Operating System

An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between

computer hardware components and the user. Every computer system must have at
least one operating system to run other programs.
OR

An operating system is a program on which application programs are executed

and acts as a communication bridge (interface) between the user and the computer
hardware.

Advantage of Operating System

 Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction.

 Easy to use with a GUI(Graphical user interface).
 It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format.
 Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications

Disadvantages of Operating System

 Operating system’s software is quite expensive for small size organization

which adds burden on them. Example Windows.
 It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time.If any issue
occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your
system

Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System – This type of operating system does not interact
with the computer directly. There is an operator which takes similar jobs having
the same requirement and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of the
operator to sort jobs with similar needs.
Advantages of Batch Operating System:
 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to
complete. Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be
when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements,
etc.
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –Each task is given some time to execute
so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a
single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task
can be from a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets to
execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to the

next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Fewer chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs
and data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OS: Multics, Unix, etc.
3. Distributed Operating System –
Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other
using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own
memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems.
“The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is
that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software which
are not actually present on his system but some other system connected
within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected
in that network.”

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all
systems are independent from each other.
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.
 Load on host computer reduces.
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to
the network.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.
Not only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood
well yet
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.
4. Network Operating System-These systems run on a server and provide the
capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access of
files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a small
private network.
“All the users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other
users within the network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why
these computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems. ”

5.
Advantages of Network Operating System:
 Highly stable centralized servers.
 Security concerns are handled through servers.
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the
system.
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of
systems.
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly.
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations.
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly.
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Nov-ell Net-ware,
and BSD, etc.
5. Real-Time Operating System –These types of OSs serve real-time systems.
The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small. This
time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict
like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc,
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict
and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built
for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be
readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in
these systems.
Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system,
thus more output from all the resources
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are
very less. For example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in
shifting one task to another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance
to applications which are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of
programs are small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in
transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of
systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their
concentration is very less on few applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so
good and they are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for
the designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and
interrupts signals to respond earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are
very less prone to switching tasks.
Functions of an operating System:
1. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain other directories and other files. An
Operating System carries out the following file management activities. It
keeps track of where information is stored, user access settings and status of
every file, and more… These facilities are collectively known as the file
system.
2. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
performs the following activities for device management. Keeps track of all
devices connected to the system. designates a program responsible for every
device known as the Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets
access to a certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in an effective
and efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.
3. Processor Management –
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which
processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each
process has. This function of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating
System performs the following activities for processor management.
Keeps track of the status of processes. The program which performs this task is
known as a traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a process.
De-allocates processor when a process is no more required.
4. Memory Management –
An Operating System performs the following activities for memory
management:
It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which
user program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the
memory addresses of the memory that has not yet been used. In multi-
programming, the OS decides the order in which processes are granted access to
memory, and for how long. It Allocates the memory to a process when the process
requests it and de-allocates the memory when the process has terminated or is
performing an I/O operation.
5 .Security Management –
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar
other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.
INTERFACE:
A user will give data and instructions to a computer and a computer will give
information back to a user. The way that a computer and a user communicate is
known as the interface.

Command Line Interface-The Command Line Interface (CLI), also known as the
command prompt or terminal, is a text-based interface used to interact with
software and operating systems. It allows users to input commands as text and
receive text-based feedback from the system.

Advantages

 Controls OS or application
 faster management
  ability to store scripts which helps in automating regular tasks.
 Troubleshoot network connection issues.
Disadvantages

 The steeper learning curve is associated with memorizing commands and a

complex syntax.
 Different commands are used in different shells.

Graphical User Interface- GUI is a form of user interface that

allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and visual
indicators such as secondary notation.

The graphical user interface is used for playing games, watching videos, etc. these
are done with the help of GUI because all these applications require graphics.
Advantages of GUI

1. A GUI is a type of user interface that is much easier to use. Users can
classify and navigate options since data are represented as symbols, forms,
and icons. Users only require to click on them to acquiring to their functions.
2. The use of shortcut keys is one of the most important features of a graphical
user interface. Shortcut keys are very helpful if you require to perform a job
that requires a couple of actions.

Disadvantages of GUI-

1. The design of the graphical user interface makes development more

complex and expensive. Additionally, a GUI must be linked with additional
hardware, which may increase overall costs.
Features CLI GUI

Definition A CLI is an interface that A graphical user interface enables users to interact
allows the user to perform with the operating system or application.
tasks by issuing commands in
successive lines of text or
command lines.

Memory It needs less memory than the It needs more memory because it has various graphics
Requirement GUI. components.

Ease of use It is not easy to use. It is easy to use.

Speed It is faster than the GUI. It is slower than the CLI.

Flexibility It is less flexible than GUI. It is more flexible than CLI.

Device Used It needs the only keyboard. It needs both a keyboard and a mouse.

Appearance Its appearance may not be Its appearance may be modified or changed.
modified or changed.

Precision Its precision is high as Its precision is low as compared to CLI.

compared to GUI.

Data The information can be In a GUI, information can be viewed or presented to

Presentation viewed to the user in plain text the user in several ways, including simple text, videos,
and files in the CLI. graphics, etc.

Errors Spelling mistakes and typing Spelling mistakes and typing errors are avoided.
errors are not avoided.

Graphics No graphics are used in the Graphics are used in the GUI.
CLI.

Menus No menus are provided in the Menus are provided in the GUI.
CLI.

Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is

mainly of four types:
LAN(Local Area Network)-

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a

small area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

Advantages of LAN

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share

local area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware
purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the
initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
  The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does
not offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are
issues related to software setup and hardware failures

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic

area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic

cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical

area such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a
large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite
links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government,
and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or
country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44
offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by
the telecom company.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business

offices situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into
client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians
and network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use
of different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of
multiple wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

LAN MAN WAN

1. LAN is defined as a On the other hand, MAN is On the other hand, WAN is
computer network defined as a computer defined as the
that links the local network that links the telecommunications network
areas like schools, metropolitan areas. that covers a large geographical
universities, area.
organizations, etc.

2. The full form of the The full form of MAN is The full form of WAN is a
LAN is Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network.
Network. Network.
3. LAN is a wired The connections in MAN The network of WAN is
network, i.e., all the are connected through connected through broadband
computers and modem or cables/ wires. services, 3G or 4G internet
printers are connected services, etc.
through wires.

4. The ownership of The ownership of MAN The ownership of WAN might

LAN is private. might be public or private. be private or public.

5. The internet speed of The sped of MAN is The speed of WAN is relatively
LAN is very high, moderate, i.e., 44-155 less than MAN and LAN, i.e.,
i.e., 1000 Mbps. Mbps. 150 Mbps.

6. The maintenance cost The maintenance cost of The maintenance cost of WAN
of LAN is easy. MAN is difficult. is difficult.

7. The bandwidth of The bandwidth of MAN is The bandwidth of WAN is

LAN is high. less. relatively low.

8. Examples: Examples: Examples:

o College o City o Broadband and internet
o School o Building throughout the country

University or continent.
o

o Hospital

Data communication-

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a

receiver via form of transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication
is said to be local if communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly
restricted geographical area.
A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text,

numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of
receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance
between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried
from sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices.
Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
The effectiveness depends on fundamental characteristics of data
communications:
1. Delivery: The data must be deliver in correct order with correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The data must be deliver accurately.
3. Timeliness: The data must be deliver in a timely manner.late delivered Data
useless.
4.Jitter-Jitter is the variation in the timing of a signal or a packet1. It can
cause transmission errors or affect the quality of voice or video data. Jitter can
be caused by network congestion, route changes, or other factors

Type of data communication

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say

that unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and
another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in
transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music
using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can
say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send
and receive data but not at the same time. When one device is sending data
then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-
talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can
say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send
and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.
Data Communication Media

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also
known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link
that carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the
communication media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission

Guided Media

In Guided media, signals are transmitted through a physical path. The features of
guide media are high speed and security. Guided media also known
as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

1. Twisted Pair

Twisted pair cable is made up of two insulated wires twisted with each other. One
wire carries the signal from source to destination and the other wire is for ground
reference. Twisting is done to avoid the exterior electromagnetic interference. It
is the most widely used transmission media.

Advantages of Twisted pair cable:

 Installation is easy
 Lightweight cable
 High speed
 Can carry both analog and digital data
 Cheaper than other transmission media
 If some part of twisted pair cable is damaged, it does not affect the entire
network

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable:

 Poor security
 Not durable, easy to break
 Attenuation is high
 Supports only lower bandwidth.

Applications of Twisted Pair Cables:

 In telephone lines.
 Local area networks such as small office and data centres.

Types of twisted pair cable

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
2. Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Unshielded Twisted-pair cable

Unshielded twisted pair cable is widely used in telecommunications. Unshielded

Twisted pair (UTP) cable is categorized as follows:

Category 1 UTP: Mostly used in telephone lines as it supports only low-speed data.
Category 2 UTP: It supports upto 4Mbps.
Category 3 UTP: It supports upto 16Mbps.
Category 4 UTP: It supports upto 20Mbps. It can also be used for long-distance
communications/
Category 5 UTP: It supports upto 200Mbps.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. It can supports high data speed, which can be used in high

speed LAN implementation.
2. Very easy to setup and install
3. It is flexible and cheap option for physical transmission media

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. Bandwidth is limited.
2. Noise reduction is not possible
3. Not ideal for longer distance communications due to the attenuation.

Shielded Twisted-pair cable

Shielded twisted pair cable contains the metal foil surrounding the twisted copper
wires to avoid external interference.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. Better performance than unshielded twisted pair cable.

2. Installation is easy.
3. Supports higher bandwidth and high speed because it’s shielded.

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. Expensive. It is more expensive than Unshielded twisted pair cable.

2. Difficult to manufacture and heavy weight.
2. Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable has a centre conductor enclosed in a insulating cover, which in turn
is enclosed in a metal foil shield. The whole cable is covered in a plastic cover. The
metal foil shield protects against the noise.

As the name suggests, it consists two conductors parallel to each other.

The inner conductor is made up of copper and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. These two conductors are separated by insulating cover.

The inner centre conductor is used for data transfer while the outer copper mesh
conductor protects against the noise (Electromagnetic interference).

Types of Coaxial Cable

BaseBand Transmission cable: It is used for transmission of single signal at high

speed. It is used for digital transmission.
BroadBand Transmission cable: It is used for transmission of multiple signals
simultaneously. It is used for analog transmission.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

1. High speed data transmission.

2. Better noise reduction compared to twisted pair cable.
3. High bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

1. It is more expensive than twisted pair cable.

2. The whole network consists of a a single cable so any fault can cause the
failure of entire network.

3. Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-Optic Cable is also known as optical-fiber cable. It is made of glass and

the transmission of data is based on the concept of reflection of light through glass.

In fiber optic cable, the optical fibers are coated in plastic. These optical fibers send
the data by pulses of light.

The plastic coating protects the cable from temperature, electromagnetic inference
and other types of wiring issues.

Components of a fiber optic cable:

Core: The core of the fiber optic cable contains optical fibers and is responsible for
data transmission in form of light pulses.

Cladding: The core is enclosed in a layer of glass and this layer is called cladding.
The main use of cladding is to reflect the light so that the light can be transmitted
from source to the destination through reflection.

Jacket: The jacket is the outer layer of fiber optic cable which is made up of plastic
and the whole purpose of jacket is to protect the cable.

Coaxial cable Propagation Modes:

Multimode: Multiple light sources moves through different paths inside coaxial
cable. Multiple data transmission simultaneously.

Singlemode: Light moves in a single path close to horizontal of the cable.

Advantages of fiber optic cable:

1. High bandwidth: The fiber optic cable supports high bandwidth compared
to the copper cables. Thus, it transfers more data compared to the copper
cables.
2. High speed: Since the data is transmitted in form of light, the transmission
speed is very high.
3. Longer range: unlike copper wires cable, the fiber optic cable can be used
for larger distance data transmission.
4. Reliable: It is more reliable than copper cables as the core is protected
against the temperature and electromagnetic disturbances.
5. Durable
6. Light weight

Unguided Media

Unguided media does not use physical medium to transmit the data from source to
destination. We already know that the Guided media uses physical medium such as
cables and wires to transfer the data from source to destination. However unlike
guided media, the Unguide media uses air as a transmission medium to transfer
the data. Thus, it is called wireless transmission media.

The unguided media uses an antenna for transmitting and receiving the data in form
of electromagnetic waves.

Why we need Unguided media?

There are certain areas where it is very difficult or not possible to install the cables
and wires such as hill areas, in these areas wireless data transfer is very much
required.
Types of Unguided media

1. Microwave Transmission
2. Radio Transmission
3. Infrared Transmission

1. Microwave transmission

In microwave transmission, the range of frequency of electromagnetic waves lies

somewhere between 1-300GHz. Microwave transmission is of two types:

 Terrestrial Type Microwave Transmission

 Satellite Type Microwave Transmission

Terrestrial Type Microwave Transmission

In this type of microwave transmission, both the sender and receiver antennas are in
direct sight with each other.

1. Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave ranges

from 4 to 6GHz.
2. Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
3. Cost: If used in short distance communication, the implementation cost is
cheap as we do not need relay towers. However when terrestrial type
microwave transmission is used for long distances, the implementation cost
goes high as we need relay towers to extend the signals.
4. Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. In terrestrial type
microwave transmission, attenuation mainly depends on frequency and signal
strength.
5. Implementation: Implementation is difficult as the tower needs to be line
of sight and the signal requirement makes it even more difficult to implement.

Advantages of Terrestrial type microwave transmission:

1. It is cheaper than cable transmission

2. Possible to implement in areas where cable transmission is difficult to
implement such as hill areas.

Disadvantages of Terrestrial type microwave transmission:

1. Not secure, susceptible to eavesdropping.

2. Weather condition can affect the transmission.
3. Limited bandwidth.

Satellite type microwave transmission

This type of communication uses the satellite antenna for communication. The
sender antenna sends the signal to the satellite antenna which is revolving around
the earth at a known height. The satellite antenna then amplifies the received signal
and sends it to the receiver antenna.

Advantages of Satellite type transmission:

1. The transmission can be done to the longer distances.

2. Unlike terrestrial transmission where the implementation cost goes higher
based on the transmission distance, the satellite communication is unaffected
by the distance of the data transmission.
3. Easy to install compared to terrestrial type.

Disadvantages of Satellite type transmission:

1. Installation of satellite is extremely tough.

2. Installation cost is high and development requires more time.

2. Radio Transmission

 Radio waves are very low frequency electromagnetic waves that are
transmitted in all directions within the range.
 Radio transmission frequency ranges from 3KHz to 1GHz.
 In radio transmissions, the antennas need not be in aligned nor required to be
set in a particular manner to send and receive signals.
 Since radio waves are omnidirectional (all directions), it is not possible to
isolate the communication inside a building.

Advantages of Radio Transmission:

1. Radio waves are mainly used for Wide Area Networks (WAN) for example:
Mobile networks.
2. Suitable for longer distance communications.
3. Signals can penetrate walls.
4. Higher data transmission rate compared to other transmission mediums.

Disadvantages of Radio Transmission:

1. Waves are omnidirectional so faces interference from other signals of same

frequency so disturbance can be there.
2. Not possible to isolate the communication inside the building.

3. Infrared Transmission

1. Infrared waves are highest frequency waves, frequency ranges from 300GHz
to 400 THz.
2. Suitable for short distance communication.
3. Bandwidth is high so data transmit rate is high compared to other mediums.
4. These waves cannot penetrate walls, thus they are ideal for isolated
communications.
Advantages of Infrared Transmission:

1. Secure
2. High speed
3. High frequency signals
4. High data transfer rate
5. low interference

Disadvantages of Infrared Transmission:

1. Sun rays interfere with the infrared rays so not ideal for outdoor
communication.
2. Suitable for short distance communication only.
3. Cannot penetrate walls so difficult to establish a communication between
two different rooms.

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.

Types of Network Topology

BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.

2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

3. Used in small networks.

4. It is easy to understand.

5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.

3. Cable has a limited length.

4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to

another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbour s
for each device.
Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the
ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used
in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by

having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.

3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as
a backup, to keep the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted,

has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes,

as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

3. Easy to troubleshoot.

4. Easy to setup and modify.

5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
 3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.

4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing

2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like
routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance.
Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those
node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data.
But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are

connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only
connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to
each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.

2. Robust.

3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.

3. Fault is diagnosed easily.

4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.

3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star typologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

3. Easily managed and maintained.

4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.

2. Costly.

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of typologies which is a mixture of two or more typologies.

For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology
(ring topology and star topology).

1.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.

2. Costly.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application
in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer
is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical
 medium.

Physical layer:

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Data-link layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
 o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network
layer of the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from
the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical
Link Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Network Layer:

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices

on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Transport Layer
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-
point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

 o Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over
the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not
send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender
does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.

Session Layer
o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Presentation Layer
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.

o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form
and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e.,
it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

Application Layer
o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes
to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application
layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a
computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.