Lecture 11 (2nd September, Mon) and

Lecture 12 (5th September, Thursday)

Friction factor
The friction factor is a dimensionless number in fluid mechanics and momentum transport
which provides an idea about the magnitude of shear stress produced by a solid boundary on
fluid flow. It is defined as the ratio of shear stress at the wall due to fluid flow and the kinetic
1
energy head of fluid flow  v 2 zavg . Here,  is the density of the fluid and vz avg is the average
2
velocity of fluid flow. The friction factor is thereby defined as
w
f = (11.1)
1 2
 v zavg
2
Where w is the shear stress on the solid wall due to fluid flow. Since, the wall also applies an
equal and opposite shear stress on the fluid,
 w = − rz r =R
(11.2)

For laminar, fully developed and steady flow through a horizontal, cylindrical pipe, the velocity
profile is parabolic and is given by
 r2 
vz = vz max 1 − 2  (11.3)
 R 
So that the velocity gradient at the wall (r=R) is
dvz 2vz max
=− (11.4)
dr r =R R
Consequently, the shear stress (given by Newton’s law of viscosity) is
dvz 2 vz max
 rz r = R = +  =−
dr r =R R

2 vz max 2 (P0 – PL ) R 2 (P0 – PL )

 w = −  rz r = R = = = R (11.5)
R 4 L R 2L
Hence, the friction factor for laminar, fully developed and steady flow through a cylindrical
pipe is given as
(P0 – PL )
R
w 2 L 8
f = = = (11.6)
1 2 1  (P0 – PL ) 2  Rvzavg
 v zavg R
2 2 8 L
 16 16
f = = (11.7)
 Dvzavg Re
Equation (11.7) shows that the friction factor in laminar flow region depends only on the
Reynolds number. Clearly, friction factor is also a dimensionless number (as mentioned
earlier).

Friction factor in turbulent flow

Fig 11.1 Smooth and rough surface of pipe

In turbulent flow, the friction factor also depends on the surface of the pipe. A rough pipe leads
to higher turbulence than a smooth pipe, so that the friction factor for smooth pipes is less than
that for rough pipes. Therefore, the ratio of surface roughness height () to pipe diameter (D)
is used to quantify the “roughness” of the pipe surface. However, there is no analytical equation
for calculating the friction factor in turbulent flow. In practice, the shear stress on the wall is
calculated by measuring the pressure drop across the pipe and flow rate through the pipe. If we
plot friction factor vs Reynolds number on a log-log plot for constant surface roughness, we
get a smooth curve. The curves are different for different surface roughness as given in Figure
11.2. The collection of these f-Re plots is called Moody Chart, and can be used for estimating
the friction factor given the flow parameters.

Fig 11.2 Moody chart for flow through cylindrical pipe

Ref: http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/civil/articles
Solution of momentum transport problems by shell momentum balance in laminar flow
In this section, we will solve a few momentum transport problems for laminar flow in simple
geometries using the shell momentum balance approach. The detailed procedure is outlined
below.
1. Make a diagram of the flow geometry, clearly indicating all boundaries.
2. Select the appropriate coordinate system and mark the origin and axes on the diagram:
The coordinate system should be selected according to the geometry of the system. For
example, if the fluid is flowing in between two parallel plates, the rectangular
coordinate system should be employed; for pipe flow problems, the cylindrical
coordinate system should be used; for fluid flow around a sphere, the spherical
coordinate system should be used. The origin and axes should be placed according to
the system boundaries so that they can be appropriately labeled. For example, in a pipe
flow, the origin should be on central axes of the pipe so that the pipe wall can be defined
by a radius R from the axis.
3. Specify all assumptions according to the problem statement and formulate the problem
mathematically for obtaining an analytical solution.
Some common assumptions for momentum transport problems are as follows:
• Constant density, viscosity and steady state
• Laminar flow (simple shear flow)
• Newton’s law is applicable
• No slip boundary condition
These assumptions simplify the problem, and enable us to solve it analytically.
4. Guess the non-zero velocity components:
This is an important step to solve these problems. Since laminar flow is regular, and the
fluid layers flow parallel to each other without mixing, it is easy to guess the non-zero
velocities by intuition and most of the times these intuitions are correct. In general, the
fluid can flow only in the direction where solid boundaries do not obstruct its path.
Additionally, the velocities are a function of the direction in which it encounters solid
boundaries which produce resistance to the flow due to the no slip boundary condition.
5. Apply the equation of continuity: Application of the equation of continuity for the non-
zero velocity components further simplifies the problem by eliminating the functional
dependence of the non-zero velocity components on certain spatial coordinate(s).
6. Determine the non-zero shear stress component(s). The shear stress components have
to be decided based on the non-zero component(s) of velocities.
7. Determine all surface and body forces acting on the fluid. According to problem
statement, write down all surface and body force acting on the fluid carefully.
8. Determine control volume for problem:
Draw control volume in system diagram according to system shape, size and problem
statement. The selection of proper control volume is very important to solve problem
correctly. The control volume should be select in such way that it can be easily
integrated for whole system easily. The differential length of control volume should be
taken in direction of changing velocity. For example, for solving pipe flow problem,
control volume should be taken for full axial length of pipe and differential thickness
of control volume should be in radial direction. Therefore, control volume should be in
the shape of hollow circular tube of full length of pipe “L” and differential thickness
“dr”. If we take half length of pipe “L/2” and half cross section of tube then we can
solve the problem but problem have to integrate again and again for determine solution
for full pipe.
9. Write momentum balance for control volume. Write down momentum balance equation
for given problem. The shear stress can be taken as shear force or momentum flux, both
gives the same results.
10. Divide full equation by volume of control volume. Take limit of differential thickness
tends to zero and develop differential form of equation.
11. Substitute Newton’s low of viscosity for shear stress component.
12. Determine boundary condition: the boundary condition should be defined for solving
the problems.
13. Solve the equation and determine the velocity profile.
Falling Film problem:
a) Falling film on inclined flat surface
A inclined surface of length L, width W are situated to angle  from direction of gravity as
shown in Fig 11.3. Newtonian fluid is freely falling on the surface as a film of thickness. The
liquid is flowing in laminar condition. Determine velocity profile, maximum flow rate and
shear force on the plate by fluid. Write appropriate assumption for solving the problem
analytically.

Solution:

x
z

β
v(x)

Fig 11.3 Laminar flow on inclined surface

Assumption:
• Steady and incompressible flow
• Laminar flow
• Newton’s law is applicable
• No slip boundary condition at the surface
Non- zero velocity component:
The fluid is flowing in z direction only so only z component of velocity is non-zero.
Profile:
𝑣𝑥 = 0
𝑣𝑦 = 0
𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) (11.8)
Since there is no solid boundary at y direction so we can assume initially that vz can’t depends
upon y direction.
Now
𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑧) (11.9)
Use equation of continuity for Cartesian coordinate system.
∂𝑣𝑥 ∂𝑣𝑦 ∂𝑣𝑧
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧
∂𝑣𝑧
= =0 (11.10)
∂𝑧

Since, density is constant.

Equation (11.10) indicate that vz is not depends on the z.
So, 𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 (𝑥) (11.12)
There are nine components of shear stress
xx xy xz → acting on x face
yx yy yz → acting on y face
zx zy zz → acting on z face
Since vz is only non-zero velocity which depends on x direction only. xz is only non-zero
component of shear stress and others are zero.
The liquid is falling freely due to gravity. The pressure is same at both ends of inclined plane
so there is no pressure force on fluid. We can solve this problem by assuming shear stress as
force or shear stress as momentum flux. We will use both methods one by one.
1. Assume xz as momentum flux
Draw control volume of length L, width W and differential thickness.
 Fig 11.3 Control volume for falling film problem
The direction of momentum flux should be taken in positive direction of axes.
Rate of momentum in across a surface at𝑥 = 𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥 (11.13)
Rate of momentum out across a surface at 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 = 𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥+ Δ𝑥 (11.14)
The gravity force acting on fluid in z direction (𝐿𝑤Δ𝑥)(𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽) (11.15)
Here  is the density of fluid.
Rate of momentum enter due to convection transport = (𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑤∆𝑥 𝑣𝑧 )|𝑧=0 (11.16)
Rate of momentum out due to convection transport = (𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑤∆𝑥 𝑣𝑧 )|𝑧=𝐿 (11.17)
Now write the momentum transport equation
When these terms are substitute into the z- momentum balance
(𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑤𝑑𝑥𝑣𝑧 )|𝑧=0 − (𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑧 )|𝑧=𝐿 + 𝐿𝑤(𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥+ Δ𝑥 ) + (𝐿𝑤Δ𝑥) (𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽) = 0
(11.18)

Since velocity vz is not depend on z. Thus, equation (11.16) and (11.17) are equal. So they will
be canceling out in equation (11.18).

LW ( xz x − xz x +x
) + ( LW x)(  g cos ) = 0 (11.19)

Divide equation (11.19) by volume of control volume (LWx) and taking limit
(𝜏xz |𝑥 − 𝜏xz |𝑥+ Dx )
lim + (𝜌g cosβ) = 0 (11.20)
∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧
− = −𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 (11.21)
𝜕𝑥

xz is function of x only.

𝑑𝜏𝑥𝑧
− = −𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 (11.22)
𝑑𝑥

dvz
 xz = − µ as a momentum flux
dx
d  dvz 
 −  =  g cos  (11.23)
dx  dx 

d 2 vz
− =  g cos  (11.24)
dx 2
d 2 vz   g cos  
= −  (11.25)
dx 2
  
dvz   g cos  
= −  x + c1 (11.26)
dx   

  g cos   x 2
vz = −   + c 1 x + c2 (11.27)
   2
Now we have to define boundary condition.
First boundary condition at x = 0 liquid surface is in contact with air so that shear stress at
both surface should be equal.
So  xz air x =0 = xz liquid x =0 (11.28)

Both are Newtonian fluids.

𝑑𝑣𝑧,𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑣𝑧,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜇𝑔 | =𝜇 | (11.29)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0

Here  g is the density and µg is the viscosity of air.

𝑑𝑣𝑧,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜇𝑔 𝑑𝑣𝑧𝑎𝑖𝑟
| = | (11.30)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0

In equation (11.30) µg is very smaller than µ, and velocity gradient for air is also much smaller
so RHS in 11.30 is very small i.e near to zero.
dvzliquid
=0 (11.31)
dx x =0

By substituting value of equ.(11.31) in equ.(11.26), we get

C1 = 0 (11.32)

Boundary condition -2
At solid surface, due to no slip boundary condition, velocity of fluid is equal to velocity of
solids. Since in this problem, the solid surface at x =  is stationary. So velocity of fluid at
x =  is zero.
At x =  ; vz = 0 (11.33)

From equation (11.27), we get

   g cos    2
0 = −  x+c2 (11.34)
   2
  g cos    2
c 2=   (11.35)
   2
By substituting the value of equation (11.32) and equation (11.35) in equation (11.27)
  g cos   x 2   g cos    2
vz = −   +  (11.36)
   2    2

 g 2 cos    x  
2

vz = 1 −    (11.37)
2    
Equation (11.37) shows the velocity of falling film.

Now we will solve same problem with assumption that shear stress is force. Draw same control
volume

−𝑥ො
𝜏𝑥𝑧

𝜏𝑥𝑧

𝑥ො

Fig 12.1 Control volume for falling film with shear stresses
Solid surface is situated at x =  which forced shear on fluid. Therefore every layer of fluid is
forced shear in decreasing direction of x co-ordinate.
So shear force at x = x is −𝐿𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥 (12.1)
Shear force at x = x + x is 𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥+ Δ𝑥 (12.2)
Body forces and convective momentum balance equation are also same as previous case.
Now momentum balance for this case.
Momentum Momentum Body Shear
in due to out due to
- + forces + forces = 0
convective convective
transport transport
𝐿𝑊( 𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥+ Δ𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑧 |𝑥 ) + (𝐿𝑊Δ𝑥)(𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽) = 0 (12.3)
Divide equation (12.3) by volume of control volume WLx
( 𝜏𝑥𝑧 ⌉𝑥+∆𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑧 ⌉𝑥 )
+ (𝜌g cos𝛽) = 0 (12.4)
Δ𝑥

Take limit x → 0
d xz
= −  g cos  (12.5)
dx
Now substitute Newton’s low of viscosity as shear force.
dvz
 xz = µ as a shear force (12.6)
dx
d 2 vz
 = −  g cos  (12.7)
dx 2
Equation (11.24) and equation (12.7) are same equation which proves that both approach gives
same results.
Determine the maximum velocity:
The shear stress is minimum at x=0 so velocity should maximum at same point.
So Putting x=0 in equation (11.37)
 g 2 cos 
vz ,max = (12.8)
2
Average velocity and volumetric flow rate of falling film:
vz is linear velocity in z direction. So volumetric flow rate can be determine by integrate it for
full cross section of flow (W)
So volumetric flow rate is
w
Q =   vz dxdy (12.9)
0 0

From equation (11.37)

 g 2 cos    x 
w

2

Q =  1 −    dxdy (12.10)

0 0
2    

w g 2 cos    x3  
Q=  x −  2 
2   3  0

w g 2 cos   
Q=  − 
2  3
 w g 2 cos   
Q= 2 
2  3
w g 3 cos 
Q= (12.11)
3
For average velocity, divide volumetric flow rate to cross section of following section.
Q
vz avg
= w
(12.12)
  dxdy
0 0

w g 3 cos 
3
vz =
avg
w
 g 2 cos 
vz =
avg
3
2
vz avg
= vz ,max (12.13)
3
For acting on solid surface via fluid
L w
F =   ( xz x = ) dydz (12.14)
0 0

L w
 dv 
F =   z  dydz
0 0 
dx x =

F =  g Lw cos  (12.15)

Laminar flow in a narrow slit:

A Newtonian fluid is flowing from narrow slit, formed by the two parallel plates as given in
diagram, due to combine effect of gravity and pressure. Determine velocity profile, average
velocity and mass flow rate for laminar flow.
B<<W<<L
Assumption:
• Constant density, viscosity and steady state
• Laminar flow (simple shear flow)
• Newton’s low is applicable
• No slip boundary condition
 Fig 13.1 Laminar flow in narrow slit
Fluid is flowing in z direction only due to gravity and pressure difference. Therefore vz is
only non-zero velocity component. Since, slit is very narrow (B<<W<<L). We can assume
that end effects are negligible in y direction and vz is not the function of y.
v z = v z ( x, z )

vx = 0

vy = 0 (12.16)

Now use equation of continuity.

∂𝜌 ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ∂𝑥 (𝜌𝑣𝑥 ) + ∂𝑦 (𝜌𝑣𝑦 ) + ∂𝑧 (𝜌𝑣𝑧 ) = 0 (12.17)
∂𝑡


 (v z ) = 0 (12.18)
z
Equation (12.18) shows that vz is not the function of z. Now vz is changing with x only.
vz = vz ( x ) (12.19)

Therefore xz is only non- zero shear stress component.

Draw control volume:
 Fig 13.2 Control volume for laminar flow in narrow slit.
Momentum balance equation for control volume:
Convective momentum flux is flowing in control volume at z = 0 is (  vz wxvz ) z =0 (12.20)

Convective momentum flux leaving from CV at z = L is (  vz wxvz ) z =0 (12.21)

Momentum flux by molecular transport entering CV at x = x is (𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 )|𝑥=𝑥 (12.22)

Momentum flux by molecular transport leaving from CV at x = x + x is (𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 )|𝑥=𝑥+ Δ𝑥

(12.23)
Pressure force at z = 0 is P0 xw (12.24)

Pressure force at z = L is − PL xw (12.25)

Gravity force on CV is 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑥𝐿𝑤 (12.26)

Now equation for momentum balance

(𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑤Δ𝑥𝑣𝑧 )|𝑧=0 − (𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑤Δ𝑥𝑣𝑧 )|𝑧=𝐿 + (𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 )|𝑟=𝑟 − (𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 )|𝑟=𝑟+ Δ + 𝑃0 𝑤Δ𝑥 −
𝑟
𝑃𝐿 𝑤Δ𝑥 + 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑥𝐿𝑤 = 0 (12.27)

vz is not the function of z so equation (12.20) and (12.21) are equal and convective
momentum balance terms are cancelling out from above equation

(𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 )|𝑥=𝑥 − (𝐿𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 )|𝑥=𝑥+ Δ + 𝑃0 𝑤Δ𝑥 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑤Δ𝑥 + 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑥𝐿𝑤 = 0 (12.28)

𝑥

Divide equation (12.28) by volume of control volume Δ𝑥𝐿𝑤

( xz x − xz x +x ) P −P
= L 0 − g (12.29)
x L
(to be continued in next lecture…..)