallization by mass.
(Mg =24, S = 32, O =16, H = 1)

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11. Empirical formula and molecular formula

a. Empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present in a
compound.
b. Molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of the various elements present in
a molecule of a compound.
Empirical formula can be determined from the composition of the compound given in terms
of % composition by mass of the elements.
 Steps for writing the empirical formula

1) Write the symbols of the elements of the compound.
2) Write the percentages composition of each element.
3) Divide the percentage or mass of each element by its atomic mass (to find mole of each
element).
4) Divide each result by the smallest result (to find smallest atomic ratio).
NOTE: For step 4

 If the atomic ratios obtained in 4 are not the whole number, they should be multiplied by a
suitable common factor to convert each of them to the whole numbers (or approximatively
equal to the whole numbers). Minor fractions are ignored by rounding up or down (ex: 7.95 = 8
or 2.01=2).
 If your result ends in one of the following, multiply all results by the same factor (same
whole number).
0.5
1.5 ?.20
2.5 ?.5 ×2 ?.33 ?.25 ?.40
3.5 ?.66 ×3 ?.75 ×4 ?.60 ×5
4.5 ?.80 ….
 Then, if the ratio is very near to a whole number, rounding it up or down to the
whole number.
5) Write down the symbols of the various elements side by side and put the above numbers as
the subscripts to the lower right hand corner of each symbol. This will represent the empirical
formula of the compound.
 Writing molecular formula
After calculating the empirical formula as described above;

6) Find out the empirical formula mass by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the empirical formula of the compound.

71
7) Divide the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass and find out the value of
n
8) Multiply the empirical formula of the compound with value of n so as to find out the
molecular formula of the compound.
Example1
A substance, on analysis, give the following percentage composition:
Na= 43.4%, C= 11.3%, O=45.3%. Calculate its empirical formula. (Na=23, C=12, O=16)
Answer
Elements Na C O
Mass (%) 43.4 11.3 45.3
Moles
=1.887
Simplest mole ratio 1.887

=2
0.942
Simplest atomic ratio 2 1 3
Empirical formula Na2CO3
Example2:
An organic compound on analysis gave the following data: C =57.82%, H = 3.6% and the
rest is oxygen. Its vapour density is 83. Find its empirical and molecular formula. C =12,
H =1, O=16
Answer
Elements C H O
Mass (%) 57.82 3.6 100-(57.82+3.6) =38.58
Moles 57.82 38 .58

=2.4
= 4. 8 16
12

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Simplest mole ratio (Divide

by the smallest result)
Simplest atomic ratio 2 ×2 = 4 1.5 × 2 =3 1× 2 =2

(Multiply all the above
results by 2 to get whole
number)
Empirical formula C4H3O2
Calculation of molecular formula:

 Finding the empirical formula mass= (4×12) + (3×1) + (2×16) =83
 Molecular mass = 2 × vapour density = 2×83 =166
 Then, empirical formula mass × n = molecular formula mass
83n =166 n= n=2
Therefore, molecular formula = empirical formula × n
= (C4H3O2)2 or C8H6O4
Example 3
An analysis of organic compound showed that it has 39.13% carbon, 52.23% oxygen and the
remaining is hydrogen. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
Answer
Elements C H O
Mass (%) 39.13 100-(39.13+52.23)= 8.64 52.23
Moles 52.23
= 3.26
16

by the smallest result)
Simplest atomic ratio 1×3=3 2.65×3=7.95 ~8 1×3=3

number)

73
Example4:
A compound has the following composition: Mg =9.76% , S =13.01% , O = 26.01% H20=
51.22%. What is its empirical formula? (Mg =24, S=32, O=16 , H=1)
Answer
Mg S O H2O
=0.406
=1 =1
Therefore, empirical formula is MgSO4 .7H20
Example5
A compound has the following composition, 69.42% carbon, 4.13% hydrogen and the rest
oxygen.
a) Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
b) If the relative molecular mass is 242, determine its molecular formula. (C
=12, H= 1, O=16)
Answer
a)
Elements C H O
Mass (%) 69.42.82 4.13 26.45
Moles 4.13
=4.13
1
Simplest mole ratio (Divide 5.785

by the smallest value) = 3. 5
1.65
Simplest atomic ratio 3.5 ×2 = 7 2.5 × 2 = 5 1× 2 =2

number)
b) (Empirical formula mass) × n = Molecule formula mass

74
{(7×12) + (5×1) + (2×16)} × n = 242
n= n =2
𝟏𝟐𝟏
Then, molecular formula is (C7H502 )2 or C14H10O4
Example 6
Octane is a hydrocarbon, it contains only carbon and hydrogen. It is 84.2% carbon and
15.8% hydrogen by mass. Its molecular mass is 114. What is its molecular formula?
Answer
First find the empirical formula for the compound
From the %, we can say that in 100 g of octane, 84.2 g is carbon and 15.8 g is hydrogen.
So 84.2 g of carbon combines with 15.8 g of hydrogen.
Elements C H
Mass (%) 84.2 19.8
Moles

by the smallest value)
Simplest atomic ratio 1 ×4 = 4 2.25 × 4 = 9

number)
Empirical formula C4H9
Then use molecular mass to find the molecular formula:

Finding the empirical formula mass= (4×12) + (9×1)=57
Then, empirical formula mass × n = molecular formula mass
57n = 114 n =
=2
Therefore, molecular formula = empirical formula × n

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= (C4H9)2 or C8H18
Exercises
1) Write the empirical formula of the compounds having molecular formulae:
a) C6H6
b) C6H12
c) H2O2
d) H2O
e) N2O4
f) Fe2O3
2) The empirical formula of a hydrocarbon is C2H3. The hydrocarbon has a relative
molecular mass of 54. Determine its molecular formula. (C = 12, H = 1)
3) A compound has an empirical formula of C3H6O. its relative molecular mass is 116.
a) Determine its molecular formula.
b) Calculate the percentage composition of carbon by mass in the compound.
(C =12, H =1, O =16)
4) What is the simplest formula of the compound which has the following percentage
composition: carbon 80 %, hydrogen 20 %? If the molecular mass is 30, calculate its
molecular formula. (C =12, H =1)
5) An organic compound on analysis gave the following data: C = 57.82 %, H = 3.6 % and
the rest is oxygen. Its vapour density is 83. Find its empirical formula and molecular
formula. (C =12, H =1, O =16)
6) 2.746 g of a compound gave on analysis 1.94 g of silver, 0.268 g of Sulphur and 0.538 g of
oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound.
(atomic masses: Ag = 108, S = 32, O =16)
7) The composition of a compound is 24.24 % carbon, 4.04 % hydrogen and 71.72 %
chlorine.
a) Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
b) If the relative molecular mass is 99, determine its molecular formula. (C
=12, H = 1, Cl =35.5)
8) A compound contains 40 % carbon, 6.67 % hydrogen and the rest oxygen. Determine its
empirical formula and hence, its molecular formula given that its relative molecular
mass is 180. (C =12, H =1, O =16)
9) An organic compound X was analyzed and found to be constituted of the following
elements with their percent composition by mass: Mg=28.03%, Si=21.60%,
H=1.16%, O=49.21%
The molecular mass of compound X is 521 g/mole.
(Atomic mass: Mg=24, Si=28, H=1, O=16)
a) Determine the empirical formula of compound X.
b) Determine the molecular formula of compound X.

76
12. Stoichiometric calculations

Stoichiometric calculation is the calculation that shows the relationship between the amounts
of reactants and of the products in an equation.
The numbers appearing before the formula units in the equation show mole ratio of the
reactants and of the products.
Example
The equation for the thermal decomposition of sodium nitrate is;
2NaNO3(s) heat 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
Mole ratios are 2: 2 : 1
The mole ratio of the reactants and of the products in an equation can be used to calculate
reacting masses or volumes.
Steps that must be followed in stoichiometric calculations are:

1) Write a balanced equation.
2) Convert the known mass or volume from mass (in g) or volume (in l) to moles.
Moles of given substance = or Moles of given substance =
3) Determine the mole ratio from the coefficient in the balanced equation to convert from
moles of known to moles of unknown.
Mole ratio
or
Mole ratio
4) Convert from moles of the given substance to moles of the unknown substance, by
multiplying the amount of moles of the given substance by the mole ratio. (mole to
mole).
Moles of desired (unknown) substance

5) Convert the calculated moles (moles of the unknown substance) from moles to the
required mass or volume.
• Mass = Moles of desired substance × molar mass of desired substance or
• Volume = Moles of desired substance × Molar gas volume

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i) Mass-mass relationship
In mass-mass problems, you are given the mass of a compound in the problem and asked to
find the mass of another compound.
Example
Reduction of copper(II) oxide by carbon is as follows:
2CuO(s) + C(s) heat 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
a) Calculate the mass of carbon that reduces 31.8 g of copper (II) oxide.
b) Determine the mass of carbon dioxide formed. (Cu = 63.5, O = 16, C =12)
Answer
a) Calculation of mass of C
1. Balanced equation
2CuO(s) + C(s) heat 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
2. Moles of CuO = 0.4mol
3. Mole ratio
4. Moles of the desired reactant which is C are 0.4mol × 0.2 mol

5. Mass of C = Moles × molar mass
= 0.2 mol ×12g/mol = 2.4 g of C
Or you can also use the following expression

𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 × 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 × 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧
This means that:
from balanced
chemical equation
Then,
b) Calculation of mass of CO2
 Mole ratio
 Moles of CO2 = 0.4 mol × mol
 Mass of CO2 = Moles of CO2 × Molar mass of CO2
= 0.2mol × 44g/mol
= 8.8 g of CO2

78
ii) Mass - Volume relationships

In this case, either the mass of a compound will be given and the volume of another is asked,
or the volume of a gas will be given and the mass of another compound will be asked.
Example
Consider the following equation.
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Determine the volume of carbon dioxide gas that will be produced from 112.5 g of iron at stp.
(Fe = 56, O = 16, C = 12 , Molar gas volume at stp is 22.4 dm3/mol)
Solution
1. Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
2. Moles of Fe = mol
3. Mole ratio
4. Moles of CO2 = 2.008 mol × 3.012 mol
5. Volume of CO2 = Moles of CO2 × Molar gas volume
= 3.012 mol ×22.4 dm3/mol = 67.5 dm3 of CO2
Or you can use the following expression
Then,
iii) Volume- Volume relationships

A volume-volume problem concerns only the gaseous compounds of a reaction. In this case, the
volume of one compound will be given and the volume of another is asked.

79
Example
Consider the reaction below:
4 NH3(g) + 3 O2(g) 2 N2(g) + 6 H2O(g)
What is the volume of ammonia gas will react with 22.4 L of oxygen gas at stp?
Solution
Moles of O = 1mol
Mole ratio
Moles of NH3 = 1mol × = 1.33 mol
Volume of NH3 = Moles of NH3 × Molar gas volume
= 1.33 mol × 22.4 l/mol = 29.7 l of NH3
Or you can use the following expression
Then,
Exercises
1) Potassium chlorate (V) decomposes when heated as below
2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)
a) Calculate the mass of potassium chloride formed when 49 g of potassium chlorate
(V) completely decomposes.
b) Determine the mass of oxygen gas liberated. (K =39, Cl = 35.5, O = 16)
2) Lead (II) nitrate when heated decomposes to lead (II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen
gas.
a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
b) Calculate the mass of lead (II) oxide formed when 463.4 g of lead (II) nitrate
decomposes.
c) Calculate the mass of nitrogen (II) oxide (nitrogen dioxide) formed. (Pb = 207, N
= 14, O = 16)
3) Copper (II) nitrate decomposes when heated to copper (II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen gas.
a) Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the reaction.
b) Calculate the mass of copper (II) oxide formed when 15.04 g of copper (II) nitrate
decomposes completely.
c) Determine the mass of nitrogen dioxide formed during the reaction. (Cu = 63.5, N =
14 O = 16)
4) Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

80
a) Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the reaction

b) Calculate the mass of sodium that would react with water to form 300 g of sodium
hydroxide.
c) Calculate the mass of hydrogen gas that would be liberated during the reaction. (Na
= 23, H = 1, O =16)
5) When calcium carbonate is heated strongly, it decomposes as shown below:
CaCO3(s) Heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
a) Calculate the relative formula mass of:
i) CaCO3 ii) CaO
b) Calculate the mass of calcium oxide formed when 150 g of calcium carbonate is
completely decomposed.
c) Determine the volume of carbon dioxide evolved at standard conditions.
(Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16 , Molar gas volume at STP = 22.4 Litres)
6) Sodium hydrogen carbonate decomposes when heated as shown in the equation below:
NaHCO3((s) Heat Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
a) 67.2 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate is completely decomposed by heat. Calculate
the volume of carbon dioxide gas formed at standard temperature and pressure.
b) Determine the mass of the residue (Na2CO3)
(Na = 23, C = 12, O =16, Molar gas volume at STP =22.4 litres)
7) Magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form magnesium sulphate and hydrogen
gas.
a) Write a balanced equation to represent the reaction.
b) Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas liberated at STP when 4.8 g of magnesium
reacts completely with dilute sulphuric acid.
c) Determine the mass of magnesium sulphate formed in the reaction.
(Mg = 24, H = 1, S =32, O = 16)
8) What volume of nitrogen would react with excess hydrogen to produce 10 cm3 of
ammonia at STP? (Molar gas volume at STP = 22.4 dm3)
13. Limiting reactants

In a chemical reaction,
 The limiting reactant is the reactant that is used up completely (runs out first).
This stops the reaction and no further products are made. The limiting reactant
determines how much product you can make.
 Excess reactant is the reactant that is not completely used up during the chemical
reaction. There is some of this reactant leftover.
Deciding which reactant is the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess

81
Below are the steps that must be followed:

1. Write balanced chemical equation.
2. Identify moles of each reactant present.
3. Divide moles of each reactant by its stoichiometric coefficient.
4. Smallest number indicates limiting reactant.
5. Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product produced (if
asked)
6. If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of non-limiting reactant.
Example1
Calculate the limiting reactant when 2.4 g of magnesium is burnt in 10.0 g of oxygen.
Answer
1. Balanced equation: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO
2. Moles of Mg = 0.1mol
Moles of O = 0.3125 mol

3. Divide moles of each reactant by its stoichiometric coefficient.
 For Mg :
 For O
Smallest number indicates limiting reactant. then,

Limiting reactant is Mg Excess reactant is O2
Example2
Consider the reaction: Mg + S MgS
If 2.00 g of magnesium is reacted with 2.00 g of Sulphur a)
Which is the limiting reagent?
b) How much magnesium sulphide (MgS) can be produced?
c) Calculate the amount of one the reactants which remains unreacted? (Mg
=24, S= 32)
Answer
a) Finding of limiting reagent
1. Balanced equation is, Mg + S MgS
2. Moles of Mg : 0.08mol
Moles of S : 0.0625 mol

3. Divide moles of each reactant by stoichiometric coefficient
 For Mg :
 for S :

82
Limiting reagent is S
b) Mole ratio
Moles of MgS : O.0625mol × = 0.0625 mol of MgS
Mass of MgS formed = Moles of MgS × molar mass of MgS
= 0.0625 mol × 56g/mol = 3.5g of MgS
To calculate moles of excess reactant = Initial quantity (mole or mass) of the excess
reactant – amount consumed by the complete consumption of the limiting reactant.
c) Moles of Mg left unreacted = 0.08 − 0.0625 = 0.0175 mol

Mass of Mg left unreacted = Mole of Mg left unreacted × Molar mass of Mg
= 0.0175 mol × 24g/mol = 0.42 g of Mg left unreacted
Example 3
Consider the reaction
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
If 20 g of H2 gas is reacted with 96 g of O2 gas.
a) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
b) How much H20 is produced?
c) How much of the excess reactant remains?
Answer
a) Finding of limiting reagent

 Balanced equation is, 2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
• Moles of H 10 mol
• Moles of O 3 mol
 Divide moles of each reactant by stoichiometric coefficient
• For H
• for O
Limiting reagent is O2
b) Use the equation to get the mole ratio of the required (unknown) substance to the
known (limiting reactant)

83
𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐛𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝟐

Mole ratio
Moles of H2O : 3 mol × = 6 mol of H2O

Mass of H2O formed = Moles of H2O × molar mass of H2O
= 6 mol × 18 g/mol = 108 g of H2O
c) Determine grams of hydrogen that react.

Use the equation to get the mole ratio of the required (unknown) substance to the known
(limiting reactant).
𝟐
• The mole ratio between H2 (required) and O2 (limiting reactant) is
𝟏
• Moles of hydrogen used: 3 mol × = 6 mol

• Mass of hydrogen used = Moles of H2 × molar mass of H2
= 6 mol × 2g/mol = 12g of H2
Excess mass of hydrogen: 20 g ― 12 g = 8 g of H2 remaining
Excess mass of hydrogen: 20 g ― 12 g = 8 g of H2 remaining
Exercises
1) Take the reaction:
NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
In an experiment, 3.25 g of NH3 are allowed to react with 3.50 g of O2.
a) Which reactant is the limiting reactant? Answer: O2
b) How many grams of NO are formed? Answer: 2.63 g NO
c) How much of the excess reactant remains after the reaction?
Answer: 1.76 g NH3 left 2) Copper
reacts with silver nitrate solution according to the equation:
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

84
If 0.50 mole of copper is added to 1.5 mole of silver nitrate, which is the limiting reagent and
how many moles of silver are formed?
3) Iron reacts with chlorine gas to form iron (III) chloride.
a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b) 44.8 g of iron is reacted with 30 litres of chlorine at standard conditions.
i) Determine the limiting reactant.
ii) Determine the mass of iron (III) chloride formed.
(Fe = 56, Cl = 35.5 , Molar gas volume at STP = 22.4 litres)
4) Methane, CH4 is a hydrocarbon that burns in oxygen completely to form carbon dioxide
and steam (gaseous water)
a) Write a balanced equation to represent the reaction.
b) 4.48 litres of methane is burnt in 10 litres of oxygen at STP.
i) Calculate the limiting reactant.
ii) Determine the volume of carbon dioxide formed.
5) Propane gas is used as a gaseous fuel. A mixture of 13.44 litres of propane and 72 litres
of oxygen was ignited.
The equation for the reaction is:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
a) Determine the limiting reactant.
b) Calculate the volume of the excess reactant that remained unreacted.
c) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed at standard conditions.
(Molar gas volume at STP = 22.4 l)
6) A mixture of 5.6 litres of ethane, C2H6 gas and 16.8 litres of oxygen was ignited. Carbon
dioxide and water were formed. The equation for the reaction is:
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
a) Calculate the limiting reactant.
b) Determine the volume of carbon dioxide formed at standard conditions.
(Molar gas volume at STP = 22.4 l)
14. GAS LAWS
i) Boyle’s law
Boyle’s law describes the relationship between volume and pressure of gas at constant
temperature.
The law states that:
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure at constant

temperature.
This means that, if volume of the gas is increased from Vi to Vf, its pressure will decrease from
Pi to Pf.

85
Thus Pi × Vi = Pf × Vf (at constant temperature)
Units of pressure are:

 Pascal (Pa)
 Atmosphere (atm)
 Millimeter of mercury (mmHg)
Note: 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101326 Pa
Example
A certain gas occupies a volume of 80 cm3 at a pressure of 420 mmHg. Calculate the volume it
will occupy when the pressure is increased to 800 mmHg at a constant temperature.
Answer
Pi = 420 mmHg Pf = 800mmHg
Vi = 80cm3 Vf = ?
It is known that Pi×Vi=Pf×Vf means that Vf = = 42cm3
Exercises
1) State Boyle’s law.
2) 20 cm3 of oxygen gas was compressed from a pressure of 840 mmHg to 1600 mmHg at a
constant temperature. Determine the new volume of the gas.
3) The volume of a gas at 180 Pa is reduced from 100 cm3 to 60 cm3. What is the pressure.
Temperature remains constant.
4) In an experiment, 60 cm3 of gas X at a pressure of 100 Pa had its volume increased to
150 cm3 at a constant temperature. Determine the new pressure of the gas.
5) A certain gas occupies 30 dm3 at 760 mmHg pressure. Find the volume occupied by the
same gas at 800 mmHg if the temperature is kept constant.
6) A certain mass of a gas occupies 48 ml, at a pressure of 720 mmHg. What is the volume
when pressure in increased to 960 mmHg? Temperature remains constant.
ii) Charles’s law
Charles’s law describes the relationship between volume and temperature of a gas at constant
pressure.
Charles’s law states that:

The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at a
constant pressure.
This means that, if temperature is increased from Ti to Tf, then its volume will increase from
Vi to Vf.

86
Thus (at constant pressure)
Example
A fixed mass of a gas has a volume of 22.4 cm3 at 0 0C. The gas is warmed to room
temperature, 25 0C. Calculate the new volume occupied by the gas if pressure remains
constant.
Answer
Vi = 22.4cm2 Vf = ?
Ti = (0 + 273)=273K Tf = (25 + 273)K = 298K
Vf = = 24.45cm3
Exercises
1) State Charle’s law.
2) A certain gas occupies a volume of 25 cm3 at 50 0C. What will be the volume occupied by
the same gas at 75 0C at a constant presuure?
3) A sample of helium has volume of 520 ml at 100 0C. Calculate the temperature at which
the volume will become 260 ml. Assume the pressure is constant.
4) A fixed mass of a gas has volume of 250 cm3 at a temperature of 27 0C and 750 mmHg
pressure. Determine the temperature at which the gas would occupy a volume of 262.5
cm3. Pressure remains constant at 750 mmHg.
5) A gas occupies 2.32 litres at 40 0C. What will be the new volume if the temperature is
raised to 75 0C while pressure remains constant?
6) What will be the volume of a gas at 0 0C which occupies 200 ml at 27 0C? Assume no
change in pressure.
iii) Gay-Lussac’s law

Gay-Lussac’s law relates temperature and pressure of a gas at constant volume. The
law states that:
For a fixed mass of a gas, pressure is directly proportional to temperature at a constant

volume.
This means that, if pressure is increased from Pi to Pf, then its temperature will increase from
Ti to Tf.
Thus, (at constant volume)

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Example
A flask containing air is corked when the pressure is 760 mmHg pressure at a temperature of
17 0C. The temperature of the flask is raised gradually. The cork blows out when pressure is
900 mmHg. Work the temperature.
Answer
Pi = 760mmHg Pf = 900mmHg Ti =
170C = (17 + 273) = 290K Tf = ?
Tf = = 343.4K
Exercises
1) State Gay-Lussac’s law
2) A car tyre contains 200 cm3 of air at a pressure of 300 kPa and a temperature of 15 0C.
after driving some distance the temperature of the tyre is found to be 41 0C. calculate
the pressure of the tyre if the volume remains constant.
3) A gas is confined in a rigid container exerting a pressure of 250mmHg at a temperature
of 17 0C. to what temperature must the gas be cooled in order for its pressure to become
216 mmHg, volume remaining constant.
4) The pressure of oxygen gas in a steel cylinder is241 kPa at 15 0C. calculate the pressure
of the gas in the cylinder when the temperature rises to 28 0C.
5) A flask containing air is corked when the pressure is 760 mmHg pressure at a
temperature of 17 0C. The temperature of the flask is raised gradually. The cork blows
out when pressure is 900 mmHg pressure. Work the temperature.
iv) Avogadro’s law

This law states that;
The volume(v) is directly proportional to the amount of gas (n) at a constant temperature and
pressure.
This means that, if the amount of gas in a container is increased, the volume increases and if
the amount of gas in a container is decreased, the volume decreases.
Then
Example
A 3.80g of oxygen gas in a pump has volume of 150ml at constant temperature and pressure. If
1.20g of oxygen gas is added into the pump, what will be the new volume of oxygen gas in the
pump if temperature and pressure held constant?

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Answer m1= 3.80g Moles (n1)

0.11875 mol m2 = (3.80 + 1.20) = 5g Moles(n2)
0.15625 mol
V1 = 150 ml V2 = ?
V2 = = 197.3 ml
v) The combined gas law

Combined gas law shows the relationship between volume, pressure and absolute temperature
of a gas.
Its equation is
Example
200 cm3 of nitrogen dioxide(NO2) gas at 30 0C exerts a pressure of 500 mmHg. If the gas is
cooled to 18 0C at 200 mmHg, what volume will the gas occupy?
Answer
Pi =500mmHg Pf = 200mmHg Vi
=200cm3 Vf = ?
Ti = (30 + 273) K = 303K Tf = (18 + 273)K = 291K
Vf = = 480.2K
Exercises
1) A gas occupies a volume of 400 cm3 at 500 K and 760 mmHg pressure. What will be the
temperature of the gas when the volume is 100 cm3 and the pressure is 380 mmHg.
2) A sample of a gas has a volume of 850 cm3 at a temperature of 20 0C and a pressure of
760 mmHg. At what pressure would the same mass of the gas occupy a volume of 500
cm3 if cooled.
3) A certain mass of a gas occupies 0.15 dm3 at 293 K and 98600 Pa. Calculate its volume
at 101000 Pa and 273 K.
4) A balloon contains 80 cm3 of gas at 30 0C and 4 atmospheres. Calculate the volume of
the balloon at 50 0C and 2 atmospheres.

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5) A certain gas occupies 600 cm3 at room temperature and 1 atmosphere pressure. At
what temperature will the same gas occupy a volume of 400 cm3 and exert a pressure of
2 atmospheres.
vi) Ideal gas law

This law states that:
The product of the volume and pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
and the amount of substance.
The ideal gas equation combines Avogadro law with the combined gas law.
PV = nRT
Where P= Pressure of ideal gas
V= Volume of ideal gas n=
The amount of gas
T = The absolute temperature
R = The gas constant
(R= 0.082057 ℓ atm /mol K or R= 8.3145 J/ mol K or R= 8.3145 m3 Pa/ mol K )
Example1
5 g of Neon is at 256 mmHg and at a temperature of 35 0C. What is the volume?
R = 0.082057 ℓ atm/ mol K
Answer
P = 256 mmHg T = 35 0C V= ?
m=5g R = 0.082057 ℓ atm/ mol K
Solution:
We know that 760mmHg 1atm
𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎
1mmHg 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎 ×𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
256mmHg 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
= 0.3368 atm
Means P = 0.3368 atm
Moles of Neon = mol of Neon.

Temperature = (35 + 273) = 308 K
V=

90
Example2
A 655 mmHg and 25 0C, a sample of chlorine gas has volume of 750 ml. How many moles of
chlorine gas at this condition? R = 0.082057 l atm/ K mol
Solution
P= 655 mmHg
T = (25 + 273)K = 298 K V
= 750 ml = 0.75 ℓ n = ?
𝟔𝟓𝟓
n= = 0.026 mol
vii) Graham’s law of diffusion

Diffusion of a gas is the spreading out of gas until it is evenly distributed.
Graham’s law of diffusion states that:
 The rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their
densities at constant temperature and pressure.
1
In mathematical terms: R √𝜌 where 𝜌 = Density of the gas
R= rate of diffusion
Now, if there are two gases A and B having RA and RB as their rates of diffusion and 𝜌𝐴 and
𝜌𝐵 as their densities respectively. Then
1
2
R and R √𝜌𝐵 or
(1)
Where RA = Rate of diffusion of gas A
RB = Rate of diffusion of gas B
𝜌𝐴 = Density of gas A
𝜌𝐵 = Density of gas B
Example
The density of Sulphur dioxide is 2.9 g/dm3 while that of carbon dioxide is 1.98 g/dm3. Compare
their rates of diffusion.

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Answer
𝑅𝐶𝑂2 = 1.21 𝑅𝑆𝑂2

This means that, the rate of diffusion of CO2 is 1.21 times faster than SO2
We know that: Molecule mass = 2 × vapour density Therefore,
the above expression may be written as:
Then (2)
Thus, Graham’s law may also be states as:
 The rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square root of their
molecular masses at constant temperature and pressure.
Example
Compare the rate of diffusion of hydrogen, H2 and carbon dioxide, CO2. (H=1, C=12 , O=16)
Answer
𝑹𝑯𝟐 = 4.69 × CO2

Hydrogen gas diffuse 4.69 times faster than carbon dioxide.
Again, Graham’s law may also be states as:
 The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to time.

The shorter the time the faster the rate of diffusion and vice versa.
Rate =
For two gases A and B, the rate of diffusion is RA and RB

For equal volumes of gases, VA = VB = V

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We get
Then (3)
Based on the above formulae (1), (2) and (3) we can conclude that:
The above formulae also show that the time taken for the diffusion of two gases is directly
proportional to the square root of their densities or molecular masses at constant
temperature and pressure.
Example
It takes 50 seconds for oxygen gas to diffuse through a porous pot. Calculate how long it takes
an equal volume of Sulphur dioxide to diffuse through the same porous pot.
Answer
For equal volume of gases
𝟓𝟎 𝟑𝟐 𝟏
𝒕𝑺𝑶𝟐
= √ 𝟔𝟒 = √ 𝟐
70.71 seconds
It takes 70.71 seconds for SO2 gas to diffuse through the porous pot.
Exercises
1) Compare the rates of diffusion of oxygen gas and nitrogen gas using their relative
molecular masses. (N =14, O =16)
2) Two gases A and B have densities of 0.18 g/dm3 and 2.90 g/dm3 respectively. If they
diffuse under the same conditions, what are their relative rates of diffusion?
3) Hydrogen gas takes 10 seconds to diffuse through a room. How long would an equal
volume of methane (CH4) take to diffuse. (C =12, H =1)
4) The rate of diffusion of methane through a porous pot is 12 cm3/s. Calculate the rate of
diffusion of carbon dioxide through the same porous pot. (C =12, H =1, O =16)

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5) The rate of methane (CH4) and gas X is in the ratio of 2:1. Calculate the relative formula
mass of gas X.
6) The rate of diffusion of two gases A and B are in the ratio of 2:1. If the RMM of gas A is
16, calculate the RMM of gas B.
7) It took 120 second for 100 cm3 of oxygen to diffuse through a small hole. How long will
100 cm3 of another gas with a RMM of 64 take to diffuse through the same hole. (O =16)
8) It takes 110 seconds for a sample of carbon dioxide to diffuse through a porous plug and
275 seconds for the same volume of an unknown gas to diffuse under the same
conditions. What is the molar mass of the unknown gas (in g/mol)? Answer: 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓
𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
UNIT 8: PREPARATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF OXIDES
1. Definition of oxides
Oxides are compounds of oxygen with another element.
Examples:
 MgO : Magnesium oxide
 Na2O : Sodium oxide

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 NO2 : Nitrogen dioxide

 CO2 : Carbon dioxide
 SO2 : Sulphur dioxide
2. Preparation of oxides
Oxides can be prepared by the following methods:
a) Direct combination of an element with oxygen.
b) Thermal decomposition of hydroxides, Carbonates and nitrates.
a) Preparation of oxides by direct combination with oxygen
i) Combination of metals with oxygen

Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxide.
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
Examples:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Magnesium oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)

sodium oxide
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)

potassium oxide
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)

Aluminium oxide
ii) Combination of non-metal with oxygen

Non-metals react with oxygen to produce non-metal oxide.
Non-metal + Oxygen Non-metal oxide
Examples:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
2H2(s) + O2(g) H2O(g)
4P(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(g)

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b) Preparation of oxides by thermal decomposition of Hydroxides,

Carbonates and Nitrates
i) Thermal decomposition of hydroxides

Metal hydroxide decomposes by heat to form metal oxide and water.
Metal hydroxide heat Metal oxide + water
Examples:
Mg(OH)2(s) heat MgO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
heat CaO(s) + H2O(l)
2Al(OH)3(s) heat Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(l)
Note: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and Potassium hydroxide (KOH) are not
decomposed by heat.
ii) Thermal decomposition of carbonates

All metal carbonates undergo thermal decomposition to give metal oxide and carbon dioxide
except sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate which do not decompose on heating.
Example:
Metal carbonate heat Metal oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
MgCO3(s) heat MgO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) heat ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Li2CO3(s) heat Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) heat CuO(s) + CO2(g)
iii) Thermal decomposition of nitrates

 Most metal nitrates decompose on heating to give metal oxide, brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen gas.
Examples
2Cu(NO3)2(s) heat 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) heat 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
 Sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate decompose on heating to form metal nitrite and
oygen gas.
2KNO3(s) heat 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3(s) heat 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

96
3. Classification of oxides
On the basis of acid-base nature, oxides can be classified into four groups. a.
Basic oxides
b. Acidic oxides
c. Amphoteric oxides
d. Neutral oxides.
a) Basic oxides
Basic oxides are oxides of metals. Generally, Group 1 and Group 2 elements form bases called
basic oxide
i) Example of basic oxides:

• Sodium oxide (Na2O)
• Potassium oxide(K2O)
• Magnesium oxide(MgO)
• Calcium oxide(CaO)
• Barium oxide(BaO)
ii) Properties of basic oxides

1) Some basic oxides dissolve in water to form a base (alkaline solution) (metal
hydroxide)
• Reaction with water
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
base
K2O(s) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq)

MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) 2Ca(OH)2(aq)
2) Basic oxides also react with an acid to form a salt and water.
• Reaction with acids

MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: Basic oxides do not react with bases.
b) Acidic oxides
Acidic oxides are the oxides of non-metals. (Groups 14 – 17) i)
Examples of acidic oxides

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• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
• Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Phosphorus (III) oxide (P2O3)
ii) Properties of acidic oxides

1) Acidic oxides react with water to form acidic solutions.
Reaction with water

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

Sulphurous acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

Sulphuri acid
3NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)

Nitric acid
2) Acidic oxides also react with bases (alkali) to form a salt and water.
Reaction with bases
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Salt
SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
 They are usually gases at room temperature.
Note: Acidic oxides do not react with acids.
c) Amphoteric oxides
Amphoteric oxides are oxides of certain metals. Amphoteric oxides are oxides that react
with both acids and bases to form salt and water. This means that they react as either acid
or base.
i) Examples:
• Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
• Zinc oxide (ZnO) Lead oxide (PbO
• Beryllium oxide (BeO)

98
ii) Properties of amphoteric oxides

Amphoteric oxides are oxides that react with both acids and bases to form salt and water.
Equations:
𝐴𝑙2𝑂3(𝑠) + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
{𝐴𝑙2𝑂3(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
d) Neutral oxides
Neutral oxides are oxides of some non-metals. Neutral oxides show neither basic nor acidic
properties and hence do not form salts when reacted with acids or bases.
i) Examples
 Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Water (H2O)
 Nitrogen monoxide (NO)
 Dinitrogen oxide (N2O)
ii) Properties of neutral oxides

 Neutral oxides do not react with both acids and bases. This means that they do not have
basic or acidic properties.
 They have no effect on litmus solution.
4. Uses and production of slaked lime (Ishwagara)

Raw material: Calcium carbonate (Also known as limestone)
Limestone decomposes when heated to form calcium oxide (quicklime) and carbon dioxide gas.
CaCO3(s) heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Limestone Quicklime
Then, solid calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is obtained by dissolving calcium oxide in a few
drops of water.
CaO(s) + H20(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
Quicklime Slakedlime
5. Uses of slaked lime (Ishwagara)

a. A solution of slaked lime is used for white washing walls.

99
b. Slaked lime is used to reduce soil acidity.

c. Slaked lime is used in the formation of calcium carbonate.
Exercises
1) On the basis of acid-base nature, oxides can be classified into four groups.
a) List the four groups.
b) Classify the following oxides into the named groups:
i) Sodium oxide ii) Sulphur
dioxide iii) Copper(II) oxide iv)
Aluminium oxide v) Water vi)
Carbon monoxide vii) Nitrogen
dioxide viii) Magnesium oxide.
2) a) One method of preparation of oxides is by direct combination. Name the products
formed when the following elements combine with oxygen:
i) Magnesium ii)
Carbon iii) Sulphur iv)
Sodium
b) Classify the element in (a) above as metals and non-metals.
c) Which of the elements will form
i) Gaseous oxides ii) Solid

oxides
3) Choose from the list of oxides to answer the questions below. You can use each oxide
once, more than once or not at all.
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogen dioxide
 Water
 Carbon monoxide  Sulphur dioxide
 Magnesium oxide
 Calcium oxide
a) Which of these oxides are basic oxides?
b) Which two oxides cause acid rain?
c) Which two oxides are formed when a hydrocarbon undergoes complete combustion?
d) Which one of these oxide turns anhydrous white copper (II) sulphate blue?
e) Which oxide is formed when calcium carbonate undergoes thermal decomposition.
4) An oxide of element X dissolves in water to form a solution of PH = 5. Is element X a
metal or a non-metal?

100
5) When copper (II) nitrate is heated, it decomposes to copper (II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen.
a) What is the colour of :
i) Copper (II) nitrate ii) Copper
(II) oxide iii) Nitrogen dioxide
b) Write a balanced equation for the decomposition of copper (II) nitrate.
6) Oxides can be prepared by direct combination between an element and oxygen. The can
also be prepared through thermal decomposition of metallic hydroxide, nitrates and
carbonates.
a) What do you understand by the term decomposition?
b) Name all the products formed when the following compounds are decomposed by
heat.
i) Aluminium hydroxide ii) Copper
(II) carbonate iii) Calcium nitrate.
7) Consider the following oxides:
Sodium oxide, Sulphur dioxide and aluminium oxid.
a) Select the oxide that reacts with water to give an acidic solution.
b) Select the oxide which when shaken with water, gives a solution with pH greater
than 7.
c) Select the oxide which reacts with both dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide solution.
8) a) Calcium oxide is obtained in large scale through thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate (limestone). State two large scale uses of calcium oxide.
b) State one use of the oxides given below:
i) Magnesium oxide ii) Carbon

dioxide iii) Sulphur dioxide.
9) Some oxides are listed below.
Calcium oxide, phosphorus (III) oxide, water, carbon dioxide, sodium oxide, carbon
monoxide, Sulphur dioxide
a) Which one of these oxides will most likely cause acid rain?
b) Which one of these oxides is a product of the reaction between an acid and a
carbonate?
c) Which one of these oxides is formed by the incomplete combustion of carbon?
d) Which one of these oxides is a good solvent?
e) Which one of these oxides is used to neutralize acidic industrial waste products?
f) Which two of these oxides react with water to form an alkaline solution?
10) Calcium nitrate decomposes when heated.
2Ca(NO3)2(s) 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
a) The solid product, CaO, is slightly soluble in water and reacts to form a solution of
Ca(OH)2.

101
Explain what happens when blue and red litmus paper are separately dipped in the resulting
solution of Ca(OH)2
b) Nitrogen (IV) oxide (NO2) formed is also soluble in water. Explain what happens
when blue and red litmus papers are separately dipped in the resulting solution.
UNIT 9: ELECTROLYTES AND NON-ELECTROLYTES
1. Electrolyte
Definition:
Electrolyte is a compound that conducts electricity when molten or in aqueous solution.
Examples: H2SO4, HCl, NaCl, KNO3, KOH etc.
Electrolyte conducts an electric current when dissolved in water or molten form.
Types of electrolytes
Electrolytes can be classified into strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes.
a) Strong electrolytes: Are electrolytes that dissociate (or separate) completely into ions
when dissolved in water or when in molten state.
Strong electrolytes have high electrical conductivity because of high concentration of ions in
their solution.
Examples of strong electrolytes

 Strong acids: H2SO4, HCl, HNO3
 Strong bases: KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2
 Salts: NaCl, KNO3, MgCl2 ,etc
Dissociation equation when an electrolyte is dissolved in water is:
HCl(l) H2O(l) H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
H2SO4(l) H2O(l) 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
NaCl(s) H2O(l) Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
NaOH(s) H2O(l) Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
b) Weak electrolytes: Are electrolytes that dissociate (or separate) partially into ions when
dissolved in water or when in molten state.
Examples of weak electrolytes
 Organic acids:

102
 Ammonium hydroxide (ammonia solution): NH4OH

Weak electrolytes have low electrical conductivity because of low concentration of ions in their
solution.
Dissociation equation when a non-electrolyte is dissolved in water is:
CH3COOH(l) H2O(l) CH3COO−(aq) + H+(aq)
HCOOH(l) H2O(l) HCOO−(aq) + H+(aq)
NH4OH(l) H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
2. Non-electrolytes
Non-electrolytes are covalent compounds that do not dissociate (or separate) into ions when
dissolved in water. This means that they do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water or
when in molten state. They remain molecular when added in water.
Examples
 Sugar
 Ethanol
 Urea
3. Definition of electrolysis
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte using electricity.
The diagram below shows how electrolysis is carried out:
Definitions of some terms used in electrolysis

Electrode is a piece of metal used to carry an electric current into or out of electrolyte.
They are two types of electrodes namely:

 Anode is an electrode connected to the positive terminal of battery.
 Cathode is an electrode connected to the negative terminal of battery.

103
During electrolysis:
An electrolyte decomposes into ions (positive ions and negative ions)
Then, positive ions (cations) move towards the cathode while Negative ions (anions) move
towards the anode.
NOTE:
 In an electrolyte, the particles that carry electric current are called ions while  In
the wire, the particles that carry electric current are called electrons.
4. Difference between electrolytes and non-electrolytes
a) Electrolytes conduct electricity in aqueous or molten state because the ions are free to
move while non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity in aqueous or molten state
because they have no ions.
b) Electrolytes are ionic compounds while non-electrolytes are covalent compounds.
5. Difference between strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes

a. Strong electrolytes dissociate (or separate) completely into ions while weak electrolytes
dissociate (or separate) partially into ions.
b. Strong electrolytes have high electrical conductivity while weak electrolytes have low
electrical conductivity.
6. Application of some common electrolytes

a. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used in car batteries
b. Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is used in Leclanché cell (Dry cell)

104
Exercises
1) a) What is an electrolyte?
b) Give two examples of electrolytes. 2) a)
What is a non-electrolyte?
b) Give two examples of non-electrolytes.
3) What do you understand by the term electrolysis?
4) An electrolyte can be described as a “strong electrolyte”, or a “weak
electrolyte”
a) Distinguish between a strong and a weak electrolyte.
b) State two examples of each.
5) Differentiate the following terms:
a) Electrolyte and non-electrolyte.
b) Cations and anions
c) Cathode and anode.
6) Describe the movement of cations and the anions in the electrolyte during
electrolysis.
7) Classify the substance given below under the three headings:
Strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes and non-electrolyte 
Ethanoic acid
 Common salt solution
 Ammonium hydroxide
 Ethanol
 Dilute hydrochloric acid
 Sugar solution
 Dilute sulphuric acid
 Sodium hydroxide
 Distilled water
8) Name the particles that conduct electricity during electrolysis in the following:
a) In the conducting wire in the external circuit.
b) In the electrolyte.
9) Metals (wires) conduct an electric current through delocalized electrons while
electrolytes conduct an electric current through ………………Electrolytes
undergo…………………around the electrodes whereas metals are not affected by
electric current.
10) The apparatus shown in the diagram below may be used to distinguish between
an electrolyte and non-electrolyte.

105
a) State the observations made when the substance (liquid) is

i) An electrolyte ii) A non-
electrolyte
b) Describe how the same set up could be used to distinguish between a strong
electrolyte and a weak electrolyte.

106
UNIT 10: PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND USES

OF ALKANES
1. Definition of organic chemistry

Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of compounds
containing carbon.
However, it does not deal with the study of oxides of carbon, carbonates and
hydrogen carbonates or carbonic acid.
2. Difference between organic and inorganic compounds

The following table gives a summary of differences between organic and inorganic substances.
Properties Organic substances Inorganic substances
Solubility Insoluble in water but soluble in organic Soluble in water but insoluble
solvents such as ethanol in organic solvents
Flammability Are flammable (They catch fire easily) Are usually
nonflammable(They do not
burn easily)
Volatility Most are volatile liquids Many are non-volatile except
for concentrated acids
Ions Always contain carbon and hydrogen Usually contain cations and
anions
Occurrence Always found in living things Always found in non-living
things
Boiling point Have low boiling points Many have high boiling
points
3. Occurrence of organic compounds
 Organic compounds are found in many living things (Plant and animal bodies) They
make up many important biological molecules for example proteins, lipids, cellulose and
carbohydrates. (Maize, Meat, Wood, Dress are materials containing organic compounds)
 They also occur in crude oil and in products such as diesel, kerosene, petrol, etc.
 Organic compounds also occur in natural gases and biogas.
4. Homologous series

107
Homologous series: This is a series of organic compounds in which adjacent members differ
by the – CH2 – group.
Or
A homologous series is a series of compounds that have the same function group, and each
member differ from the next member by a –CH2– unit in their formulae.
 Members of a homologous series have the following in common:
1) Show similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group.
2) Have physical properties which vary gradually from one member to another.
3) Can be prepared in the same general way.
4) Differ from the next by a – CH2 – group.
5) Have same general formula
Examples:
CnH2n+2 for alkanes
CnH2n for alkenes
CnH2n+1OH, for alcohols etc.
Example1:
Study the following molecules
CH4, CH3 −CH3 , CH3 –CH2 −CH3
i) Identify common characteristics.
ii) What is the difference between?
Answer
CH4 , CH3−CH3 , CH3−CH2−CH3 are homologous series (because they have same general
formula CnH2n+2 ).
• Differ from the next by a – CH2 – group
• They have same function group: Saturated hydrocarbons (C- C single bonds)
Example2
CH3OH , CH3CH2OH , CH3CH2CH2OH are homologous series (because they have same
general formula CnH2n+1OH ).
• They have same function group: hydroxyl (OH) for each
• Member differs by CH2
5. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing hydrogen and carbon only.
Example: Alkanes and alkenes

108
6. ALKANES
Alkanes are hydrocarbons contain only single carbon -- carbon, -C – C- bonds, and thus
they are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons.
They are represented by general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms,
and n can be 1, 2, 3, 4, ……….
Each successive member varies from the previous one by a constant group of atoms – CH2 –
a) Nomenclature of alkanes
Nomenclature refers to naming. IUPAC (international union of pure and applied chemistry)
system of naming is recommended. In the IUPAC system, the alkane’s name consists of a
“prefix” and a “suffix”.
 The prefix indicates the number of carbon atoms in a molecule 
The suffix for alkanes is –ane.
Examples:
1. Methane: Prefix is meth; Suffix is ane
2. Ethane: Prefix is eth; Suffix is ane
3. Nonane: Prefix is non; Suffix is ane
The table below gives the names of the first ten alkanes and their formulae
Number Alkane Molecul Displayed Condensed structure formula
of name ar structural
carbon formula formula
atoms
1 Methane CH4 H CH4
H C H
2 Ethane C2H6 HH CH3CH3
H−C−C−H
H H
3 Propane C3H8 HH H CH3CH2CH3
H−C−C−C−H
H H H
4 Butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3

5 Pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

109
6 Hexane C6H14 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

7 Heptane C7H16 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
8 Octane C8H18 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
9 Nonane C9H20 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
10 Decane C10H22 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Structural formulas
Definition:
Structural formula shows how the atoms are bonded in a molecule (i.e. linked or
connected)
 There are three types of structural formulas:
• Displayed formulas: show each bond.
• Condensed formulas: show each carbon atom and its attached hydrogen
atoms and
• Skeletal (stick) formulas.
In this unit we learn displayed structure formula and condensed structure formula
only. Examples are shown in the above table.
b) Structural isomerism
Isomerism: Refers to the existence of compound with the same molecular formula but with
different structural formula.
 Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula.
isomers have different physical properties.
In alkanes, methane, CH4, ethane, C2H6 and propane, C2H8 do not have isomers.
Butane has the following isomers

 CH3−CH2−CH2−CH3 : Butane
CH3
 CH3 C CH3 : 2-methylpropane
c) Physical and chemical properties of alkanes
1) Physical properties of alkanes

 The lower members of alkanes (C1 to C4) are gases at room temperature.

110
 Alkanes from C5 to C16 are liquids. Those with more than 16 carbon atoms are waxy
solids.
 The melting point and boiling points of alkanes increase with the increasing number of
carbon atoms in the molecule.
 All alkanes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and
benzene.
 Their densities increase gradually as the number of carbon atoms increase.
The table below gives a summary of the physical properties of the first ten alkanes
Name of Molecular Physical Density Melting Boiling

alkane formula state at r.t.p g/cm3 point (0C) point (0C)
Methane CH4 Gas 0.42 0.57 −182 −162
Ethane C2H6 Gas 0.59 0.60 −184 −89
Propane C3H8 Gas 0.63 0.66 −190 −42
Butane C4H10 Gas 0.68 0.70 −138 −0.5
Pentane C5H12 Liquid 0.72 −130 −36
Hexane Liquid 0.73 −95 −69
C6H14
Heptane Liquid −91 −98
C7H16
Octane Liquid −57 −126
C8H18 Liquid −54 −151
Nonane
Decane C9H20 Liquid −30 −174
C10H22
2) Chemical properties of alkanes

In this sub-unit, we will study some chemical properties of alkanes such as: i)
Combustion ii) Reaction of alkanes with halogens iii) Thermal cracking
i) Combustion reactions
 Alkanes burn in excess air with a pale blue flame forming carbon dioxide and water.
Heat energy is released in the process making them suitable for use as fuels.
The general chemical equation for complete combustion of alkanes may be written as
CnH n CO2 + (n+1) H2O
Example:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + Heat
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) + Heat
 In limited supply of air, alkanes burn with a luminous flame forming a mixture of
carbon monoxide gas and steam
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)

111
ii) Reaction of alkanes with halogens

Reactions between halogens and alkanes are generally termed as substitution reactions. In
the presence of sunlight, alkanes react with halogens forming a series of products depending
on the amount of halogen present.
Example:
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) U.V light CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
Chloromethane
CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) U.V light CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)

Dichloromethane
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) U.V light CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)

Trichloromethane
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) U.V light CCl4(g) + HCl(g)

Tetrachloromethane
Note: If the amount of chlorine present is the same as that of methane (1: 1 ratio), then only
the first reaction occurs.
iii) Thermal cracking of alkanes

Cracking refers to the process of breaking down larger alkanes into smaller more useful
alkanes and alkenes. Thermal cracking occurs at a high temperature (4500C−7500C) and
pressure (200 atmospheres). Example:
C9H18 C4H6 + C5H12
Large alkane Alkene small alkane
CH3−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH3 CH2 =CH2 + CH3−CH2−CH3
d) Laboratory preparation of methane

Generally, alkanes are prepared in the laboratory by the action of heat on a mixture of an
alkanoate and soda lime.
Note: Soda lime is a solid mixture of NaOH and CaO. It is prepared by soaking quicklime,
CaO in caustic soda, NaOH solution. CaO dries the resultant product.
Example:
To prepare methane, CH4, sodium ethanoate is used.
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) CH4(g) + Na2CO3(s)
Sodium ethanoate Methane
The figure below shows how methane is prepared in the laboratory.

112
e) Uses of alkanes (methane)
 Alkanes are used as fuel for lighting, cooking, running vehicles and machines.
 Alkanes are used as solvents.
Examples: Dichloromethane, Trichloromethane and tetrachloromethane are used as solvents
for non-polar compounds
 Alkanes are also used as lubricants.
 Biogas is used as a fuel. It contains methane gas.
 Methane is used to Produce carbon black that is used in paints, printing inks and
automobile tyres.
 Trichloromethane, CHCl3 (Chloroform) was used as an anaesthetic.
Exercises
1) Methane gas is collected over water. What does this indicate about the solubility of
alkanes in water?
2) Distinguish between organic and inorganic chemistry.
3) Write a balanced chemical equation to show laboratory preparation of methane.
4) a) What is meant by the term “hydrocarbon”?
b) C4H10 is a hydrocarbon belonging to the family of alkanes.
i) Give the general name of the above alkane.
ii) Write down the structure formulae of two isomers of C4H10 and name the
branched isomer.
5) a) What are alkanes?
b) State two physical properties of alkanes.
c) Alkanes are very useful. Describe briefly two uses of alkanes in daily life.
6) a) Define thermal cracking of alkanes
b) Complete the following equation
C10H22 ? + ?
600 C
0
7) Write the structural formula of:

113
a) Hexane
b) Octane
c) Nonane
8) Pentane is an alkane with five carbon atoms.
a) Write down the molecular formula of pentane.
b) What physical state (solid, liquid or gas) would you expect pentane to be in at room
temperature.
c) Write an equation for the complete combustion of pentane.
9) Draw the displayed formula for butane:

a) C4H10
b) C7H16
10) Study the table below and use it to answer the questions that follow.
Structure formulae Melting Boiling Molecular
point (0C) point (0C) formulae
−138 −0.5
i)
−160 −11.5
ii)
a) Write the name of the compound represented by structure labelled (i) and (ii).
b) Write the molecular formula of the two compounds in the table.
c) What is the relationship between the two compounds?
d) Comment on the molting point and boiling point of the two compounds.

114

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1

Unit2: Trends in properties of elements in the periodic table

Unit3: Water pollution

Unit4: Effective ways of waste management

Unit5: Categories of chemical reactions

Unit6: Preparation of salts and identification of ions

Unit7: The mole concept and gas laws

Unit8: Preparation and classification of oxides

Unit9: Electrolysis and non-electrolytes

Unit10: Properties of organic compounds and uses of alkanes

UNIT1: CHEMICAL BONDING

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

 Metals lose electrons from their outermost shells to become stable.

i) Give the names of elements a, b, c, d, and e.

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

3. Formation of ions from atoms

 Formation ion calcium ion

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

 Formation of aluminium ion

ii) Formation of anions

Formation of fluoride ion

 Formation of nitride ion

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

Types of chemical bonds

i. Formation of ionic bond

1. Formation of sodium chloride (using diagram)

The resulting compound is called sodium chloride, NaCl.

2. Formation of magnesium fluoride

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

3. Formation of magnesium oxide (MgO)

ii. Physical properties of ionic compounds

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

i. Formation of covalent bond

 It is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms of non-metal only.

a) Covalent bonds in elements

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

 Formation of chlorine molecule

 Formation of oxygen molecule and nitrogen molecule

b) Covalent bonds in compounds

ii. Formation of ammonia molecule (NH3)

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

iii. Formation of carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)

Methane CH4 C and H

ii. Properties of covalent compounds

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

iii. Differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds

 Ionic compounds are crystalline  Covalent compounds are usually

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

j) Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)

4) Study the following atomic models

5. Giant covalent structures

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

ii) General properties of graphite

iii) Uses of graphite

ii) General properties of diamond

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612

iii) Uses of diamond

PREPARED BY Havugimana Jean Claude, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY AT ES GIKONKO / 0784472612