ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PHYS 103
PHYSICS LABORATORY

Name:

ID:

Department:

Spring, 2013
CONTENTS

1) CONTENTS................................................................................2

2) INTRODUCTION TO BASIC TOOLS......................................................3

3) EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS & UNCERTAINITY...........................................5

4) DRAWING EXPERIMENT GRAPHS.......................................................7

5) REPORTING & ANALYZING RESULTS..................................................9

6) EXPERIMENT1...........................................................................10

7) EXPERIMENT2...........................................................................13

8) EXPERIMENT3...........................................................................16

9) EXPERIMENT4..........................................................................19

10) EXPERIMENT5..........................................................................22

11) RESOURCES & LINKS..................................................................25

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INTRODUCTION TO BASIC TOOLS

BREADBOARD

The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath
the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below.

These strips connect the holes on the top of the board. This makes it easy to
connect components together to build circuits. To use the bread board, the legs of
components are placed in the holes (the sockets). The holes are made so that they
will hold the component in place. Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips
running underneath the board.

Each wire forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are
connected. Connections between different components are formed by putting their
legs in a common node. On the bread board, a node is the row of holes that are
connected by the strip of metal underneath.

The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply
connections.

The rest of the circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together
with jumper wires. Then when a path is formed by wires and components from the
positive supply node to the negative supply node, we can turn on the power and
current flows through the path and the circuit comes alive.

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MULTIMETER

A multimeter is used to make various electrical measurements, such as voltage,

current, and resistance. Multimeters may also have other functions, such as diode,
capacitor, transistor and continuity (short-circuit) tests. The descriptions and
pictures are shown below.

When you are to use your multimeter, you should select the right range before
connecting the meter to the circuit. If you have the meter connected in parallel (as
a voltmeter) and you accidently switch to the current range then you will short
circuit the supply and blow the fuse in the meter.

In addition, you ought to use the correct terminals - the high current terminal is
only for measuring current > 200mA and must be used with the high current (10A)
setting. Finally, the multimeter contains a fuse, if it has been connected to a
circuit incorrectly then the fuse may have blown.

REFERENCE
 http://www.electronicsteacher.com/tutorial/using-a-breadboard.php
 http://pfnicholls.com/electronics/multimeter.html
 http://www.bhagirathpalace.com/view_offer.php?id=27

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EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS AND UNCERTAINITY

No physical quantity can be measured with perfect certainty; there are always
errors in any measurement. This means that if we measure some quantity and,
then, repeat the measurement, we will almost certainly measure a different value
the second time. However, as we take greater care in our measurements and apply
ever more refined experimental methods, we can reduce the errors and, thereby,
gain greater confidence that our measurements approximate ever more closely the
true value.

ACCURACY & PRECISION

Experimental error is the difference between a measurement and the true value or
between two measured values. Experimental error, itself, is measured by its
accuracy and precision. Accuracy measures how close a measured value is to the
true value or accepted value. Since a true or accepted value for a physical quantity
may be unknown, it is sometimes not possible to determine the accuracy of a
measurement. Precision measures how closely two or more measurements agree
with other. Precision is sometimes referred to as repeatability or reproducibility. A
measurement which is highly reproducible tends to give values which are very close
to each other.

TYPES & SOURCES OF EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Experimental errors are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be

eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully. There are
two types of experimental errors: systematic errors and random errors.

Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Common
sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly
maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user.

Random errors are errors that affect the precision of a measurement. The precision
of measurements subject to random errors can be improved by repeating those
measurements. Common sources of random errors are problems estimating a
quantity that lies between the graduations (the lines) on an instrument and the
inability to read an instrument because the reading fluctuates during the
measurement.

SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

The least significant digit in a measurement depends on the smallest unit which
can be measured using the measuring instrument. The precision of a measurement
can then be estimated by the number of significant digits with which the
measurement is reported. Unless the instrument manufacturer indicates otherwise,
the precision of measurement made with digital instruments are reported with a
precision of ±½ of the smallest unit of the instrument. For example, a digital
voltmeter reads 1.493 volts; the precision of the voltage measurement is ±½ of
0.001 volts or ±0.0005 volt.

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PERCENT ERROR

Percent error (sometimes referred to as fractional difference) measures the

accuracy of a measurement by the difference between a measured or experimental
value E and a true or accepted value A. The percent error is calculated from the
following equation:

PERCENT DIFFERENCE

Percent difference measures precision of two measurements by the difference

between the measured or experimental values E1 and E2 expressed as a fraction the
average of the two values. The equation to use to calculate the percent difference
is:

MEAN & STANDARD DEVIATION

When a measurement is repeated several times, we see the measured values are
grouped around some central value. This grouping or distribution can be described
with two numbers: the mean, which measures the central value, and the standard
deviation which describes the spread or deviation of the measured values about the
mean.

For a set of N measured values for some quantity x, the mean of x is represented
by the symbol <x> and is calculated by the following formula:

where xi is the i-th measured value of x. The mean is simply the sum of the
measured values divided by the number of measured values.

The standard deviation of the measured values is represented by the symbol σx and
is given by the formula:

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DRAWING EXPERIMENT GRAPHS

In most experiments you will be required to construct a graph. You can use Excel or
other software packages to construct your graphs or millimetric papers when
drawing by hand. All graphs (manual and electronic) have the following properties:

1. A good graph fills the whole page. The data points should extend
across as much of the page as possible. This implies that there should
be only one graph per page.
2. A good graph has a title that describes what is being plotted.
3. A good graph has axis labels that describe what is being plotted on
each axis.
4. A good graph has tick marks both major and minor to indicate the
divisions of both the x and y axis.
5. A good graph has axis units describing the units represented by the
tick marks. Acceptable axis units are those that clearly label each axis
with correct units corresponding to the measured quantity plotted
along the axis. For example, for the x-axis 2d [cm] denotes that the
quantity 2d is measured in cm and each major tick mark represents a
multiple of centimeters scaled according to the graph page.
6. A good graph has evenly spaced tick marks, unless otherwise indicated
by the lab instructor.
7. A good graph must clearly show the y-intercept plotted on the graph,
that is, graph the point (x = 0; y = b), for b is the value of y when x =
0. Consequently, the continuity of the x and y axes must not be
broken. Showing the y-intercept may be easier if the x and y axes are
placed inside the graph-paper lines.
8. On a good graph, the numerical values of the slope and y-intercept
are clearly written.
9. A good graph has the points used to measure the slope clearly
indicated. These should be points on the line and not data points. The
points used for the slope calculation should be marked differently
from the data points. Choose points on the line as far apart as
possible.

You are required to construct plots representing lines of best fit for your collection
of data for every lab experiment. Your graphs will be linear functions for most
experiments. There may be a few graph plots that make use of different
mathematical functions, in which case your lab instructor will provide you with
instructions for constructing the appropriate graph. Analysis by strict linear
regression models and techniques are not necessary for physics lab reports.
However, you should briefly discuss the “closeness” of the plotted data points to
the line of best fit. You can do this simply by “eye-balling" the graph.

You are required to determine the slope and y-intercept of the line drawn. The
slope and y-intercept should be determined from the line of best fit. Do not use
the data points to calculate the slope and y-intercept of the line! Instead, to
determine the y-intercept of the line measure the point of interception between

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the line of best fit and the y-axis. The rise-over-run method is a practical method
used to calculate the slope. In review, to calculate the slope, choose two points on
the line with the greatest separation. Draw a right triangle using as the hypotenuse
the line of best fit. Determine the length of the line segment opposite theta, Θ
(the rise) and the length of line segment adjacent to theta Θ (the run). The “rise”
divided by the “run” determines the slope of the line.

The rise-over-run calculations as demonstrated in figure above must be performed

for each graph presented with your lab report.

This method only works for first order equations, for instance, let’s say we are
instructed to plot the height of the ball's drop, h, as a function of the square of the
drop time of the ball, t2 (h values are plotted along the y-axis and t2 values along
the x-axis). The theoretical values of slope and y-intercept are:

Notice that by using the provided theoretical equation and the equation of the
line, we are able to determine ½g and 0 as the theoretical slope and y-intercept
values respectively of our graph.
The graphical analysis discussion will provide values for both the theoretical and
actual slope and y-intercept measurements. A comparison between the sets of data
can be performed by calculating the percent difference between the actual values
and the theoretical values. The percent difference equation between slope values
is:

8
REPORTING & ANALYZING RESULTS

When a scientist reports the result of an experimental measurement of a quantity

x, that result is reported with two parts. First, the best estimate of the
measurement is reported. The best estimate of a set of measurement is usually
reported as the mean <x> of the measurements. Second, the variation of the
measurements is reported. The variation in the measurements is usually reported
by the standard deviation σx of the measurements. The measured quantity is then
known have a best estimate equal to the average, but it may also vary from <x>+ σx
to <x>- σx. Any experimental measurement should then be reported in the
following form:

Some of the experiments performed in this course are primarily qualitative (i.e.
conceptual) rather than quantitative (i.e. containing several calculations). In these
experiments, you will be asked to make predictions about the behavior of a system
based on your physical understanding of the system. You will also discuss the
reasoning behind your prediction. After discussing your prediction, and the
reasoning behind your prediction, you will perform an experiment to test your
prediction and record the results of this experiment. If the prediction does not
agree with the experimental result, you will discuss any modification to the
reasoning that led to the erroneous prediction. This cycle will then be repeated
with a new set of circumstances which are similar, though not exactly the same. In
this manner, a conceptual understanding of the physical system will be developed.

Most of the discussion written above about lab reports will not apply to these
conceptual, or inquiry-based, experiments. For these experiments, the conclusions
should instead discuss the cycle described above. In particular, a paragraph should
be written for each experiment. Each paragraph should contain the following
information:

1. Prediction: What was the prediction that was made about the system?
2. Reasoning: What was the reasoning behind the prediction (i.e. why did you make
the prediction that you made)?
3. Experimental Result: What was the result of the experiment?
4. Analysis: (a) If the experiment agreed with you prediction, write a brief
statement indicating this agreement. (b) If the experiment did not agree with the
prediction, discuss what was wrong with the reasoning that led to the prediction
that you made.

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EXPERIMENT 1 OHM’S LAW & RESISTIVITY

THEORY

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing from point A to point B in a conductor I is
proportional to the difference in electrical potential E between point A and point B.
The constant of proportionality is called the electrical conductance G. Current is
measured in amperes (A), potential difference in volts (V), and conductance in
siemens (S). Hence, we can write,

I = G x E

We also define an electrical resistance R, which is the inverse of conductance.

R=1/G

Resistance is measured in ohms (). Hence,

I = E / R

Thus, if we take a resistive material sample with two flat faces A and B, and set a
potential difference E = EA - EB between its end faces, a current I will flow
through the material from face A to face B. If we measure the current and the
potential difference, we can calculate the resistance of the material sample.

If the resistance is high, a given potential difference E will only yield a small
current I.
 If the resistance is low, a given potential difference E will yield a high current I.

Imagine that the size of our wire sample now changes.

If the length of the sample is doubled, one can see that the resistance of the
sample to the passage of a current should also double.
If the area perpendicular to the current flow doubles (the area of the end face in
this example), there is twice the material for the current to pass through, the
resistance of the sample to the passage of the current should therefore fall to a
half of what is was before.
So the resistance (and therefore conductance) depend upon the size of the sample.

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If we take the resistance per unit length and area, we can remove the effect of the
dimensions of the sample. The value we obtain is then only a function of the
property of the material and not its dimensions. The resistance per unit length and
area is called the resistivity ρ, and can be expressed as,

E A
ρ = ----- x -----
I L

where:
ρ = the resistivity of the sample (m or ohm.m)
E = the potential difference across the sample (volts, V)
I = the current flowing through the sample (amperes, A)
A = the cross-sectional area of the sample perpendicular to the current flow
(m2)
L = the length of the sample (m).

PROCEDURE

1) Construct the circuit given below on the breadboard. For R, four different
wires will be given by instructor. Show your connections to your instructor
before switching the power supply on.

2) Measure length and diameter of each wire.

3) Calculate cross-sectional area of each wire.

4) By adjusting rheosta set 6 voltage levels for each wire and measure
current and voltage. Record your mesurements to the table below.

5) Calculate resistivity for each measurement.

6) Calculate mean value and standard deviation of resistivity findings.

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7) Find actual resistivity values (depends on material) from table, and
determine percent error of your measurements.

8) Plot V-I graphs for each wire, calculate resistivity using your drawings.

9) Discuss and conclude your observations.

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EXPERIMENT 2 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

THEORY

Circuit elements in an electrical circuit can be connected in series or parallel. For

resistors in series the current is the same for all the resistors, but the voltage drop
across each resistor is different. For resistors in series the total resistance RT of is
given by,

For resistors in parallel the current is different in each resistor, but the voltage
across each resistor is the same. In this case the total resistance RT is given by,

LDR: As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a
piece of exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes
its electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few
hundred Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the
material. The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in
resistance for an increase in illumination. Also, photoresistive cells have a long
response time requiring many seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.

Mainly, cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells

because its spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can
even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source.

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Wheatstone Bridge: A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument which is used
to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing the resistances in the
two branches of a bridge circuit, one branch of which includes the unknown
resistance.

In the circuit shown in figure below, let R1 be the unknown resistance and R2, R3
and R4 are resistances of known value and the resistance of R3 is adjustable. If the
ratio of the two resistances in the lower branch (R3 / R4) is equal to the ratio of the
two in the unknown leg (R1 / R2), then the output voltage (VAB) between the two
midpoints will be zero and no current will flow between the midpoints. R3 is varied
until this condition is reached. Then unknown resistance,

R1 = R3 x R2 / R4.

In this experiment, a wheatstone bridge will be used to find the output voltage
that corresponds to the values of the (LDR) that changes according to the light
density (LUX) as well as to determine the resistance variation of thermistor due to
temperature alterations.

PROCEDURE

1) Construct the circuit as shown, using a resistors given by the instructor on

your breadboard.

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2) Calculate total resistance with the color-coded generic values. Measure
total resistance with your DMM. Calculate percent error.

3) Show your connection to your instructor before switching the power

supply on. Keep the source voltage, between A and B, around 10V. Measure
all 9 voltages of the circuit.

4) Verify your calculation of total resistance by using measured voltage

values.

5) Construct the circuit as shown in figure with the devices that are given by
your instructor, using a resistor box as R3, an LDR as R1 on the breadboard.
Show your connection to your instructor before switching the power supply
on. Keep the source voltage around 10V.

6) By adjusting the resistor box, determine LDR’s resistance at least for 3 lux
levels. Use the relation given above.

7) Check your findings using an ohmmeter and determine percent errors of

your calculations (3 errors for LDR).

8) Comment on the accuracy of Wheatstone-bridge measurement technique

using your percent error calculations, is there any difference between error
percentages of LDR?

9) Discuss and conclude your observations.

15
EXPERIMENT 3 NON-OHMIC DEVICES

THEORY

Filament (bulb): An incandescent light bulb with a tungsten filament has a positive
temperature coefficient, and therefore has a very low initial resistance when the
power is first applied. As the temperature of the filament increases, the resistance
of the filament increases also. The temperature of the resistor increases by
increasing the applied voltage, since the power dissipated as heat is increased due
to the relation, P = I V , where I is the current passing through the tungsten
filament and V is the voltage applied across it. Resistivity and temperature relation
is given by,

R = Rroom temperature [ 1 + α( T – T room temperature )]

Where α coefficient for tungsten is, 4.5 10-3 [ K-1 ]

For metals, the number of free electrons is fixed. As the temperature increases,
the amplitude of vibration of atoms/ions increases and collisions of electrons with
them become more effective and frequent. As a result, current carrying electrons
find more resistance in passing through and the resistance increases.

Figure on the left shows the voltage and current relation of a tungsten filament.
From the figure, it is clear that the resistance of the filament increases with
applied voltage and the filament has a dynamic resistance. The resistance at A and
B can be found by using R = V / I relation at that particular points and you can
prove that RB > RA.

Diode: Diode is a junction of P and N type semiconductors. In forward biasing, the

P side of the diode is set at a higher potential than the N side. Usually this is
achieved by connecting the positive side of battery to the P side and the negative
of battery to the N side of the diode. During forward biasing the diode acts like a
closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. In
reverse biasing, the N side of the diode is set at a higher potential than the P side.
This can be obtained by connecting the positive of battery to the N side and the

16
negative of battery to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode will act
like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Figure on the right above shows the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a
silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting
when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage
is called threshold voltage.

PROCEDURE

1) Connect the circuit on your bread board as shown in figure below. If you do not
have two multimeters use a single multimeter to measure VR and VL. Show your
connections to your instructor before switching the power supply on. Keep the
source voltage maximum 6V.

2) Fill the table with voltage measurements, then calculate IL and RL values.

3) Plot a graph of VL versus IL. Determine lamp’s resistance at room temperature

(This is the value where minimum voltage was applied) and the maximum value
that you measured.

4) Measure the ambient temperature of the laboratory. Calculate the highest

temperature of the lamp.

17
5) Construct the circuit as shown in figure below, using a potentiometer, 1 kΩ
resistor and a silicon diode on the breadboard. Show your connection to your
instructor before switching the power supply on. Keep the source voltage around
10V.

6) Adjust V12 to the indicated values in the table and measure VR and VD.

7) Reverse the direction of the power supply by interchanging terminals of your

battery to obtain reverse biasing. This can also be achieved by interchanging the
diode terminals. Repeat step 6 and record your results in table. Do not forget to
show your connections to your instructor before switching the power supply on.

8) Plot ID versus VD for forward bias as well as reverse bias on a graph paper.
Determine threshold voltage and calculate percent error between the theoretical
threshold voltage.

9) Discuss and conclude your observations.

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EXPERIMENT 4 CHARGE & DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR

THEORY

A capacitor, often referred to as a condenser, is a simple electrical device

consisting of two nearby conducting surfaces separated by an insulator. The
capacitor can store charge of opposite sign on the two plates, and is of immense
importance in the design of electronic devices. In a simple parallel plate capacitor
as shown in drawing below, two nearby conducting plates are separated by an
insulator between them. If the two plates are connected to opposite terminals of a
battery, one plate acquires a positive charge Q and the other a negative charge -Q.

The electric field between the two plates, and therefore the potential difference
between them, is proportional to the charge Q producing the field. The
capacitance C, whose value depends on the detailed construction of the individual
capacitor, is then defined to be the proportionality constant, C = Q/V, and its value
states how much charge is stored per volt of applied potential. By convention, we
take Q in this expression to be that at the positively charged plate, so that C is
always positive. The unit of capacitance is the farad, named after Michael Faraday.
The SI symbol for the farad is F, and 1 farad is equal to one volt per coulomb. It
happens, however, that 1 F is a truly huge capacitance, and typical capacitors are
more conveniently measured in micro-farads, with 1 μF = 1 x 10-6 F.

In order to charge the capacitor, a battery or generator must move charge from
one plate of the capacitor to the other through a potential difference, thereby
doing work. Thus a capacitor not only stores opposite charge on its two plates, but
also stores energy. As we move charge through the circuit to build up the potential
difference across the capacitor, the potential difference through which the charge
must be moved at each instant is V = Q/C.

Suppose a capacitor in the circuit shown in figure below has charge ±Q on its
plates. At time t = 0 the switch is moved to position 2 and electrons from the
negatively charged plate become free to flow through the resistor to the positively

19
charged plate. Charge conservation implies that the rate of charge leaving the
capacitor to flow through the resistor is the charge per unit time, and is therefore
the electric current I(t) passing through the wire and is equal to VC(t)/R = Q(t)/RC,
and that the rate of decrease of Q is thereby proportional to Q itself.

The rate of decrease of some physical quantity is proportional to its value still
remaining, hence this condition implies that the quantity exhibits an exponentially
decreasing dependence on time. Current, charge, and voltage are all found to
follow the exponential decay as plotted above, and given by the expressions,

If, instead of starting with the capacitor uncharged, we begin with Q(0) = 0 and
connect the battery, the time dependence of the charge on the capacitor as noted
in the graph above, is

As the capacitor becomes fully charged, the current approaches zero with the same
time constant that applies when the capacitor is being discharged through the
resistor. The quantity RC is referred to as the time constant for the circuit.

PROCEDURE

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure below (make sure that the lead of the
capacitor at the arrow head side is connected to the ground). Show your
connection to your instructor before switching the power supply on and make sure
that the capacitor is completely discharged.

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2) Close the switch S, and start the stopwatch. Record the time, t1, corresponding
to Vc reaching values indicated in table on the left. Reset the stopwatch.

3) Repeat steps 1 and 2 and record the time as t2. Calculate tavg.

4) Plot a graph for Vc versus tavg. Determine τ from your graph.

5) Connect the circuit as shown in figure below (make sure that the lead of the
capacitor at the arrow head side is connected to the ground). Show your
connection to your instructor before switching the power supply on.

6) Close the switch S. This will cause the capacitor to charge up immediately. Start
the stopwatch and open the switch S simultaneously. Of integer values of Vc
according to table on the right, record the time as t1.

7) Reset the stopwatch. Repeat steps 5 and 6 and record the time as t2. Calculate
tavg.

8) Plot a graph for Vc versus tavg. Determine τ from your graph.

9) Calculate percent error between two τ values that you have determined above
and between the generic value of τ.

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EXPERIMENT 5 ELECTROMAGNETISM & INDUCTION

THEORY

Magnetic Field Lines: Magnetic fields are caused by moving charges – sometimes by
charges moving on the atomic level (electrons moving around atomic nuclei, for
example), and sometimes moving on a macroscopic scale, such as through the wires
in an ordinary circuit. Similarly to how electric fields are both produced by and act
on charged particles, magnetic fields are both produced by and act on moving
charges. The units of measurement of magnetic field are Tesla and Gauss.

Magnetic field lines are a way to visualize the magnetic field. When drawn, the
distance between them is an indication of the strength of the field. The closer they
are, the stronger the field. For example, the number of lines per square centimeter
is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field. Specifically, 1 Gauss is
equivalent to 1 magnetic field line within 1 square centimeter. Also, the direction
of the tangent to the field line is the direction of the magnetic field at that point
and is the direction a compass would point. Some important facts emerge when
one tries plotting lines of magnetic field such as,

 Lines NEVER cross.

 Lines are CONTINUOUS.
 Lines always form individual CLOSED LOOPS around the magnet.
 Lines have a definite DIRECTION from North to South.
 Lines that are close together indicate a STRONG magnetic field.
 Lines that are farther apart indicate a WEAK magnetic field.

Induction: The finding that electric current can produce magnetic fields led to the
idea that magnetic fields could produce electric currents. The production of emfs
and currents by the changing magnetic field through a conducting loop is called
induction. Lenz's Law states that the induced emf (and current) will be in a
direction such that the induced magnetic field opposes the original magnetic flux
change.

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PROCEDURE

1) Place an U-type or a bar-magnet beneath a white A4 paper. Pour iron fillings

onto the paper and observe formed magnetic field lines. Draw and record (i.e. by
taking a photo) these magnetic field lines.

2) Now remove the paper and place small compasses around the magnet and
observe variations of direction from one to another. Draw and record these
directions.

3) Repeat steps 1 and 2 using an electromagnet (a simple electromagnet is a

copper wire wound around a common iron core).

4) Michael Faraday made his discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831, he

hypothesized that a changing magnetic field is necessary to induce a current in a
nearby circuit. To test his hypothesis he made a coil by wrapping a paper cylinder
with wire. He connected the coil to a galvanometer, and then moved a magnet
back and forth inside the cylinder. Faraday concluded that a moving magnetic field
is necessary in order for electromagnetic induction to occur. Now, repeat Faraday’s
experiment by using the materials (magnet, coil and milliammeter) given by your
instructor as shown in the figure below.

5) Connect given coils as shown above (right), and show your connection to your
instructor before switching the power supply on.

6) Form a table that contains induced current measurements of three different

voltage levels (of power supply) at three different distances (between two coils).

7) As an example to illustrate how Lenz’s law may be applied, consider the

situation where a bar magnet is moving toward a conducting loop with its north
pole down, as shown in figure,

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The direction of the induced current can also be determined from the point of view
of magnetic force. Lenz’s law states that the induced emf must be in the direction
that opposes the change. Therefore, as the bar magnet approaches the loop, it
experiences a repulsive force due to the induced emf. Since like poles repel, the
loop must behave as if it were a bar magnet with its north pole pointing up. In this
part, you are going to try to observe that force by experiment, using the materials
given by your instructor.

8) Measuring inductance of a coil requires a bridge circuit similar to the

Wheatstone Bridge you have experinced in exp2. The circuit you will build to
measure an unknown inductance is as given below.

Here, Lx is the unknown inductance and Rx is the resistance of the inductor. R3 and
R1 are 100kΩ and 1MΩ potentiometers respectively.

Apply an alternating voltage to the indicated terminals and place your DMM as
shown. Adjust R1 and R3 until you observe zero volts on the display of your DMM.
Remaining part is straightforward. Use equations given below and determine Rx and
Lx.

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LINKS

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