International Journal of Information and Education Technology, Vol. 14, No.

5, 2024

The Impact of the Learning Mobile Application on Student

Performance Using the Technology Acceptance Model
Hendra Hidayat1,*, Zamzami Zainuddin2, Muhammad Anwar1, Hadi Kurnia Saputra1, Anggarda Paramita Muji1,
Syukhri1, and Ilmiyati Rahmy Jasril1
1Department of Electronics Engineering Education, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia
2Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email: hendra.hidayat@ft.unp.ac.id (H.H.); zamzami@um.edu.my (Z.Z.); muh_anwar@ft.unp.ac.id (M.A.);
hadiksaputra@ft.unp.ac.id (H.K.S.); anggardaparamitamuji@gmail.com (A.P.M.); syukhri@ft.unp.ac.id (S.);
ilmiyatirahmyjasril@ft.unp.ac.id (I.R.J.)
*Corresponding author

Manuscript received October 2, 2023; revised November 8, 2023; accepted December 11, 2023; published May 10, 2024

Abstract—Technology is being increasingly used in education This ensures that they receive consistent education and
to develop various forms of media that effectively support makes it easier for them to access it. The use of technology
instruction and learning. The purpose of this study is to makes collaboration between learners and education
determine the extent to which students majoring in electronics
providers and teachers easier [3]. Online discussion forums
engineering education at Higher Education benefit from the use
of different learning applications and how much influence they promote collaboration among learners, allowing them to
have on the overall level of student performance, by exploring collectively construct knowledge, share ideas, and actively
the area of the correlation between the independent variable of participate. Video conferencing tools, and networking
Learning Strategy and student performance, with the systems, collaborative tasks can be carried out despite
consideration of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as a participants’ geographical dispersion. Students and
possible mediator in this correlation. The current study utilized
education providers and wealth of information that was
purposive sampling to collect a representative sample of 229
participants. The data was then analyzed using the Structural previously unavailable to teachers that is now inaccessible
Equation Model (SEM), utilizing the Partial Least Square (PLS) thanks to the internet. E-books, educational websites, and
method as the initial approach. The software used for this digital libraries are examples of online resources that provide
analysis was SmartPLS 4.0 and Network Analysis was access to a wide variety of educational materials [4]. As a
conducted to determine the relationship between items in this result, traditional textbooks are no longer the only source of
study. Based on the results of this study, effective learning
educational information.
strategies and a high level of student acceptance of technology
will have a positive impact on student performance or lead to Formal educational institutions that have the responsibility
improved student performance. Educational applications to produce the best graduates are required to be able to
provide the potential to be streamlined and utilized by students prepare their students to continue to adapt to the shifts that
through a pedagogical approach, as their user-friendly nature have taken place in order to acquire trustworthy abilities in
facilitates effective deployment. the professional sphere [5]. It is important for electronics
engineering education, industry and community stakeholders
Keywords—performance, technology acceptance model,
to work more closely together. Educators must modify course
smartphone application, structural equation model, network
analysis material to meet the changing demands of the workforce [6].
This is done in the belief that enhancing people’s educational
I. INTRODUCTION opportunities will help them become better informed and
better equipped to handle the challenges they encounter on a
Due to the rapid advancement of technology, educational
daily basis. Development in an educational environment
institutions, education providers, and teachers now have
equipped with the competence of the desire to learn that
access to the most modern teaching resources. Using digital
exists in every student increases awareness of the importance
platforms, multimedia presentations, and educational
of their innovation [7].
software, educational institutions can now provide students
Smartphone technology is increasingly integrated into the
with stimulating and participatory lessons. while in periods
educational experience of today’s learners [8]. Learning
of crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, technology has remotely has emerged as a viable option thanks towards the
played a significant role in facilitating distance and online strong advancement of technological devices through
learning [1]. Based on active learning technology, students’ applications designed to provide lessons or learning materials
learning motivation is currently undergoing development, that are always available on the application and can be
and to modernize education, not only the standard of accessed whenever the learner wants. The tendency of
education must change, but also the way students think. The students to spend a lot of time using smartphones [9], can
quality of education and the tools available have a big impact have a good impact on the design of smartphone-based
on how motivated students are [2]. Thanks to learning applications. This is a support for students to be able to open
management systems, video conferencing tools and online the lessons they want wherever and whenever they want.
collaboration platforms, learners can now continue their The use of innovative tools for teaching and training has
education even when they are not physically present in the the potential to improve not only overall learning outcomes
classroom. for learners, but also the quality of their understanding,

doi: 10.18178/ijiet.2024.14.5.2090 657

 International Journal of Information and Education Technology, Vol. 14, No. 5, 2024

opportunities to access learning, learner capacity for skill students’ learning performance (2) Is an approach like mobile
development through the use of real-world experiences, and applications well received by students. (3) Can the easy
overall learning outcomes. However, if the learner is not access to media offered by mobile apps have a positive
interested in utilizing these expectations, then they will be influence on students? By answering this question,
pointless [10]. The usefulness of lessons that utilize readily considerations regarding the uses of technology for online
available media is constantly being improved. The process of learning will be explored.
making learners understand the relevance of what they are
learning should be considered. Therefore, it ought to be II. LITERATURE REVIEW
studied to comprehend the acceptance or rejection of online
learning environments by potential students and to determine A. Learning Strategies
the factors that have an effect their adoption technologies Individuals will apply various methods to achieve
[11]. learning-related goals, and these methods are referred to as
In the technology acceptance paradigm described by learning strategies [18]. Recognizing techniques, also known
Davis [12], perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use as cognitive strategies, have been the subject of extensive
have an impact on the attitude of technology users. Mobile study and are generally agreed upon for their benefits;
learning applications have been found to improve students’ however, a consensus has yet to be reached on how best to
academic performance and capacity for learning. define and categorize those approaches [19]. Learning
Lai et al. [13] found that students’ perspectives on their strategies, as defined by Weinstein and Mayer [20], are
coursework were significantly influenced by their use of actions or ways of thinking that are meant to affect how one
technological tools. In this investigation, students’ use of a learns new information, stores it in memory, and retrieves it
smartphone app as a learning tool is being investigated. when it is needed. These behaviors or thoughts can be
Mobile learning applications can boost students’ happiness displayed by learners when they are in the process of learning.
with their learning experience, as they often provide a more Thus, according to Mayer [21], learning strategies are
interesting and interactive learning environment. Educational behaviors that shape the way learners process knowledge.
institutions must develop innovative pedagogical methods to Mayer defines these behaviors as learning strategies. Based
keep up with technological advances. Mobile media devices on these definitions, the term “learning strategies” most often
are becoming more popular because students need easy refers to methods that learners use to find solutions to their
access to course materials [14]. Education providers can problems or procedures that enable learners to learn on their
adapt to improve student learning. own [21].
There is a strong correlation between the ease of utilizing
B. Technology Acceptance Model
readily available resources and how well users realize the
value of a resource [15]. Therefore, using a TAM-based As higher education demand for e-learning materials and
model, the primary objective of our study is to determine technological learning tools rises, so does students’ desire to
whether or not the educational practices of students who use and adopt them [14]. Understanding the factors that
participate in online learning environments, which may influence their acceptance is crucial. Davis’s [12]
include virtual laboratories, interactive exercises, learning Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is the most widely
videos, and tools, are aligned with those of the online used model for studying how people accept and implement
learning environments themselves [16], and the influence new technology, information systems, and innovations. TAM
that can have on the educational performance of learners in says people use technology because of its utility,
electronics engineering education. University teachers and user-friendliness, and outlook on technology. TAM was used
researchers studying how mobile apps affect engineering to analyze learner behavior related to education’s adoption of
students can help students succeed. Engineering labs can be cloud computing [22]. Faculty and student satisfaction with
improved with mobile apps with real-time data, simulations, learning management systems has been measured using
and other interactive learning tools. This study could TAM [23, 24].
determine if mobile learning in engineering labs and 1) Perceived ease of use
classrooms makes learning more engaging. Davis [15], defines perceived efficacy as the extent to
This study wanted to find out if students’ ways of learning which individuals anticipate that employing a given system
are compatible with the apps that can help them learn and will result in improved outcomes. Users’ perceptions of the
what effect that has on their ability to learn. Evaluating how utility and usability of the technology are often cited as
well technology is used in schools is one way to make sure predictors of adoption; however, the effects of these
that the learning setting stays high for the students. Several perceptions can feel different for each technology and its
studies have found that bachelor’s degree holders in users, depending on the context in which the technology is
engineering need to quickly learn how to use new used [25]. The perceived usefulness and perceived ease of
technologies to get professional jobs in the digital age we live use of educational apps are predictive of participants’
in now. Another important issue is that conducting system intended to continue using educational apps, as found by
evaluations to keep a high-quality learning environment for Cheon et al. [25]. Researchers Lai et al. [26] discovered that
students requires specific technology-related skills [17]. students’ expectations for the use of technology were
From the explanation above, the general research strongly correlated with their actual use of technology in the
questions of the present work are, (1) does the adoption of classroom. According to Park et al. [27], students’ opinions
mobile applications in learning have a significant impact on of the value of mobile education are strongly influenced by

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their own estimations of its practicality. C. Performance

Davis [15] argues that due to the apparent simplicity of Learner performance can be defined and measured in
technological advancement, the implementation of numerous methods that are not limited to course completion,
technology for educational purposes has developed into a grade point average, and skill development [30]. Online
fundamental component of every-day existence, and the education has been found to have detrimental effects on both
variety of learning technology has increased across all fields high-achieving and low-achieving students, with a particular
of study. The views that students hold regarding the emphasis on the negative impact it has on the latter
usefulness and accessibility of the instructional support group [31–33]. The aforementioned figures provide evidence
system that they make use of have an impact on their attitudes in favor of the assertion that online instruction has negative
toward participating in the learning process, which then in implications for instructors’ professional trajectories. Based
turn affects their interest to maintain experiencing by on empirical studies [34–37], it has been found that virtual
utilizing digital devices or in another setting with the classes present more rigorous challenges for students with
utilization of equipment [28]. lower academic performance. According to the findings of
2) Perceived usefulness Johnson and Palmer [36], there is a higher propensity for
In the technology acceptance model proposed by students with worse academic performance to enroll in online
Davis [21], perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use courses. Pursuing a Bachelor’s Degree in higher education
have an impact on the attitude of technology users. In has the potential to assist policymakers in creating an optimal
research conducted by Weng et al. [29], discovered that how educational setting for students. Senior students, who are on
learners make use of modern tools has a significant effect on the verge of entering the volatile labor market, require a
their attitudes towards the lessons they are undergoing. In robust set of abilities. The present study offers an opportunity
this study, the learning technology used is a for practicum students to fulfill their obligations remotely, as
smartphone-based application that has been used by students opposed to being physically present in practicum classes, by
in undergoing their learning. User value is realized when engaging in simulations or practicums as required by their
resources are easily accessible. Our study uses a TAM model courses.
to determine whether students’ educational practices in According to Driscoll et al. [38] and Lombardi and
online learning environments, such as virtual laboratories, Oblinger [39] education institutions as well as educators may
interactive exercises, learning videos, and tools, match the not always accurately capture learners’ real learning
environments [12] and how that affects electronics capacities through the use of a variety of evaluations such as
engineering students’ academic performance. We wanted to assessments, assignments, and final grades. The use of such
determine if students’ learning styles fit learning applications assessments to gauge student progress is widespread, and
and how that affects performance. they are generally accepted as valid measures of whether or
not a course’s stated goals have been met [40]. This study
3) Attitude toward using application
employs a technology-based learning strategy, in this case
Evaluation of educational technology maintains student android-based applications (Fig. 1), to demonstrate that the
learning standards. According to multiple studies, learning of students enrolled in electronic engineering
engineering graduates must swiftly adapt to new education programs affects student performance, with the
technologies to find work in the digital age. Technology Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) serving as a
skills are needed to provide high-quality education [13]. mediating connection among each of them.
Innovative teaching and training technologies can increase
students’ learning, understanding, ease of learning, skill
development through real-life situations, and overall learning.
These instructions are less useful without the student’s
compliance [10]. Easy-to-use media lessons improve
constantly. Consider helping learners understand why what
they’re studying matters. Thus, it should be investigated why
certain students are amenable to online learning and others
are not [11]. The utilization of smartphones among
contemporary students within educational settings has
witnessed a notable rise [8]. The ability to engage in remote
learning has become feasible as a result of the swift progress
in technology. Students have constant access to mobile
applications that offer educational lessons and supplementary
learning resources. The extensive utilization of mobile Fig. 1. The mobile android learning application.
phones by students [9] proves advantageous for developers
of phone applications. This feature enables students to III. METHOD
participate in lessons at their convenience and from any A. Data Collection
location. Mobile applications can affect students’ academic
Based on the compiled findings of Burns and Grove [41], a
performance and happiness depending on the type of app, the
comprehensive research recording procedure encompasses
setting in which it is used, and their backgrounds.
various elements such as research settings, component

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members and populations, limitations in studying trust, as consideration are as follows: (1) an individual’s attitude
well as methods for accumulating and investigating data in toward utilizing an application; (2) An individual's view of
research endeavors. The sampling methodology employed in the usefulness of the application; and (3) An individual's
this study was purposive sampling, which was utilized to view of the ease of using the application. This variable
acquire a sample that effectively represents the research assesses the degree to which students’ attitudes are inclined
objectives and fulfills the criteria for obtaining reasonably towards utilizing the Android-based learning application that
accurate information from students. The study consisted of a has been made available, as indicated by their responses to
sample size of 229 participants who were enrolled as students statements such as “Attitude towards granting permission for
in the Electronics Engineering Education program at Padang use” and “the level of enthusiasm exhibited by users towards
State University. The participants possessed prior experience the application”. This pertains to the attitudes exhibited by
in utilizing educational applications based on the Android students in their utilization of Android-based educational
platform, which was specifically developed to facilitate the applications.
process of learning. The participants for this study were This study aims to assess the performance variable, which
obtained through online channels, and they completed a quantifies the degree of success of the learner’s strategy
questionnaire using a web-based platform that had been when utilizing the provided learning application, with the
prearranged. assistance of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). To
measure this variable, three items have been selected, which
B. Measures
are anticipated to accurately represent this variable. These
To assess the learning strategies variable, this study items have been chosen based on prior research conducted by
utilized four items from a previous study conducted by Sharma et al. [42]. This variable quantifies the proficiency of
Stark [14], which were hypothesized to effectively represent the learner in effectively utilizing pre-existing learning
the variable under investigation. Students’ provision of applications. This process involves the learner’s response to
responses to questions related to “Repeating subject matter” statements such as “Perceived increase in skills” and
and “remembering keywords of important concepts” serves “Association of value with the achieved learning outcomes.”
as a means to assess the degree to which they are employing
effective learning strategies. C. Data Analysis
To assess the construct of Perceived Usefulness, a key The data was analyzed using the Partial Least Squares
component of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), (PLS) method in conjunction with SmartPLS version 4 to
this research employed three items that were selected based generate a Structural Equation Model (SEM). This decision
on prior findings by Weng et al. [29], which suggested their was made due to the fact that Partial Least Squares (PLS)
suitability in capturing the essence of the construct under serve as an alternative methodology to the conventional
investigation. The variable being discussed here pertains to Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique. The
the measurement of students’ perception of the usefulness of reliability of both the data and the underlying structural
the learning applications they utilize, in response to model was assessed. The present study was carried out
assertions such as “Technology enhances interest in following the two-stage data analysis approach suggested by
learning” and “Technology is beneficial for students.” The Anderson and Gerbing [43], the initial phase involved an
aforementioned statements pertain to the utilization of examination of the soundness and consistency of the research
learning applications based on the Android platform, which constructs in relation to the measurement model. The study
have been specifically designed to facilitate the process of examined the convergent validity of the items through the
acquiring knowledge. utilization of item loading and Average Variance Extracted
To assess the construct of Perceived Ease of Use, a key (AVE). Additionally, the discriminant validity of the items
component of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), was assessed using the Heterotrait-Monotrait Correlation
this study employed four items that were selected based on Ratio (HTMT). Furthermore, the researchers employed
prior research conducted by Weng et al. [29], which Composite Reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha to examine
suggested that these items were likely to accurately capture the interdependence and internal consistency of the research
the essence of the construct. These statements pertain to the constructs. During the second phase, we conducted an
accessibility of options provided by the Android-based analysis to assess the statistical significance of the structural
educational application. The application offers multiple relationships among the various components of the research.
choices to assist students in their learning process. This In order to accomplish this, a total of 5,000 bootstrap samples
variable assesses the degree to which students perceive the were generated.
application as user-friendly, as indicated by their responses to
D. Network Analysis
statements such as “This technology is characterized by ease
of use” and “The application is easily accessible and simple The practice of representing system-related data and
to learn”. information in the form of a network is commonly known as
This study incorporated three items, as suggested by Weng network analysis. This approach is a viable method that can
et al. [29], to assess the Attitude Toward Using Application be employed for this purpose. The system is comprised of
variable, which is a key component of the Technology component parts known as “nodes” and “edges” [44]. Nodes
Acceptance Model (TAM). These items were selected based in this context refer to distinct psychological elements such
on prior research and are expected to effectively capture the as mood states, symptoms, or attitudes, which possess the
essence of this variable. The three components under property of differentiability. On the other hand, edges

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represent statistical connections that lack certainty and consider potential conflicting connections.
require estimation [45]. Edges in a network are commonly
known as links as they establish a connection between two IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
nodes. Links, in the context being discussed, can be referred
to as edges. The application of statistical modeling in A. Descriptive Results
network analysis reveals the importance of the interactions Among the 229 data points collected the respondent
among multiple variables. Hence, the utilization of network profile presented in Table 1, 170 individuals identified as
analysis holds the capacity to elucidate the enigmatic data male, accounting for 74.24% of the total sample. Conversely,
patterns generated by the latent variable model. 59 respondents identified as female, representing 25.76% of
The study employed a visual network analysis approach to the overall population. In the age group ranging from
examine data collected from participants who completed a twenty-three to twenty-four years old, there were a total of
structured questionnaire. The analysis was conducted using nine participants, accounting for 3.39% of the overall
Jeffreys’ Amazing Statistics Program (JASP) software. The respondents. Similarly, the age group spanning from
utilization of JASP was necessary for conducting this twenty-one to twenty-two years old consisted of 81
particular analysis. The process was conducted using the participants, representing 35.37% of the total respondents.
JASP platform. The EBICglasso model was employed during Furthermore, the age range between nineteen and twenty
the network assembly process. The model in question is years old included 102 individuals, comprising 44.54% of the
based on the Extended Bayesian Information Criterion total respondents. Lastly, the age group of seventeen to
(EBIC) [46], which is a regularization technique derived eighteen years old had 37 participants, making up 16% of the
from the graphically least absolute shrinkage and selection total respondents. Among the individuals who utilize
operator [47]. The aforementioned blueprint was employed smartphones for more than ten hours per day, a total of 74
as the foundational framework for the establishment of the individuals or 32.31% fall into this category. Similarly,
network, and it was effectively utilized in the pursuit of this within the group that uses smartphones for a duration of
undertaking. By setting the tuning parameter to 0.5, the seven to nine hours, there are 82 individuals or 35.81%. The
resulting network will exhibit a higher level of condensation group consisted of 55 individuals who engaged in work for a
and enhanced comprehensibility. This phenomenon can be duration ranging from four to six hours per day, constituting
attributed to the network possessing a reduced number of approximately 24.02% of the overall population.
constraints and an increased level of specificity and Additionally, there were 18 individuals who worked for a
sensitivity, the network comprises nodes that establish duration ranging from one to three hours per day, accounting
connections between two fundamental factors, and the nodes for approximately 7.86% of the total population.
that serve as bridges are characterized by their symptomatic
Table 1. Respondent profile
nature. Nodes are fundamental elements within a network
Demographics Variable Frequency Percentage
that serve to symbolize and encapsulate crucial Man 170 74.24%
characteristics of the variables under investigation [48]. Gender Woman 59 25.76%
Although edges represent the linkage between nodes, the Total 229 100.00%
thickness of an edge is inversely related to the extent of 17–18 37 16.16%
19–20 102 44.54%
correlation between the two nodes. The different directions
21–22 81 35.37%
of correlation are denoted by the distinct colors of the edges. Age
23–24 9 3.39%
Specifically, the blue and red edges correspond to positive >24 0 0%
and negative correlations, respectively. The central region of Total (years old) 229 100.00%
the graph exhibits several correlations among the variables. 1–3 18 7.86%
Duration of 4–6 55 24.02%
The researchers conducted calculations and analyses of Using
7–9 82 35.81%
centrality indices to determine the relative importance of Smartphone a
Day >10 74 32.31%
each node within the network. Several centrality indices that Total (hours) 229 100.00%
are closely interconnected include betweenness, closeness,
and strength [47, 49]. There exists a strong correlation B. Measurement Model
between betweenness and closeness measures. Based on the The study employed the internal Variance Inflation Factor
findings of prior studies, it was determined that the strength (VIF) statistical technique and the Partial Least Squares
index exhibited the highest level of reliability compared to Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) method to
other indices. The index for determining the degree of direct determine the existence of a shared bias [51]. Based on the
relation between a given node and other nodes in the network data presented in Table 2, it can be observed that all values
can be obtained by calculating the sum of the absolute pertaining to Composite Reliability and Cronbach’s alpha
weights of all edges connecting the given node to the directly exceed the threshold of 0.70 [52]. The data successfully
connected nodes in the network [50]. The index quantifies passed the convergent validity test, as evidenced by the
the extent to which a specific node is directly connected to results presented in Table 2. This is indicated by the fact that
other nodes within the network. Previous research findings all of the factor loadings for each indicator on their respective
have consistently demonstrated that the strength index latent constructs exceed the established threshold of 0.60.
exhibits the highest level of reliability compared to other The VIF values observed in this study ranged from 1.503 to
indices. Furthermore, the concept of Expected Influence (EI), 2.834, which falls below the established criterion of 3.30 [53]
which refers to the anticipated impact, was employed to for ensuring that significance tests are not affected by a

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common method bias. Additionally, the Average Variance variables (β = 0.197, p = 0.039). The relationship between
Extracted (AVE) for each construct surpasses the benchmark learning strategies and perceived ease of use is found to be
value of 0.50, as referenced in a previous study [52]. positive and significant (β = 0.742, p = 0.000), as
The Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) method was hypothesized in Hypothesis 3.
employed to assess the discriminant validity between two The findings of this research study provide empirical
reflective constructs is presented in Table 3. In order to support for Hypothesis 4, which posits that there is a positive
determine validity, a criterion called HTMT value, which and statistically significant relationship between perceived
was required to be less than 0.9, was used. The obtained ease of use and perceived usefulness (β = 0.476, p < 0.001).
results of the discriminant validity test exhibited a range from According to Hypothesis 5, the impact of perceived
0.667 to 0.876, which falls below the recommended usefulness on attitudes towards using an application is both
threshold of 0.9 suggested by esteemed scholars and positive and significant (β = 0.237, p = 0.019). Additionally,
practitioners in the relevant field. the effect of perceived ease of use on attitudes towards using
an application is also significant and positive (β = 0.455, p =
Table 2. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite
Reliability, Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
0.000). The findings of the analysis conducted on Hypothesis
7 demonstrate a significant and positive effect of attitude
Indication VIF Cronbach’s alpha CR AVE
towards using the application on performance (β = 0.646, p =
ATUA1 1.941
0.000).
ATUA2 1.790
0.821 0.821 0.736 Table 4. Direct effects hypothesis
ATUA3 1.805
Hypothesis β T ρ Results
ATUA4 1.832 H1: LS → PU 0.338 4.657 0.000 Supported
LS1 1.813 H2: LS → ATU 0.197 2.067 0.039 Supported
H3: LS → PEU 0.742 19.567 0.000 Supported
LS2 2.295 H4: PEU → PU 0.476 6.217 0.000 Supported
0.866 0.872 0.714
LS3 2.394 H5: PEU → ATU 0.455 5.785 0.000 Supported
H6: PU → ATU 0.237 2.354 0.019 Supported
LS4 2.031 H7: ATU → Pr 0.646 12.933 0.000 Supported
PEU1 2.300
PEU2 2.253
0.891 0.892 0.753
PEU3 2.834
PEU4 2.455
PU1 1.670
PU2 1.689
0.778 0.783 0.692
PU3 1.503
PU4 1.534
Pr1 1.920
Pr2 2.139 0.831 0.849 0.746 Fig. 2. Analysis result.
Pr3 1.777
Note: ATUA: Attitude Toward Using Application; LS: Learning This study encompasses several variables that exhibit no
Strategies; PEU: Perceived Ease of Use; PU: Perceived Usefulness; Pr: direct correlation with each other, a subset of which are
Performance presented in Table 5. The study found that the Technology
Table 3. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT) Acceptance Model (TAM) proposed in this research
Indication ATUA LS PEU PU demonstrated a statistically significant positive impact (β =
LS 0.825 0.451, p < 0.001). The impact of learning strategies on
PEU 0.803 0.841 performance is mediated by this model. The study identifies
PU 0.876 0.828 0.868
Pr 0.771 0.675 0.652 0.667
two indirect relationships: the impact of learning strategies
on perceived usefulness, which is mediated by perceived ease
C. Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing of use (β = 0.354, p = 0.000), and the influence of learning
The outcomes of the data collected from participants and strategies on attitude toward using the application, mediated
analyzed using SmartPLS are presented in Fig. 2 and Table 4. by perceived ease of use (β = 0.502, p = 0.000). These
These visual and tabular representations illustrate the relationships are among several others investigated in this
relationships between the proposed hypotheses in this study. study. Furthermore, this study encompasses various direct
The results of this study demonstrate that Hypothesis 1, relationships. The relationship between perceived ease of use
which examines the impact of learning strategies on and attitude towards using an application is mediated by
perceived usefulness, a key component of the Technology perceived usefulness (β = 0.113, p = 0.037). Similarly, the
Acceptance Model (TAM), shows a statistically significant relationship between perceived ease of use and performance
positive effect (β = 0.338, p < 0.001). Additionally, is mediated by attitude towards using the application (β =
Hypothesis 2, which explores the relationship between 0.367, p = 0.000). Lastly, the relationship between perceived
learning strategies and attitude toward using the application, usefulness and performance is mediated by attitude towards
also indicates a significant association between these two using the application (β = 0.153, p = 0.022).

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This study was using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) Table 6. Centrality measures per variable
which provides an explanation for how students come to Network
accept and adopt learning applications that make use of Variable Expected
utilizing technological tools to facilitate the learning process. Betweenness Closeness Strength
influence
Through the mediation of the technology acceptance model, LS1 −0.145 −0.054 −0.803 −0.803
this structural model is predicated on student LS2 −0.145 −0.116 −0.110 −0.110
performance-influencing learning strategies. This model is LS3 2.421 0.582 0.923 0.923
based on the user’s attitude toward using the application, LS4 0.052 −0.170 1.106 1.106
PU1 −0.935 −1.260 −1.707 −1.707
their expectations regarding its simplicity of use, and their
PU2 −0.935 −0.730 0.168 0.168
perception of its utility. Our research results support the PU3 −0.343 0.043 −0.791 −0.791
contention that Davis’s [15] model is an important one with PU4 −1.133 −0.163 0.444 0.444
the potential to influence future technological advances in the PEU1 −0.343 1.281 1.402 1.402
field of education. Based on the results of several PEU2 0.644 0.842 0.495 0.495
PEU3 −0.343 0.307 0.568 0.568
experiments designed to yield useful data for advancing the PEU4 0.842 1.140 1.199 1.199
quality of the educational system, this conclusion has been ATUA1 0.447 0.594 −1.571 −1.571
reached. ATUA2 1.237 1.381 0.286 0.286
ATUA3 1.039 0.943 −0.296 −0.296
Table 5. Indirect effects hypothesis ATUA4 −0.738 −0.033 0.287 0.287
Indirect Effects β t ρ Results Pr1 0.644 −0.827 0.171 0.171
Pr2 −0.343 −1.243 0.381 0.381
LS → Pr 0.451 8.038 0.000 Supported Pr3 −1.923 −2.519 −2.154 −2.154
LS → PU 0.354 5.732 0.000 Supported
LS → ATUA 0.502 8.236 0.000 Supported
PEU → ATUA 0.113 2.083 0.037 Supported
The determination of an item’s closeness to its network
PEU → Pr 0.367 7.134 0.000 Supported group relies on the incloseness and outcloseness values of
PU → Pr 0.153 2.290 0.022 Supported certain individuals [54]. The aforementioned values are
employed for the purpose of quantifying the degree of
D. Network Analysis proximity among certain individuals. In a role where it will
serve as a resilient intermediary linking the other two
The characteristics of nodes are presented in Table 6 and
elements of the network. The network exhibits a connector,
Fig. 3, specifically in relation to Betweenness. Among these
characteristics, the highest Betweenness value is observed for referred to as ATUA2, which possesses the highest closeness
learning strategies with item LS3, which has a value of 2.421, value of 1.381, indicating its effectiveness in connecting
representing the highest value within this particular variable various components within the network. The item with the
group. The highest variable in this network possesses the second highest closeness value in the network is PU1, which
knowledge that it is an item of utmost significance and holds is perceived to be useful. It has a closeness score of 1.281.
a favored position. Other items within the network rely on This item serves multiple roles in connecting two other items
this particular item for their functioning. In alternative terms, in the network, thus contributing to its high closeness value.
the aforementioned variable possesses the comprehension The term “node strength” is used to describe the extent to
that the aforementioned entity is an object of utmost worth. which a specific node within a network is directly linked to
The aforementioned variable possesses the highest level of other nodes in the same network. In order to achieve this
self-awareness within its respective group, and it is cognizant objective, the cumulative weights of all the edges that are
of this fact. The second betweenness value represents an linked to the specific node are computed and subsequently
individual’s inclination to use the program ATUA2. With a aggregated [55]. All values have undergone standardization,
value of 1.237, this indicates that it holds substantial wherein a higher value signifies a heightened level of
importance and serves as a central node within the network. network centrality. The network’s item with the highest
Furthermore, the second betweenness value signifies an strength is PEU1, possessing a strength score of 1.402, thus
individual’s disposition towards utilizing the ATUA2 making it the item with the utmost strength on the network.
application. The strength score value ranked second highest is PEU4,
which has a score of 1.199.
Visual network analysis is a method employed to
investigate and analyze intricate networks. Nodes, also
known as vertices, are the essential elements comprising a
network. The additional constituent of a network is
commonly known as edges, which are alternatively referred
to as links due to their role in connecting the nodes [54]. The
graph is composed of nodes, which represent the entities or
elements, and edges, which depict the relationships or
connections between the nodes. The concept of visual
network analysis involves the creation of a graphical
depiction of a network with the purpose of enhancing one’s
Fig. 3. Centrality plot. understanding of the network’s structure, patterns, and
characteristics [55, 56]. This approach aids researchers and

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analysts in elucidating valuable insights and correlations that engineering students understand the material. Students pay
may not be readily apparent solely from unprocessed data. more attention to what they’re learning. They can also
These observations and associations may serve to illuminate virtually see and hear the components [57]. Students often
a previously undisclosed phenomenon. think diverse learning strategies will boost their academic
engagement. Their learning strategies allow students to apply
theoretical concepts in real life. This emphasizes the
information they’re learning. In electronic engineering
pedagogy, real-world applications and exemplifications can
make the subject matter more relevant to students’ daily lives.
To ensure students understand the subject, they must have
access to relevant information. When students see the
practical applications of the material they are learning, they
are more likely to prioritize it in their education.
The effectiveness of learners’ existing learning strategies
can be enhanced by recognizing the importance of having
access to all available resources. Each individual learner
possesses a distinct and personalized approach to the process
of education. Meeting the diverse learning needs and
preferences of individuals can be achieved by offering a
Fig. 4. Network analysis according to relationship.
range of instructional methods, including visual aids, group
The network analysis summary reveals that there are a total discussions, simulations, and online resources. Therefore, it
of 19 nodes and 89 out of 171 edges have non-zero values. is imperative to bear in mind that the correlation between
The sparsity coefficient is 0.480, as seen in Fig. 4, indicating diverse learning strategies and the degree to which an
a significant correlation between learning strategies and individual can derive advantages from employing those
perceived utility. The influence on an individual’s utilization strategies is intricate and can differ among individuals. The
of the application is contingent upon their mentality, which perspectives of the learner are also influenced by various
subsequently affects the relationship between learning factors, including the learner’s prior knowledge, level of
strategies and the individual’s perception of the application’s motivation, and the instructional methodology employed.
usefulness. Furthermore, the influence of perceived The establishment of synergistic relationships between
usefulness on this association exhibits a robust correlation education providers and learners can be facilitated by the
with the linkage between attitudes towards utilizing an implementation of effective learning strategies that promote
application and perceived ease of use. The reason for this is active engagement, alongside the provision of accessible and
that there exists a robust correlation between the perception user-friendly educational resources.
of usefulness and the perception of ease of use. This Individuals who hold the belief that a particular approach
phenomenon can be attributed to the strong association to utilizing an educational instrument is straightforward to
between individuals’ attitudes towards utilizing an navigate are likely to experience enhanced efficacy in their
application and their perception of its ease of use, which in learning endeavors. Learners perceive online resources and
turn significantly influences their perception of its usefulness. software as more user-friendly and convenient when they
The perceived utility of the application is closely intertwined possess qualities such as clarity, well-structured organization,
with this association, and the two factors are interconnected. and ease of navigation. The field of electronic engineering
These two relationships are inherently interconnected with education frequently employs technological tools, software,
each other. There exists a moderately positive correlation and equipment as its primary instructional medium. The
between performance and the attitude towards utilizing utilization of user-friendly and intuitive technology resources
applications, and performance exerts a moderately significant has the potential to enhance the learning experience for
impact on the three constituent variables that contribute to students. Simulation software with user-friendly interfaces or
performance. The perception regarding the utilization of online platforms with explicit instructions can assist learners
applications exerts a significant impact on the three in utilizing these resources and optimizing their learning
constituent variables contributing to performance. outcomes, thereby influencing their academic performance.
Educational institutions must work hard to create Learners are more inclined to experience a sense of ease and
classroom instructional methods that can keep up with rapid engage with learning strategies and tools when they receive
technological change. Estriegana et al. [23] confirms that appropriate guidance, tutorials, or training. The level of the
students need easy access to diverse study resources like learner’s familiarity with their own learning strategies and
course materials. The above tendency drives mobile media their ability to effectively apply these strategies will impact
device popularity. Education providers and educators can the usability of the resources.
make adjustments to help students access learning strategies. Learners who possess prior familiarity with analogous
This element is crucial for learners. Educational apps like the learning strategies and tools may discover a heightened ease
ones mentioned help students by providing easy access to in incorporating said strategies and tools into their
learning materials. Thus, educational apps like these help educational journey within the realm of electronics
students. engineering. Due to variations in cognitive processing among
Online media like android apps helps electronics individuals, specific instructional approaches will yield

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greater benefits for particular learners. Certain individuals decision-makers should consider this to improve student
may acquire knowledge more efficiently by utilizing visual learning. This convenient instructional method may help
aids or conceptual explanations rather than engaging in students progress academically. Students may find this
hands-on activities and practical demonstrations. The instructional method convenient. The above benefit is an
implementation of learning strategies can facilitate the example of how this strategy may benefit educational
utilization of educational applications, thereby enhancing the settings.
level of consciousness among individual learners. Moreover, This research contributes to the advancement of
enhancing the awareness of learners regarding the resources knowledge regarding the determinants of students’ academic
at their disposal and facilitating their utilization can achievement in higher education, specifically in bachelor’s
potentially augment the maximum level of achievement degree programs that incorporate mobile applications.
attainable by each learner. However, it is crucial to acknowledge certain limitations and
The usefulness and ease of use of applications affect identify potential avenues for further research in order to
Padang State University Electronics Engineering Education fully understand the implications of this study. Firstly, it is
instructors’ attitudes toward using them as instructional important to note that the sample size utilized in this study is
resources. Grani and Maranguni found that application ease relatively small when considering the overall population of
affects product usefulness [58]. Integration of learning students enrolled in higher education. Additionally, it is
strategies, utility of supporting technology, and convenience crucial to acknowledge that the data was collected solely
influence student attitudes today. Students like technological from one university, which may pose challenges in terms of
tools like the learning app because of their functionality and generalizing the findings to a global context. In future
features. The app’s utility and convenience make users happy. investigations pertaining to this topic, it is recommended to
The correlation between these variables supports including incorporate larger sample sizes derived from an expanded
this factor as a key consideration for education array of universities and colleges situated in diverse nations.
decision-makers. The importance of students’ attitudes in Furthermore, the utilization of self-reported data carries the
improving academic performance is well known [59–61]. inherent risk of introducing biases related to recall and other
Educational decision-makers may consider this. A positive similar factors. The researchers face challenges in accurately
and constructive mindset helps students learn new evaluating the extent to which individuals’ responses align
information, affecting their academic success. with their real educational experiences. Although our
analysis indicated that our study was not affected by general
V. CONCLUSION technique bias, it is advisable to conduct further research to
Modern society is characterized by advanced technology, replicate the study using data collected from two separate
which affects daily tasks. These actions have many effects on sources. Furthermore, it is recommended that future studies
humanity’s future. In modern education, diverse individuals employ a longitudinal correlation-effect research
with extensive knowledge and expertise in educational methodology to enhance the precision and validity of
technologies are common. Electronic technical education findings pertaining to the widespread implementation of the
uses these technologies to share information. Thus, aforementioned strategy.
technology adoption in education and pedagogy is becoming
a notable research area. Its significant impact on education is CONFLICT OF INTEREST
the main reason for this finding. Scholars worldwide trust the The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) for empirical
education research. This study examines how diverse AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
instructional approaches affect student academic Hendra Hidayat: Concept and design, Supervision,
achievement while learning new material. A downloadable Drafting manuscript. Zamzami Zainuddin: Data acquisition,
program for portable electronic devices helped collect crucial Critical revision of manuscript. Muhammad Anwar:
data for the investigation. Technological advances have Technical and material support, Supervision. Hadi Kurnia
enabled assessment and feedback innovation. Advances in Saputra and Anggarda Paramita Muji: Drafting manuscript,
this field have aided technological progress. Students receive Statistical analysis. Syukhri and Ilmiyati Rahmy Jasril:
timely and useful feedback thanks to digital portfolios, online Collecting Data, Statistical analysis. All authors had
quizzes, and automated grading systems. This shows approved the final version.
significant educational progress. This improves learning
overall and helps students grow. FUNDING
Online courses can help people improve their teaching
This work is funded by the Institute for Research and
skills, try new pedagogical methods, and stay current on
Community Service of Universitas Negeri Padang. Contract
education policy and practice. One way to find more
number: 1371/UN35.15/LT/2023.
opportunities is as follows. The increasing complexity of
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