Chemical Bonding

Elementary Idea of Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding

Elements are rarely capable of free existence. In a compound, atoms of different

elements are held together by bonds. The types of bonds present in a compound are
largely responsible for its physical and chemical properties. The different bonds can be
classified as strong and weak.

Why do elements undergo bond formation?

Elements are made of atoms, which comprise of protons, electrons, and neutrons. The
protons and the neutrons reside in the nucleus and the electrons revolve around in
definite paths called orbits. The electrons present in the last shell are called valence
electrons. These electrons are responsible for all the chemical reactions of that element.

Every element has a tendency to attain a stable outer octet. To do so, it either gains or
loses or shares its electrons; and in this process, it forms the bonds.

Types of strong bonds:

• Ionic or electrovalent bond

• Covalent bond
• Metallic bond

Types of weak bonds:

• Bonds formed due to van der Waal’s interaction

• Hydrogen bond

This representation of elements with valence electrons as dots around elements is

referred to as Electron Dot structures for elements. The electron dot structure of some
of the elements are:
Formation of Ionic Compounds and Their Properties
We know that common salt is an important dietary mineral essential for animal life.
Common salt is chemically known as sodium chloride. The chemical formula of sodium
chloride is NaCl. It suggests that it is made up of sodium, which is a reactive metal, and
chlorine, which is a non-metal.

Do you know that sodium chloride does not exist as molecules, but aggregates
as oppositely charged ions?

An ion is a charged species, which can be negatively charged or positively

charged. A negatively charged species is called an ‘anion’ and a positively
charged species is called a ‘cation’.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed by the combination of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-)
ions. Sodium and chloride ions are oppositely charged. Hence, they are held by a
strong electrostatic force of attraction in sodium chloride compound. But why do they
react or combine with each other? This can be explained by considering the
formation of sodium chloride.

This representation of elements with valence electrons as dots around elements is

referred to as Electron Dot structures for elements.

Do you know what type of a compound sodium chloride is? Sodium chloride is an
ionic compound.

Ionic compounds:

These are compounds that are formed by the transfer of electrons. In other words,
these are compounds that are made up of ions.

The bonding in such compounds is called ionic bonding or electrovalent bonding.

This type of bonding is also known as electrostatic bonding as the forces that hold the
ions together are electrostatic in nature. The transfer of electrons always takes place
from a metal to a non-metal. Thus, metals and non-metals combine with each other to
attain a noble gas configuration.

We know that inert (noble) gases are very stable and almost unreactive. This is
because of their stable electronic configuration in which their valence shell is complete.
Hence, they do not take part in the formation of ionic compounds. The given table lists
some elements with their electronic configurations.
S.No.
Type of Element Symbol Atomic Electronic Number of
element number configuration valence
electrons
KLMN

1.
Noble 1. Helium He 2 2 2
gases
2. Neon Ne 10 2, 8 8

3. Argon Ar 18 2, 8, 8
8

2.
Metals 1. Sodium Na 11 2, 8, 1
1
2. Potassium K 19 1
2, 8,
3. Magnesium Mg 12 8, 1 2

4. Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 2
2
5. Aluminium Al 13 3
2, 8,
8, 2

2, 8,
3

3.
Non- 1. Nitrogen N 7 2, 5 5
metals
2. Phosphorus P 15 2, 8, 5
5
3. Oxygen O 8 6
2, 6
4. Sulphur S 16 6
2, 8,
5. Fluorine F 9 6 7
 6. Chlorine Cl 17 2, 7 7

2, 8,
7

Let us now see the formation of magnesium chloride, which is also an ionic compound.

The atomic number of magnesium is 12. Thus, its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 2.

Since it contains two more electrons than a stable noble gas configuration, it loses
these two electrons to form Mg2+. On the other hand, the atomic number of chlorine is
17. Thus, its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 7. It requires one more electron to complete
its octet. For this, two chlorine atoms accept two electrons that were lost by Mg atom to
form two chloride (Cl-) ions. The chemical equations involved in the process are given
below:

The reaction between magnesium and chlorine can be represented as follows:

On the similar basis, the formation of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium oxide (CaO)
is depicted in the table below:

Compound Formation
Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Calcium oxide (CaO)

Potassium oxide (K2O) is also an ionic compound. It is made of two

potassium atoms and one oxygen atom.

Can you draw the Electron Dot structure of potassium and oxygen atoms?
Can you show the formation of potassium oxide?

Let us now try to find out the properties of ionic compounds by performing the following
activities.

1) Take samples of sodium chloride, potassium iodide, and barium chloride and observe
their physical state.

2) After that, take a small amount of a sample on a metal spatula and heat it directly on
a flame. Observe what happens to the sample.

3) Now, try to dissolve each sample in water, petrol, and kerosene and observe the
solubility of compounds.

4) Now, take a container and fill it with distilled water. Take two electrodes and place
them in water. Then, connect the electrodes to a bulb and a battery through electric
wires (as shown in figure 1). When the switch is closed, the bulb will not glow as
distilled water does not conduct electricity. Now, instead of distilled water, take a
solution of an ionic compound and observe.
 Figure 1: Conductivity of salt

We will observe that

• all compounds are solids

• all have high melting and boiling points
• all samples are soluble in water but insoluble in kerosene and petrol
• the solution of all samples can conduct electricity

When the switch is closed, the bulb starts glowing. This shows that solutions of ionic
compounds conduct electricity.

Hence, we can summarize the properties of ionic compounds as follows:

Ionic compounds are hard and brittle crystalline solids: The electrostatic force
holding the ions present in ionic compounds are very strong. Therefore, these
compounds are quite hard, as they are made up of small crystals.

Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points: A lot of energy is required
to overcome the strong electrostatic force of attraction, which holds the ions present in
ionic compounds together. Thus, these compounds have high melting and boiling
points.

Table 1: Melting and boiling points of some ionic compounds

Ionic compound Melting point (K) Boiling point (K)
NaCl 1074 1686
LiCl 887 1600
CaCl2 1045 1900
 CaO 2850 3120
MgCl2 981 1685

Ionic compounds dissolve only in polar solvents: Ionic compounds are polar in
nature due to the presence of opposite charges. Therefore, these compounds dissolve
only in polar solvents such as water. These compounds are insoluble in organic
solvents such as kerosene, alcohol, and petrol.

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in a solution or molten state: Ionic

compounds consist of small ions, which can conduct electricity.

Chemical Bonding
A chemical bond is an attractive force which holds various constituents (such as atoms,
ions) together in different chemical species.

Kossel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding

• Lewis postulated that atoms attain the stable octet when they are chemically bonded.

• Lewis symbols

• Notations to represent valence electrons in an atom

• Example:

• Significance of Lewis symbols − The number of dots represents the number of valence
electrons.

• Octet rule- Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so as to have eight electrons in
their valence shells.

• Lewis dot structure

Representation of molecules and ions in terms of the shared pairs of electrons and the
octet rule

Steps to writing Lewis dot structure:

• Add the valence electrons of the combining atoms. This will give the total number of
electrons required to write the structure.
• One negative charge means the addition of an electron. Similarly, one positive charge
implies the removal of an electron from the total number of electrons.

• The chemical symbol of the atoms and the skeletal structure of the compound should be
known. Then, distribute the total number of electrons as bonding shared pairs between
the atoms in proportion to the total bonds.

• The least electronegative atom occupies the central position of the molecule/ion. For
example in NF3, nitrogen occupies the central position whereas the three fluorine atoms
occupy the terminal positions.

• When the shared pairs of electrons have been accounted for single bonds, utilise the
remaining electron pairs for either multiple bonding or count them as lone pairs. Here,
the basic requirement is that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons.

• Lewis representation of some molecules

(*- Each hydrogen atom attains the electronic configuration of helium i.e. a duplet of
electrons)

• Covalent bond

• Single covalent bond − Sharing of one electron pair

• Double bond − Sharing of two electron pairs

• Triple bond − Sharing of three electron pairs

• Formal Charge

• Example:

Lewis structure of O3 is
 F.C. on the O-1 atom

F.C. on the O-2 atom

F.C. on the O-3 atom

• Smaller the formal charge on the atoms, lower is the energy of the structure.

• The concept of formal charge is based on covalent bonding in which electron pairs are
equally shared by neighbouring atoms.

• Limitations of the octet rule:

• Incomplete octet of the central atom

Examples: LiCl, BeH2, BCl3

• Odd electron molecules

Examples: NO, NO2

• Expanded octet

Examples: PF5, SF6, H2SO4

 Some other drawbacks of octet rule:

• It is based upon chemical inertness of noble gases. However, some noble gases can
combine to form compounds such as XeF2, KrF2, XeOF2, etc.

• It does not account for shape of molecules

• It does not explain the relative stability of molecules

Conditions for Formation of Covalent Bond

• Presence of four or more electrons in the outermost shell of an atom (exception H, Be,
B and Al)
• High electronegativity of both the atoms
• High electron affinity for both the atoms
• High ionisation energy of both the atoms
• Electronegativity difference between combining atoms should be zero or very low

Formation of Some Covalently Bonded Molecules

Type and Number of Covalent

Compound Molecule
Bonds

Hydrogen (H2) H−H One single bond

Chlorine (Cl2) Cl−Cl One single bond
Nitrogen (N2) N≡N One triple bond

Water (H2O) H−O−H Two single bonds between O and H

Ammonia (NH3) Three single bonds between N and H

Carbon tetrachloride
Four single bonds between C and Cl
(CCl4)

Methane (CH4) Four single bonds between C and H

Difference between Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

The constituent particles are ions. The constituent particles are molecules.

They exist as hard solids. They exist as gases, liquids or soft solids.

They have high melting and boiling points They have low melting and boiling points.

They are good conductors of electricity in

They do not conduct electricity.
the aqueous or molten state.

They ionise in solution and behave as Only polar compounds form ions in aqueous
electrolytes. solutions.

They undergo dissociation. They do not undergo dissociation.

They are soluble in water. They are soluble only in organic solvents.

They undergo fast chemical reactions. They undergo slow chemical reactions.

Covalent and Coordinate Bond

We know that a majority of substances used by us daily, from paper and plastics to coal
and petrol, are all made up of carbon. Food grains, pulses, medicines, cotton, synthetic
 fibres, wood, etc. are all made up of carbon. Carbon is also a major part of all living
things. In air, it is present as carbon dioxide and comprises around 0.03% of the total
atmosphere.

Let us study about carbon and its bonding in its compound in more detail.

Carbon is a non-metal having the symbol ‘C’ and atomic number six. Since the atomic
number of carbon is six, its electronic configuration is 2, 4. This means that carbon
contains two electrons in K shell and 4 electrons in L shell (outermost shell). Hence, it
has four electrons in its valence shell.

Since carbon has four electrons in its valence shell, it requires four more electrons to
complete its octet. Therefore, it is a tetravalent element.

In order to complete its octet i.e., to attain its noble gas configuration and to stabilise
itself, carbon can:

• Either lose four electrons to form C4+ or gain four electrons to form C4-. This, however,
requires a lot of energy and would make the system unstable.

• Therefore, carbon completes its octet by sharing its four electrons with the other carbon
atoms or with atoms of other elements.

The bonds that are formed by sharing electrons are known as covalent
bonds. Covalently bonded molecules have strong intermolecular forces, but
intramolecular forces are weak.

Carbon has four valence electrons and requires four more electrons to complete its
octet. Therefore, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or atoms of
other elements having a valency of 1.

For example, the simplest molecule, methane, can be formed with hydrogen (H) atoms
that have only one electron in its K shell. To attain the noble gas configuration, it
combines with four hydrogen atoms as shown in the figure.
 Nitrogen has an atomic number of 7. In order to attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a
molecule of nitrogen contributes three electrons, thereby giving rise to forming three
shared pairs of electrons. This is said to constitute a triple bond between the two atoms.
The electron dot structure of N2 and its triple bond can be depicted as follows.:

Now, let us study the properties of carbon covalent compounds.

• Covalent bonds are made by atoms by sharing their electrons. Formation of ions does
not take place in this process. In addition, these compounds do not have any extra
electrons. Hence, covalent compounds are non-conductors of electricity.

• As all organic compounds contain covalent bonds, they also have low melting and
boiling points. This becomes evident from the following data.

Compound Melting point (K) Boiling point (K)

Acetic acid 290 391
Chloroform 209 334
Ethanol 156 351
Methane 90 111

Also, from the above data, it can be inferred that the forces of attraction between the
carbon molecules in carbon compounds is not very strong.

• Because of their low melting and boiling points, these compounds mostly exist as liquids
or gases at room temperature.

A covalent bond formed between two different atoms, with different electronegativities is
known as polar covalent bond.
For example when a Covalent bond is formed between H and Cl, it is polar in nature
because Cl is more electronegative than H atom. Therefore, electron cloud is shifted
towards Cl atom. As a result, a partial negative charge appears on Cl atom and, an
equal positive charge on H atom.
 Hδ+----Clδ-

A covalent bond formed between two like atoms, is known as Non-polar bond. Since
difference of electronegativity is zero, therefore, both atoms attract electron pair equally
and no charge appears on any atom, and the whole molecule becomes neutral.
For e.g. H------H

Non-polar covalent bond:

Let us now compare the properties of electrovalent compounds with those of covalent
compounds.
Electrovalent compounds Covalent compounds

These types of compounds are formed These types of compounds are

when the atoms containing one to three formed when the participating atoms
valence electrons donate electrons. On the mutually contribute one electron each
other hand, the atoms containing five to to form an electron pair which that is
seven electrons accept thosethe donated shared by them in such a manner
electrons. Thus, both the participating that both of them attain the nearest
atoms acquire the nearest noble gas noble gas configuration.
configuration.

They are usually crystalline solids. They are usually gases or liquids or
soft solids.

They are good conductors of electricity. They are poor conductors of

electricity.
They usually have high melting and boiling They usually have low melting and
points. boiling points.

They are soluble in polar solvents but They are soluble in organic solvents
insoluble in organic solvents. but insoluble in polar solvents.

Coordinate Bond

It is formed when the shared pair of electrons is provided by one of the two atoms and
shared by both. Examples of coordinate-bonded compounds are:

• Hydronium ion
• Ammonium ion

Hydronium ion: The compound giving hydronium ion is water. One lone pair on the
oxygen atom of water molecule is shared with the hydrogen ion. In this combination, the
hydrogen ion accepts a pair of electrons and distributes the charge over the entire
hydronium radical.
 Ammonium ion: One lone pair on the nitrogen atom of ammonia molecule is shared
with the hydrogen ion. In this combination, the hydrogen ion accepts a pair of electrons
and distributes the charge across the entire ammonium radical.

Conditions for formation of coordinate bond

• Presence of at least one lone pair of electrons on any of the two atoms. This atom acts
like a donor.

• Shortage of a lone pair of electron on the second atom. This atom acts like an acceptor.

Formation of Hydronium (H3O+) Ion

• Based on ionisation of water

• One water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded with one oxygen
atom.

• Oxygen atom has two lone pairs of electrons for donation.

• Addition of an acid to water, results in dissociation of the water molecules as shown

below:

H+ ions accepts an electron pair from oxygen atom of another water molecule forming
coodinately bonded hydronium ion: