 Contents

 Oxymoron _______________________________ 2
 Tragedy _________________________________
 Structuralism ______________________________ 3
 Metaphor ________________________________ 3
 Personification ____________________________ 4
 Pastoral Poetry ____________________________ 5
 Ballad __________________________________ 5
 Imagery _________________________________ 6
 Rhyme __________________________________ 7
 Pathetic Fallacy _____________________________ 8
 Elegy ___________________________________ 9
 Epic ___________________________________ 9
 Mock Epic _______________________________ 10
 Hyperbole ______________________________ 11
 Couplet _________________________________ 12
 Scansion ________________________________ 14
 Allusion _________________________________14
 Paradox __________________________________15
 Sonnet __________________________________16
 Dramatic monologue ________________________ 17
 Metonymy ________________________________ 17
 Synecdoche ____________________________________________ 18
 Parallel Structure ________________________________________ 19
 Apostrophe ____________________________________________ 20
 Alliteration ____________________________________________ 21
 Rhythm ______________________________________________ 22
 Fable _________________________________________________ 23
 Irony _________________________________________________ 24
 Theme _______________________________________________ 25
 Consonance ___________________________________________ 26
 Assonance _____________________________________________ 27
 Pathos ________________________________________________ 28
 Diction _______________________________________________ 29
 Satire ________________________________________________ 30
 Symbolism ____________________________________________ 30
 Blank Verse ___________________________________________ 32
 Heroic Couplet ________________________________________ 33
 Prologue _____________________________________________ 33
 Extended Metaphor ____________________________________ 34
 Pastoral elegy __________________________________________ 35
  Oxymoron
Definition: Oxymoron, plural oxymora, is a figure of speech in which two opposite
ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an
adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings e.g. ―cruel kindness‖ or ―living
death‖. However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The
contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence e.g. ―In order to lead, you must walk
behind.‖

Function: Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose as well as poetry. For
instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron, ―sweet sorrow‖, crafted by
Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It provokes our thoughts and makes us ponder on
the meaning of contradicting ideas.

Common Examples : Open secret , Tragic comedy , Seriously funny , Original copies ,
Liquid gas. Etc

Sentence Examples : "I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief." - Charles Lamb
,
"I am busy doing nothing." - Oxymorons

 Tragedy
Definition: ―A play dealing with tragic events and having an unhappy ending,
especially one concerning the downfall of the main character.‖A type of drama in which
the characters experience reversals of fortune, usually for the worse. In tragedy,
catastrophe and suffering await many of the characters, especially the hero.

Function: Tragedy is a major form of drama which deals with serious aspects of
life. Generally speaking, it is opposite to comedy. According to Aristotle, ―A tragedy is a
representation of an action that is whole and complete and of a certain magnitude.‖

Examples: Example include Shakespeare's Othello and Hamlet.

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2
  Structuralism
Meaning : A method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human behaviour,
culture & experience,which focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a
conceptual system.

Explanation: European critical movement of the mid-20th century. It is based on the

linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, which hold that language is a self-contained
system of signs, and the cultural theories of Claude Lévi-Strauss, which hold that cultures,
like languages, can be viewed as systems of signs and analyzed in terms of the structural
relations among their elements. Central to structuralism is the notion that binary
oppositions (e.g., male/female, public/private, cooked/raw) reveal the unconscious logic or
―grammar‖ of a system. Literary structuralism views literary texts as systems of
interrelated signs and seeks to make explicit their hidden logic. Prominent figures in the
structuralist movement are Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Roman Jakobson, and
Roland Barthes. Areas of study that have adopted and developed structuralist premises
and methodologies include semiotics and narratology.
Example : An example of structuralism is describing an apple. An apple is crisp,
sweet, juicy, round, and hard. Another example of structuralism is describing your
experience at the ocean by saying it is windy, salty, and cold, but rejuvenating. It is
commonly used in English.
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 Metaphor
Origin of METAPHOR
Middle English methaphor, from Middle French or Latin , first Known Use: 15th century.
Figure of speech in which a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or action is used in
place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in ―the ship plows the
seas‖ or ―a volley of oaths‖). A metaphor is an implied comparison (as in ―a marble
brow‖), in contrast to the explicit comparison of the simile (―a brow white as marble‖).
Metaphor is common at all levels of language and is fundamental in poetry, in which its
varied functions range from merely noting a likeness to serving as a central concept and
controlling image.
Definition of METAPHOR : A word or phrase for one thing that is used to refer
to another thing in order to show or suggest that they are similar.
Use of Metaphor : Metaphor enhances and makes the images described by the author
more creative and interesting. It also makes the story sounds poetical without have the
story in verses. It is used for reasons similar to using a variety of vocabulary. A metaphor,
like a different word, can shape how a reader thinks about a subject.
Example : He was drowning in paperwork‖ is a metaphor in which having to deal with a
lot of paperwork is being compared to drowning in an ocean of water.

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  Personification
Definition : The attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something
non-human, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.

Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given human

attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the
ability to act like human beings. For example, when we say, ―The sky weeps‖ we are giving
the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can say that the sky has been
personified in the given sentence.

Function of Personification : Personification is not merely a decorative device but it

serves the purpose of giving deeper meanings to literary texts. It adds vividness to
expressions as we always look at the world from a human perspective. Writers and poets
rely on personification to bring inanimate things to life, so that their nature and actions are
understood in a better way. Because it is easier for us to relate to something that is human
or that possesses human traits. Its use encourages us to develop a perspective that is new as
well as creative.

Common Examples of Personification : 1. Look at my car. She is a beauty,

isn‘t it so ? 2. The flowers danced in the gentle breeze. 3. The fire swallowed the
entire forest.

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 Pastoral Poetry
Definition: Pastoral poetry is much like it sounds; it is poetry that has to do with
pastures! And in some pastures, there are sheep tended by shepherds. The pastoral poem
elevates the life of the shepherd or shepherdess, versus the evils of the city. Poets as early as
Theocritus, Hesiod, and Virgil wrote pastoral poems, as well as writers like Shakespeare. It
is interesting to note that most poets who wrote pastoral poems were not really from the
country. Their point of view was more idealistic than realistic.

Explanation: The pastoral poem presents an idealistic, almost Utopian view of rural
life. Shepherds and shepherdesses are innocent, pure and free from corruption of the city
or even the court. Some common topics of these poems were death, love, the mockery of
politics, and the ideal life of the country. Shepherds and shepherdesses would sing love
songs to each other.

Examples: One famous example of pastoral poetry is Christopher Marlowe's poem,

'The Passionate Shepherd to His Love.'

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  Ballad

Definition of Ballad: The word Ballad is of French provenance. It is a type of poetry

or verse which was basically used in dance songs in the ancient France. Later on, during
the late 16th and 17th century, it spread over the majority of European nations. Owing to
its popularity and emotional appeal, it remained a powerful tool for poets and lyricists to
prepare music in the form of lyrical ballads and earn a handsome income from it.
The art of Lyrical ballad as well as Ballad poetry lost popularity during the latter half of
the 19th century. However, it is still read and listened to with interest in most of European
countries including the British Isles.

Evolution of Ballad : Two schools of thoughts, namely Communal school of thought

and Individualists school of thought, have dominated the world of ballad through its
development. Communalists believe that the evolution of the ballad was a result of the
joined and shared literary endeavors of many people. Individualists negate this approach
to the extent that they consider the later development as a modification of the archetype.
Most of the ballad examples in ancient times used to be passed to the next generation
through oral traditions. This is because there was no language in which to write them
down.

Functions of Ballad: Ballads, as stage performance, enjoyed the status of being one
of the main sources of entertainment in ancient times. Legends and historical events were
narrated in the form of a ballad which would comprise song and dance.

Importance of Ballads: Ballads are important to look at because they show how the
form has developed over time. A ballad is not simply a romantic song, although that
definition will still apply in the field of music.
Romance can be infused into ballads, especially if they are a narrative tale of love (or hate)
as seen in the ballad by the anonymous Spanish poet. However, they are so much more as
well.

Examples : 1: "As You Came From The Holy Land" by Sir Walter Raleigh , 2: ―Ballad on
the American War‖ by Robert Burns

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  Imagery
Definition of Imagery: Imagery means to use figurative language to represent
objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses.
Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual
representation of ideas in our minds. The word imagery is associated with mental pictures.
However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more
complex than just a picture.

Function of Imagery: The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant

and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the reader‘s senses as
possible. It aids the reader‘s imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the
literary piece clearly. Apart from the above mentioned function, images , which are drawn
by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, onomatopoeia etc. serve
the function of beautifying a piece of literature.

Examples : 1. He fell down like an old tree falling down in a storm. 2. Her face
blossomed when she caught a glance of him. 3. Her blue eyes were as bright as the Sun,
blue as the sky, but soft as silk.

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 Rhyme
Definition : Rhyme is a poem composed of lines with similar ending sounds.

Example : An example of rhyme is the childrens' poem "Humpty Dumpty."

Or
Definition : Rhyme is defined as to speak in words or phrases with the same ending
sound or to create a written piece out of such phrases.

Example : An example of rhyme is to say the words "bike" and "like."

Function of Rhyme : Rhyme partly seems to be enjoyed simply as a repeating pattern

that is pleasant to hear. It also serves as a powerful mnemonic device, facilitating
memorization. The regular use of tail rhyme helps to mark off the ends of lines, thus
clarifying the metrical structure for the listener. As with other poetic techniques, poets use
it to suit their own purposes; for example William Shakespeare often used a rhyming
couplet to mark off the end of a scene in a play.
W.H Auden gives his views on the function of rhyme and other tools of prosody saying that
these are like servants that a master uses in the ways he wants.

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  Pathetic Fallacy

Definition: Pathetic fallacy is a literary device that attributes human qualities and
emotions to inanimate objects of nature. The word ―pathetic‖ in the term is not used in the
derogatory sense of being miserable; rather, here, it stands for ―imparting emotions to
something else‖.

Explanation : An author may use pathetic fallacy to represent characters' emotions or

the actions in a scene. This helps set the tone and mood while adding depth to
characterizations. For instance, an angry character gets caught in a thunderstorm. We
usually associate thunderstorms with darkness and anger, which would reflect the mood of
the character. Thus, as a reader, we may gain a deeper perspective on the character.
Similarly, when a character feels sad, it begins to rain. Both of these examples show the
characters' emotions through the weather.

 Difference b/w Pathetic Fallacy & Personification

Generally, Pathetic fallacy is confused with personification. The fact is that they differ in
their function. Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to
inanimate objects of nature for example referring to weather features reflecting a mood.
Personification, on the other hand, is a broader term. It gives human attributes to abstract
ideas, animate objects of nature or inanimate non-natural objects.

For example, the sentence ―The somber clouds darkened our mood‖ is a pathetic
fallacy as human attributes are given to an inanimate object of nature reflecting a mood.
But, ―The sparrow talked to us‖ is a personification because the animate object of nature
―sparrow‖ is given the human quality of ―talking‖.

Example : William Wordsworth in his poem ―I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud‖ says:

―I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o‘er vales and hills,‖

 The poet describes clouds as ―lonely‖ to describe his state.

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  Elegy
Definition : Elegy is a form of literature which can be defined as a poem or song in the
form of elegiac couplets, written in honor of someone deceased. It typically laments or
mourns the death of the individual.

Elegy is derived from the Greek work ―elegus‖, which means a song of bereavement sung
along with a flute. The forms of elegies we see today were introduced in the 16th century.
―Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard‖ by Thomas Gray etc.

Function of Elegy : Elegy is one of the richest literary forms because it has the capacity
to hold emotions that deeply influence people. The strongest of the tools elegy uses is its
reliance on memories of those who are no more. Most of the poets who wrote elegies were
evidently awed by the frailty of human beings and how the world completely forgets about
the deceased at some point.

However, the function of elegy is not as limited as it is thought. Whenever we take a look at
elegy examples, what come to mind are feelings like sorrow, grief and lamentation.

Example :
 ―Lycidas” , a poem mourning the loss of a good friend by John Milton &
 ―O Captain! My Captain!‖ by Walt Whitman , Whitman wrote this elegy for
Abraham Lincoln (16th president of the United States).
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 Epic
Definition : A long poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the
deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the past history of a nation. Its
synonyms are Heroic poem, long poem, long story etc .
Explanation : Epic comes from the Greek for song, because Greek poets like Homer
sung their poems. We tend to use epic for long, ambitious novels or movies, especially if
they involve a long journey. Epic can be used as an adjective to describe something
historically important, lasting and complex. Perhaps your great-grandfather was a soldier
in the epic struggle of World War One.
Epic literature comes from the oral traditions of ancient civilizations. Epic poems have
been created throughout history, up to the present day. Epic poems are included in all
three genres of poetry, which include lyric, dramatic, and narrative.
Uses of the epic : The main function of poetry in heroic-age society appears to be to
stir the spirit of the warriors to heroic actions by praising their exploits and those of their
illustrious ancestors, by assuring a long and glorious recollection of their fame, and by
supplying them with models of ideal heroic behaviour.
Examples : The Iliad, Odyssey, and Aeneid are the most famous epics of antiquity. The
first Great English epic of the Renaissance is Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590-96), followed
by Milton's Paradise Lost (1667-74).

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  Mock Epic
Definition : Mock-heroic, mock-epic or heroi-comic works are typically satires or
parodies that mock common Classical stereotypes of heroes and heroic literature.
Typically, mock-heroic works either put a fool in the role of the hero or exaggerate the
heroic qualities to such a point that they become absurd.
A mock epic or mock pastoral poem are not necessarily the same thing, though they could
be. In a broad sense, the mock epic is a poem that satirizes epic poetry's form and style of
the classical era. This was a popular technique in the neo-classical era (the 18th century)
commonly seen in the works of Alexander Pope or Jonathan Swift, among others
History & Purpose : Historically, the mock-heroic style was popular in 17th century
Italy, and in the post-Restoration and Augustan periods in Great Britain. During the 18th
century poets like Dryden, Pope and Swift considered the main purpose of art to be
educating their people on morals and truth, they concluded dishonest poetry was foolish,
and irresponsible. The mock pastoral poems would also tend to take a situation in nature,
and turn it on its head by bringing light to the often crude and disgusting atmosphere so
prominent in the 18th century. This was a pretty legitimate technique, considering they
were still about 100 years from soap, and people threw their chamber pots into the streets
every night.
Example : ―The Rape of the Lock‖ , by Alexander Pope
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 Hyperbole
Definition : Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning ―over-casting‖ is a figure
of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. It is a device
that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long
time, you say, ―Ages have passed since I last saw you‖. You may not have met him for three
or four hours or a day, but the use of the word ―ages‖ exaggerates this statement to add
emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the
real situation.
Common Examples : She is as heavy as an elephant! , I am dying of shame .
Function of Hyperbole : In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize
for an amusing effect. However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using
hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to
such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops
contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is
presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch
the reader‘s attention.

Examples : A boring story can come to life with the use of a hyperbole. Examples of
hyperboles include:

 ―I‘ve told you a million times‖

 ―It was so cold, I saw polar bears wearing jackets‖
 This car goes faster than the speed of light.

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  Paradox

Definition : The term Paradox is from the Greek word ―paradoxon‖ that means
contrary to expectations, existing belief or perceived opinion. It is a statement that appears
to be self-contradictory or silly but may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an
opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to
make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.
Function of Paradox : In Literature , readers enjoy reading. Readers enjoy more
when they extract the hidden meanings out of the writing rather than something presented
to them in an uncomplicated manner. Thus, the chief purpose of a paradox is to give
pleasure.
In poetry, the use of paradox is not confined to mere wit and pleasure; rather, it becomes
an integral part of poetic diction. Poets usually make use of a paradox to create a
remarkable thought or image out of words.
Example : The famous play of Shakespeare, Hamlet, the protagonist Hamlet says :
―I must be cruel to be kind.‖
This announcement does not seem to make sense. How can an individual treat others
kindly even when he is cruel? However, Hamlet is talking about his mother, and how he
intends to kill Claudius to avenge his father‘s death. This act of Hamlet will be a tragedy
for his mother who is married to Claudius. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the
beloved of his father‘s murderer any longer, and so he thinks that the murder will be good
for his mother
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 Couplet
Definition : A couplet is a literary device which can be defined as having two successive
rhyming lines in a verse and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked
by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme and incorporation of specific utterances.

It could an independent poem, and could be a part of other poems such as sonnets in
Shakespearean poetry. If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem,
it is independent and hence it is called a closed couplet. A couplet which cannot render a
proper meaning alone is called an open couplet.

One of the commonly used couplet examples are these two lines from William
Shakespeare‘s Hamlet.

―The time is out of joint, O cursed spite

That ever I was born to set it right!‖

Function of Couplet : The rhyming couplets are usually used in poetry in order to
make a poem interesting and rhythmic. They help create a rhyming effect in a poem.

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In literature, Chaucer, Dryden, Pope and Shakespeare have been famous for using
rhyming heroic couplets. In Arabic and Chinese literature, rhyming couplets have also
been used extensively.

Types of Couplets :
Here are a few types of couplets:
1. Short Couplet
2. Split Couplet
3. Heroic Couplet (Closed and Open Couplets)
4. Shakespearean Couplet
5. Alexandrine Couplet
6. Qasida
7. Chinese Couplet
 Short Couplet - Iambic or trochaic tetrameter. From Maxine Kumin's "Morning
Swim"
Into my empty head there come
a cotton beach, a dock wherefrom
I set out, oily and nude
through mist in oily solitude.
 Split Couplet - The first line in iambic pentameter, the second in iambic dimeter.
From Richard Steere's "On a Sea-Storm Nigh the Coast"
The weighty seas are rowled from the deeps
In mighty heaps,
And from the rocks' foundations do arise
To kiss the skies.
 Shakespearean Couplet - often ended his sonnets with a rhyming couplet that
summed up the main ideas of the poem. Some examples of couplets in the endings of his
sonnets are:
"So, till the judgement that yourself arise,/You live in this, and dwell in lovers' eyes."
"Blessed are you whose worthiness gives scope,/Being had, to triumph; being lacked, to
hope."
 Heroic Couplet - Two lines of iambic pentameter, also the last two lines of the
English sonnet. From Richard Steere's "On a Sea-Storm Nigh the Coast"
Wave after wave in hills each other crowds,
As if the deeps resolved to storm the clouds.
 Alexandrine Couplet - Alexander Pope, a writer who lived from 1688-1744 was an
English poet who wrote satirical verse… and who used a lot of couplets. An alexandrine
is a line of iambic hexameter, so an alexandrine couplet is two rhymed lines of such.
These often come at the end of stanzas or poems and, in these cases, are also called
codas.Here are some examples:
"Be not the first by whom the new are tried,/Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."
"Good nature and good sense must ever join;/To err is human, to forgive, divine."

 Qasida - An Arabic form consisting of any number of lines all rhyming on the same
rhyme. The Qasida is narrative poetry , written in a string of shers (complete couplets), the
poem is usually long and may be as long as 100 shers, length is optional.
Examples of qasida poems :

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 “UNDOING THE CURSE OF THAT FIRST SIN” by Hopkins &
“ GOOD BYE IS THE SADDEST WORD” by Alexander ( for his lost love ) .

 Scansion
Definition : ―The metrical analysis of verse‖ .

Explanation : Poetry has a unique music that sets it apart from other kinds of writing.
It's fairly easy to hear this music when a poem rhymes, but the sounds of poetry don't
depend on rhyme alone. Traditionally, a poem has a certain pattern of weak and strong
syllables known as meter. However, not all poems follow such a pattern. Poetry that doesn't
use rhyme or meter is called free verse.

Particularly in free verse, it can be difficult to focus on any sort of rhythm. Fortunately,
there is a method called scansion that uses visual cues to show which syllables are weak and
which syllables are strong. Once this is accomplished, we can use those visual cues to
identify different kinds of metrical feet.
Purpose : The purpose of scansion is to enhance the reader's sensitivity to the ways in
which rhythmic elements in a poem convey meaning. Deviations in a poem's metrical
pattern are often significant to its meaning
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Allusion
Definition : Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea
of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the
person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the
reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.

For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, ―I do not approve of this
quixotic idea,‖ Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes‘s ―Don
Quixote‖, a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures.

Function of Allusion : By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to
simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by
comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them.
Furthermore, the references to Greek Mythology give a dreamlike and magical touch to the
works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the readers with religious backgrounds.

Examples :
like a Romeo in front of her.‖
―Romeo‖ is a reference to Shakespeare‘s Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet,
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 in ―Romeo and Juliet‖

―Newton‖, means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton.

 Sonnet

Definition : The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word ―sonetto‖. It means a
small or little song or lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 fourteen lines and is written in
iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme and a ―volta‖
or a specific turn.

Generally, sonnets are divided into different groups based on the rhyme scheme they
follow. The rhymes of a sonnet are arranged according to a certain rhyme scheme. The
rhyme scheme in English is usually abab-cdcd-efef-gg and in Italian abba-abba-cde-cde.

Types of Sonnet
The sonnets can be categorized into six major types:

1. Italian Sonnet
2. Shakespearean Sonnet
3. Spenserian Sonnet
4. Miltonic Sonnet
5. Terza Rima Sonnet
6. Curtal Sonnet

Function of Sonnet : The sonnet has become popular among different poets because
it has a great adaptability to different purposes and requirements. Rhythms are strictly
followed. It could be a perfect poetic style for elaboration or expression of a single feeling
or thought with its short length in iambic pentameter. In fact, it gives an ideal laboratory to
a poet for exploration of strong emotions. Due to its short length, it is easy to manage for
both the writer and the reader.

Example : Sir Philip Sidney's sonnet , ―Astrophel and Stella‖ & Sonnets of William
Shakespeare.

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  Dramatic monologue

Definition : A poem in which an imagined speaker addresses a silent listener, usually

not the reader. Examples include Robert Browning‘s ―My Last Duchess,‖ , T.S. Eliot‘s
―The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,‖ .

A lyric may also be addressed to someone, but it is short and songlike and may appear to
address either the reader or the poet.It is also known as Persona Poem.

Explanation : The Victorian period represented the high point of the dramatic
monologue in English poetry.Everyone agrees that to be a dramatic monologue a poem
must have a speaker and an implied auditor, and that the reader often perceives a gap
between what that speaker says and what he or she actually reveals. In one of the most
influential, though hotly contested definitions, Robert Langbaum saw the form as a
continuation of an essentially Romantic "poetry of experience" in which the reader
experiences a tension between sympathy and judgment.

Requirements: Dramatic monologue has three requirements:

1. The reader takes the part of the silent listener.

2. The speaker uses a case-making, argumentative tone.
3. We complete the dramatic scene from within, by means of inference and
imagination.

Examples of Dramatic Monologue (Persona Poems) :

[American Journal]
by Robert Hayden

[My Last Duchess]

by Robert Browning

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  Metonymy

Definition : A figure of speech which substitutes one term with another that is being
associated with the that term.

A name transfer takes place to demonstrate an association of a whole to a part or how two
things are associated in some way. This allows a reader to recognize similarities or common
features among terms. It may provide a more common meaning to a word. However, it may
be a parallel shift that provides basically the same meaning; it is just said another way.

Function of Metonymy : Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary

symbolism i.e. it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. By
using metonymy, texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawing readers‘
attention. In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, ―Rifles
were guarding the gate‖ is more concise than ―The guards with rifles in their hands were
guarding the gate.‖

Furthermore, metonymy, like other literary devices, is employed to add a poetic color to
words to make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative
way to insert this ―life‖ factor to the literary works.

Example : The given lines are from Shakespeare‘s ―Julies Caesar‖ Act I.
―Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.‖

Mark Anthony uses ―ears‖ to say that he wants the people present there to listen to him attentively.
It is a metonymy because the word ―ears‖ replaces the concept of attention.

Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life :

 England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)
 The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military
force.)
 Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)

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  Synecdoche

Definition : Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents

the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part.

Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups or vice versa. It may also
call a thing by the name of the material it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a
container or packing by the name of that container or packing.

Difference between Synecdoche and Metonymy:

Synecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). Both
may resemble each other to some extent but they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the
whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car ―wheels‖ is
a synecdoche because a part of a car ―wheels‖ stands for the whole car. However, in
metonymy, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular
thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, ―crown‖ that refers to power or
authority is a metonymy used to replace the word ―king‖ or ―queen‖.

Function of Synecdoche : Literary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ

synecdoche in their literary works. By using synecdoche, the writers give otherwise
common ideas and objects deeper meanings and thus draw readers‘ attention.

Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying
―Soldiers were equipped with steel‖ is more concise than saying ―The soldiers were
equipped with swords, knives, daggers, arrows etc.‖

Examples of Synecdoche from Everyday Life:

 The phrase ―gray beard‖ refers to an old man.
 The word ―glasses‖ refers to spectacles.

Examples of Synecdoche in Literature : Look at the use of synecdoche in the lines

taken from Shakespeare‘s Sonnet 116:

―O no! It is an ever-fixed mark

That looks on tempests and is never shaken.‖

The phrase ―ever-fixed mark‖ refers to a lighthouse.

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  Parallel Structure

Definition : Parallel structure is repetition of the same pattern of words or phrases

within a sentence or passage to show that two or more ideas have the same level of
importance.

Importance : Parallel structure helps to organize ideas, making a text or speech easier
to understand. Parallel structure can also create a satisfying rhythm in the language an
author uses.

Use of Parallel Structure : Dogs are great pets for the following reasons: they are
loyal, they are loving and they are obedient. This is a correct use of parallel structure. An
incorrect version of this sentence would be : Dogs are great pets for the following reasons:
they are loyal, they are loving and because of their obedience.

Example :

"Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears;

I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him."

—William Shakespeare, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar

 The author uses parallel structure in both lines. In the first line, parallel structure equates
three different groups of society: friends, Romans, and "countrymen." In the second line,
the author uses parallel structure with the phrases "to bury Caesar, not to praise him."

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  Apostrophe
Definition : In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by
exclamation ―O‖. A writer or a speaker, using an apostrophe, detaches himself from the
reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech.

It is important not to confuse the apostrophe which is a figure of speech and the apostrophe
which is a punctuation mark (‗). It shows possession or a mark to indicate omission of one
or more letters (contractions) while apostrophe used in literature is an arrangement of
words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were
present and capable of understanding feelings.

Function of Apostrophe : By employing apostrophe in their literary works, writers try

to bring abstract ideas or non-existent persons to life so that the nature of emotions they
want to communicate gets across in a better way – because it is more convenient for the
readers to relate themselves to the abstract emotions when they observe them in their
natural surroundings. In addition, the use of apostrophe motivates the readers to develop a
perspective that is fresh as well as creative.

Example : John Donne once more uses apostrophe in his poem ―The Sun Rising‖:

―Busy old fool, unruly Sun,

Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on
us?
Must to thy motions lovers‘ seasons run?
Saucy pedantic wretch,‖

The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way as if it were a real human
being. He asks the Sun in a rude way why the Sun appeared and spoiled the good time he
was having with his beloved.Moreover , we have an another example of it , i.e :

"Twinkle, twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are.
Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky."
(Jane Taylor, "The Star," 1806)

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  Alliteration

Definition : Alliteration is derived from Latin‘s ―Latira‖. It means ―letters of

alphabet‖. It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first
consonant sound, occur close together in a series.

Function of Alliteration : Alliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It
creates a musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It
makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive and appealing; thus, making them
easier to learn by heart. Furthermore, it renders flow and beauty to a piece of writing.

Example : Consider the following examples:

 But a better butter makes a batter better.
 A big bully beats a baby boy.

Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close
together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is
that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is
alliterative, but cigarette chase is not.

We also find alliterations in names of people, making such names prominent and easy to be
remembered. For instance, both fictional characters and real people may stand out
prominently in your mind due to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are :

 William Wordsworth
 Mickey Mouse
 Donald Duck

Example of Alliteration in Literature : From William Shakespeare‘s ―Romeo and

Juliet‖ (prologue to Act 1) :

―From forth the fatal loins of these two foes;

A pair of star-cross‘d lovers take their life.‖

This is an example of alliteration with the ―f‖ and ―l.‖ in words ―forth, fatal, foes‖ and
―lion, lovers, and life‖.

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  Rhythm

Definition: The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means,
―measured motion‖. Rhythm is a literary device which demonstrates the long and short
patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables particularly in verse form.

Function of Rhythm: Rhythm in writing acts as beat does in music. The use of
rhythm in poetry arises from the need that some words are to be produced more strongly
than others. They might be stressed for longer period of time. Hence, the repeated use of
rhythmical patterns of such accent produces rhythmical effect which sounds pleasant to the
mind as well as to the soul. In speech, rhythm is used unconsciously to create identifiable
patterns. Moreover, rhythm captivates the audience and readers alike by giving musical
effect to a speech or a literary piece. Rhythm is a natural effect within poetry. The meter of
a sentence and which feet used to make that sentence are what give the poem its effect and
flow.

Example of Rhythm in Literature: English literature is full of rhythmical poems

and pieces of prose. There are many poets and authors who have used rhythm in their
works.

Two households, both alike in dignity,

In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,
From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.
From forth the fatal loins of these two foes
A pair of star-cross‘d lovers take their life;
(Romeo Juliet by Shakespeare)

There are ten syllables in iamb pentameter, where the second syllable is accented or
stressed. As in above mentioned lines the stressed syllables are expressed in bold.

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  Fable

Definition: The word fable is derived from a Latin word ―fibula‖ which means a story
that is a derivative of a word ―fari‖ which means to speak. Fable is a literary device which
can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end.

In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In
prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces of nature and
inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral
lesson at the end.

Features of Fable :

 A fable is intended to provide a moral story.

 Fables often use the main characters as animals that are presented with
anthropomorphic characteristics such as the ability to speak and to reason.
 Fables personify the animal characters.

Function of Fable: The purpose of writing fables is to convey a moral lesson and
message. Fables also give readers a chance to laugh at the follies of human beings and they
can be employed for the objective of satire and criticism. They are very helpful in teaching
children good lessons based on examples. However, in literature, fables are used for
didactic purposes at a much broader level.

Example of Fables in Literature :

―A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox
observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. ―Coming
and standing under the tree he looked up and said, ‗What a noble bird I see above me! Her
beauty is without equal….. Down came the cheese and the fox, snatching it up, said, ‗You
have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits….‖

(The Fox and the Crow from Aesop‘s Fables)

Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables
put emphasis on the social communications of human beings and hence the morals he
draws deal with the realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that
flatterers must not be trusted.

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  Irony
Definition : Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that
their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a
situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In
simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality.

Types of Irony : On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic
kinds of irony i.e. verbal irony and situational irony. A verbal irony involves what one does
not mean. When in response to a foolish idea, we say, ―what a great idea!‖ it is a verbal
irony. A situational irony occurs when, for instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of
the other even when the same misfortune, in complete unawareness, is befalling him.

Difference between Dramatic Irony and Situational Irony

Dramatic irony is a kind of irony in a situation, which the writers frequently employ in
their works. In situational irony, both the characters and the audience are fully unaware of
the implications of the real situation. In dramatic irony, the characters are oblivious of the
situation but the audience is not. For example, in ―Romeo and Juliet‖, we know much
before the characters that they are going to die.
In real life circumstances, irony may be comical, bitter or sometimes unbearably offensive

Common Examples of Irony :

 The butter is as soft as a marble piece.

 ―Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.‖

Examples of Irony from Literature : We come across the following lines in

Shakespeare‘s ―Romeo and Juliet‖, Act I, Scene V.

―Go ask his name: if he be married.

My grave is like to be my wedding bed.‖

Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was and says if he were married, then
her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that
she is going to die on her wedding bed.

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  Theme
Definition of Theme : Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a
literary work that may be stated directly or indirectly.

Major and Minor Themes : Major and minor themes are two types of themes that
appear in literary works. A major theme is an idea that a writer repeats in his work,
making it the most significant idea in a literary work. A minor theme, on the other hand,
refers to an idea that appears in a work briefly and gives way to another minor theme.
Examples of theme in Jane Austen‘s ―Pride and Prejudice‖ are matrimony, love,
friendship, and affection. The whole narrative revolves around the major theme of
matrimony. Its minor themes are love, friendship, affectation etc.

Difference between a Theme and a Subject : It is important not to confuse a theme

of a literary work with its subject. Subject is a topic which acts as a foundation for a
literary work while a theme is an opinion expressed on the subject. For example, a writer
may choose a subject of war for his story and the theme of a story may be writer‘s personal
opinion that war is a curse for humanity. Usually, it is up to the readers to explore a theme
of a literary work by analyzing characters, plot and other literary devices.

Presentation of Themes : A writer presents themes in a literary work through several

ways. A writer may express a theme through the feelings of his main character about the
subject he has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and
conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main character in
the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme.

Function of Theme : Theme is an element of a story that binds together various other
essential elements of a narrative. It is a truth that exhibits universality and stands true for
people of all cultures. Theme gives readers better understanding of the main character‘s
conflicts, experiences, discoveries and emotions as they are derived from them. Through
themes, a writer tries to give his readers an insight into how the world works or how he or
she views human life.

Examples of Themes in Literature : Love and friendship are frequently occurring

themes in literature. They generate emotional twists and turns in a narrative and can lead
to a variety of endings: happy, sad or bittersweet. The following are famous literary works
with love and friendship themes:

 Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare

 Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen
 Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

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  Consonance

Definition : Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants

within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick succession such as in
pitter, patter. It is classified as a literary term used in both poetry as well as prose. For
instance, the words chuckle, fickle, and kick are consonant with one and other due to the
existence of common interior consonant sounds (/ck/).

The device of consonance needs to be distinguished from alliteration. In contrast to

alliteration, consonance involves repetition of consonant sounds only.

Functions of Consonance : The use of consonance provides the structure of poetry

with a rhyming effect. The writer normally employs the tool of consonance for the purpose
of reiterating the significance of an idea or theme. Further, the use of the device makes the
structure of poetry or prose appealing for the reader. The poet generally makes use of
consonance in an attempt to underscore the emotions behind their words that simple words
cannot convey. Furthermore, the use of consonance adds a lyrical feeling to the poetry that
otherwise cannot be added.

Common Examples of Consonance :

 The ship has sailed to the far off shores.

 She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year.
 Shelley sells shells by the seashore.

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  Assonance
Definition : Assonance takes place when two or more words close to one another repeat
the same vowel sound but start with different consonant sounds.

For instance,

―Men sell the wedding bells.‖

The same vowel sound of the short vowel ―-e-‖ repeats itself in almost all the words
excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds but start with
different consonant sounds unlike alliteration that involves repetition of the same
consonant sounds.

Function of Assonance : Similar to any other literary device, assonance also has a
very important role to play in both poetry and prose. Writers use it as a tool to enhance a
musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme, which consequently
enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition, it helps writers to develop a
particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.

Example of Assonance in Literature : William Wordsworth employs assonance to

create an internal rhyme in his poem ―Daffodils‖:

―I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o‗er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze…‖

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  Pathos

Definition : Pathos is a quality of an experience in life or a work of art that stirs up

emotions of pity, sympathy and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures
or even with gestures of the body.

Pathos is an important tool of persuasion in arguments. Pathos is a method of convincing

people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response. Analyzing examples of
pathos, one would come to the conclusion that it differs from other ―ingredients of
persuasion‖ namely ―Ethos‖ and ―logos‖. Ethos means convincing others through the
credibility of a persuader, while Logos is a method to convince others by employing logic
and reason.

Function of Pathos : We humans are emotional beings and writers know it very well.
They introduce pathos in their works to touch upon our delicate sensations such as pity,
sympathy, sorrow and, consequently, try to develop an emotional connection with readers.

In addition, emotions are part of real life. Thus, by giving pathos expression in their works,
writers bring their narratives, characters and themes closer to real life. Furthermore, the
use of pathos by a debater in an argument appeals to people emotionally, making it a tool
to convince people and change their opinions.

Common Examples of Pathos : For a better understanding of the subject, let us

examine a few pathos examples from daily conversations:

 ―If we do not leave this place soon, we will end up yelling for help. We do not
see anyone to help us here. So, leave this place and live‖- the statement
evokes emotions of fear.
 Referring to a country as ―motherland‖ stirs up patriotic feelings in individuals
living in that country or state.

Example of Pathos in Literature : In Act V of Shakespeare‘s ―Romeo and Juliet‖.

 ―Then she is well, and nothing can be ill.

Her body sleeps in Capels‘ monument,
And her immortal part with angels lives.
I saw her laid low in her kindred‘s vaul‖

Romeos‘s servant Balthasar invokes pity among the audience, when he informs Romeo,
who was waiting impatiently to hear about Juliet, that Juliet is dead and is buried in her
family‘s death. We feel sorry for the untimely death of Juliet and her heartbroken Romeo.

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  Diction

Definition of Diction : Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing

determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer.

Diction or choice of words separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a
number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should
be appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be
such that the listener or readers understand easily.

Types of Diction : Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and
settings. Therefore, we come across various types of diction. It may be ―formal‖ where
formal words are used in formal situations e.g. press conferences, presentations etc.
Similarly, we use ―informal‖ diction in informal situations like writing or talking to our
friends. Moreover, a ―colloquial‖ diction uses words common in everyday speech. ―Slang‖
is the use of words that are impolite or newly coined.

Function of Diction : In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a

typical mood, tone and atmosphere to their readers. A writer‘s choice of words and his
selection of graphic words not only affects the reader‘s attitude but also conveys the
writer‘s feelings toward the literary work. Moreover, poetry is known for its unique diction
that separates it from prose. Usually, a poetic diction is marked by the use of figures of
speech, rhyming words etc.

Example of Diction in Literature : In sharp contrast to Keats , who used to

achieve a certain effect by using formal diction , John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem
―The Sun Rising‖:

 ―Busy old fool, unruly Sun,

Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on us?
Must to thy motions lovers‘ seasons run?
Saucy pedantic wretch,‖

Treating the sun as a real human being, the poet speaks to the sun in an informal way using
colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because the sun has appeared to spoil the good
time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the ―saucy pedantic sun‖ to go away.

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  Satire

Definition of Satire : Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize

foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society by using humor, irony,
exaggeration or ridicule. It intends to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and
foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose
and condemn their corruption.

A writer may point a satire toward a person, a country or even the entire world. Usually, a
satire is a comical piece of writing which makes fun of an individual or a society to expose
its stupidity and shortcomings. In addition, he hopes that those he criticizes will improve
their characters by overcoming their weaknesses.

Satire and Irony : Satire and irony are interlinked. Irony is the difference between
what is said or done and what is actually meant. Therefore, writers frequently employ
satire to point at the dishonesty and silliness of individuals and society and criticize them
by ridiculing them.

Function of Satire : The role of satire is to ridicule or criticize those vices in the
society, which the writer considers a threat to civilization. The writer considers it his
obligation to expose these vices for the betterment of humanity. Therefore, the function of
satire is not to make others laugh at persons or ideas they make fun of. It intends to warn
the public and to change their opinions about the prevailing corruption/conditions in
society.

Examples of Satire in Literature :

 Alexander Pope‘s The Rape of the Lock is an example of poetic satire in which he
has satirized the upper middle class of eighteenth century England. It exposes the
vanity of young fashionable ladies and gentlemen and the frivolity of their actions.
 onathan Swift‘s Gulliver Travels is one of the finest satirical works in English
Literature. Swift relentlessly satirizes politics, religion, and Western Culture.

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  Symbolism
Definition : Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving
them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense.

Symbolism can take different forms. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word
spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, ―smile‖ is a symbol of
friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the
feeling of affection which that person has for you.

Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. ―A chain‖, for
example, may stand for ―union‖ as well as ―imprisonment‖. Thus, symbolic meaning of an
object or an action is understood by when, where and how it is used. It also depends on
who reads them.

Function of Symbolism : Symbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of

meanings to his work: a literal one that is self-evident and the symbolic one whose meaning
is far more profound than the literal one. The symbolism, therefore, gives universality to
the characters and the themes of a piece of literature. Symbolism in literature evokes
interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an insight of the writer‘s mind on how
he views the world and how he thinks of common objects and actions, having broader
implications.
Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life :
In our daily life, we can easily identify objects, which can be taken as examples of symbol
such as the following:
 The dove is a symbol of peace.
 A red rose or red color stands for love or romance.
 Black is a symbol that represents evil or death.
Example of Symbolism in Literature :
We find symbolic value in Shakespeare‘s famous monologue in his play As you Like It :

 ―All the world‘s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
they have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,‖

The above lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in course of their life
perform different roles. ―A stage‖ here symbolizes the world and ―players‖ is a symbol for
human beings.

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  Blank Verse

Definition : Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in

iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each
line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones and five of
which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as un-rhymed iambic pentameter.

Features of Blank Verse :

 Blank verse poetry has no fixed number of lines.

 It has a conventional meter that is used for verse drama and long narrative poems.
 It is often used in descriptive and reflective poems and dramatic monologues — the
poems in which a single character delivers his thoughts in the form of a speech.
 Blank verse can be composed in any kind of meter, such as iamb, trochee, spondee
and dactyl.

Types of Blank Verse Poetry :

 Iamb pentameter blank verse (unstressed/stressed syllables)

 Trochee blank verse (stressed/unstressed syllables)
 Anapest blank verse (unstressed/unstressed/stressed syllables)
 Dactyl blank verse (stressed/unstressed/unstressed syllables)

Function of Blank Verse : Originated from Latin and Greek sources, blank verse is
widely employed as a vehicle in English dramatic poetry and prose to create specific
grandeur. Blank verse has similarity to normal speech but it is written in a variety of
patterns, which bring interruptions such as pauses. Therefore, the intention is to produce a
formal rhythmical pattern that creates musical effects. Hence, it tends to capture the
attention of the readers and the listeners, which is its primary objective.

Examples of Blank Verse from Literature :

 Hamlet is a perfect example of a typical blank verse. It is written in iambic

pentameter. Shakespeare employed the deliberate effort to use the syllables in a
particular way.
 Marlowe developed this potential in the late 16th century. He was the first author
who exploited the potential of blank verse for writing a powerful speech in his play
Dr.Faustus

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  Heroic Couplet

Definition: Heroic couplets are rhyming pairs of verse in iambic pentameter.

What on earth did these couplets do to become heroic? Did they pull a cat out of a tree or
save an old lady from a burning building? In fact, no.

They're called heroic because in the old days of English poetry they were used to talk about
the trials and adventures of heroes. Heroic couplets totally ruled the poetry scene for a long
time, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, when a dude named Alexander Pope was
rocking the neoclassical world with works like "Sound and Sense," which just so happens
to be written in heroic couplets.

Use of the heroic couplet was pioneered by Geoffrey Chaucer in the Legend of Good
Women and the Canterbury Tales , and was perfected by John Dryden in the Restoration
Age.

Example of Couplets in Literature :

 (One Happy Moment by John Dryden)

This poem an example of closed heroic couplets. The lines are following iamb pentameter
pattern. All the couplets are forming complete separate thoughts and ideas, and the rhyme
scheme is perfect.

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  Prologue

Definition of Prologue : The prologue, Greek prologos (meaning: before word), is

an opening of a story that establishes the setting and gives background details.

Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story and connects it
to the main story. Similarly, it is serves as a means to introduce characters of a story and
throws light on their roles. In its modern sense, a prologue acts as a separate entity and is
not considered part of the current story that a writer ventures to tell.

Function of Prologue : As previously mentioned, the primary function of a

prologue is to let the readers/audience be aware of the earlier part of the story and enable
them to relate it to the main story. This literary device is also a means to present characters
and establish their roles.

Prologue V/S Epilogue : Prologue‘ A passage before the actual beginning of the story
that can be used to introduce characters, explain past events or history that might need to be
explained, or capture the reader's attention. It's the part you can use to provide any
information relevant to your story without have to go through flashbacks or unneeded
conversation in your first few chapters.

Epilogue‘ The final section of a novel or story, which provides a comment or conclusion to
what has happened. It follows the book's climax, and ties up any loose knots. The
resolution, then, might occur in the epilogue.

Example :

 In drama, the prologue comes in the form of a small speech addressed to the
audience before the start of the action of the play. Shakespeare's Romeo and
Juliet (which, we should point out, is probably the most famous prologue of all
time).
 In English literature, a prologue was employed in non-dramatic fiction as well. One
of the earliest example is Chaucer‘s A Prologue to Canterbury Tales. His prologue
was built on the conventional pattern. He used it to introduce all his characters or
pilgrims in dramatic details before each of them told their story on their way to
Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Beckett.

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  Extended Metaphor

Definition : The term extended metaphor refers to a comparison between two

unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a
poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence and sometimes consists of a full
paragraph.

Functions of Extended Metaphor : Extended metaphor provides the writer with

an opportunity to make a larger comparison between two things or notions. The device of
extended metaphor is usually employed in prose and poetry to project a specific impression
regarding things or notions in the reader‘s mind.

Examples of Extended Metaphor in Prose :

 ―All the world‘s a stage, and all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts.‖
(Shakespeare‘s As You Like It)

Shakespeare has remarkably compared ―earth‖ to a ―stage‖ in the extract mentioned above.

Examples in Poetry :

―Hope is the thing with feathers

That perches in the soul,
And sings the tune–without the words,
And never stops at all,

―And sweetest in the gale is heard;

And sore must be the storm
That could abash the little bird
That kept so many warm.. ( so on … )

(Emily Dickinson)

In the poem given above, Emily Dickinson has remarkably made use of the tool of extended
metaphor by comparing ―hope‖ with the ―little bird‖.

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  Pastoral elegy

Definition : The pastoral elegy is a poem about both death and idyllic rural life.
Often, the pastoral elegy features shepherds. The genre is actually a subgroup of pastoral
poetry, as the elegy takes the pastoral elements and relates them to expressing the poet's
grief at a loss.

Explanation : Pastoral elegy poetry flourished in Europe between the Renaissance

and the 19th century. However, modern poets, such as J.V. Cunningham and Alan Dugan,
have re-imaged the elegy in both subject and form, and pastoral elegies have recently
shown up in more satirical forms. However, other modern poets, such as William Carlos
Williams and W. H. Auden, have written poems that maintain the traditional form and
features of the pastoral elegy. Andrew Hudgins has an interesting elegy in which he mourns
the lonely gap that exists between him and his still-living father.

Example :

 ―Lycidas‖

Written by John Milton, "Lycidas" is a pastoral elegy that first appeared in a 1638
collection of elegies in English and Latin.

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