Automobile Component

Design Department of

(01AE0504) Automobile
Engineering

Module - 2
Design Considerations
Prof. Nikunj Mashru
 Machine Design

Machine Design can be defined as the process by which

Introduction resources or energy is converted into useful work.
 The machine design can be classified as follows :

1. Adaptive design:
The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the existing
designs of the product. Ex.: Engine, Bicycle etc..
Classification
of machine
2. Development design:

design This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability
in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new
material or different method of manufacture. Ex.: Electronic components

3. New design:

This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking. Ex. Power Plant setup
  The designs, depending upon the methods used, can
be classified as follows :

1. Rational design

2. Empirical design
Classification
3. Industrial design
of machine
design 4. Optimum design

5. System design

6. Element design

7. Computer aided design

 Basic
Procedure
of Design
of Machine
Element
 Selection of a proper material for the machine
component is one of the most important steps in the
process of machine design.

The best material is one which will serve the desired

SELECTION purpose at minimum cost.

OF The factors which should be considered while selecting

MATERIAL the material for a machine component are as follows:

1. Availability

2. Cost

3. Mechanical Properties

4. Manufacturing Considerations
 ➢Strength: Strength is the ability of a material to resist the
intensity of applied load.

➢Elasticity: Ability to regain its original shape & size after

deformation, when the external forces are removed.
Mechanical
➢Plasticity: Ability to retain the deformation produced
Properties of under the load on a permanent basis.
Material
➢Stiffness: Ability to resist deformation under the action of
an external load.

➢Toughness: Ability to absorb energy before fracture takes

place.
 ➢Malleability: Malleability is the ability of a metal to be
hammered into thin sheets. Malleability is the ability to
deform easily upon the application of a compressive force.

Mechanical ➢Ductility: Ductility is when a solid material stretches under

Properties of tensile stress. If ductile, a material may be stretched into a

Material wire.

➢Brittleness: A material is brittle if, when subjected to

stress, it breaks without significant deformation.

➢Hardness: Resistance to penetration or permanent

deformation.
 ➢Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated
stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known

Mechanical as fatigue.

Properties of ➢Creep: The slow and progressive deformation of a

Material material with time at constant stress is called creep.

➢Resilience: It is the capacity of a material to absorb

energy elastically.
  Manufacturing is the process to convert
available material into useful component of
product.
Manufacturing  Manufacturing processes can be broadly
considerations
classified into the following categories
in design
 Casting process

 Deformation process

 Material removal or cutting processes

  The optimum manufacturing methods is
selected by considering the following factors
 Material of the component
Manufacturing
considerations  Cost of manufacturing
in design  Geometrical shape of the component

 Surface finish and tolerance required

 Volume of production
  Size of the sand cast as small as 10 g and as large
as 200000 kg.

 The cast component are stable and rigid compare

with machined or forged part.
Design
considerations  Typical Examples of cast component are machine
of casting tool bed and structure, cylinder block of internal
combustion engine, pump and gear box housing.

 Poor shaping of cast iron component can adversely

affect its strength more than the composition of the
material.
 1. Always Keep the Stressed Areas of the Part in
Compression

 Cast iron has more compressive strength than tensile

strength.

 The balanced sections with equal areas in tension and

Design compression are not suitable for cast iron component.
considerations
of casting
  When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping device
such as a tie rod or a bearing cap as illustrated in figure
should be considered.

 The clamping device relieves the cast iron components from

tensile stresses.

Design
considerations
of casting

(a) Original Component (b) Use of Tie-rod

(c) Use of Bearing-cap
 2. Round All External Corners

It increases the endurance limit of the component and

reduces the formation of brittle chilled edges.

When the metal in the corner cools faster than the

Design metal adjacent to the corner, brittle chilled edges are
considerations formed due to iron carbide.
of casting
 3. Wherever Possible, the Section Thickness throughout
should be Held as Uniform as Compatible with Overall Design
Considerations.

Abrupt changes in the cross-section result in high stress

concentration.

Design If the thickness is to be varied at all, the change should be

considerations gradual as illustrated in figure.

of casting
 4. Avoid Concentration of Metal at the Junctions

Even after the metal on surface solidify, the central

portion still remain in molten stage.

That result in shrinkage cavity or blow hole may

appear at the center.
Design To Avoid concentration of metal, provide a cored
considerations opening in web and ribs, or by staging the ribs and
of casting webs.
 5. Avoid Very Thin Sections

The minimum section thickness is depends upon the

process of casting.

The minimum thickness for gray cast iron component is

Design about 7 mm for a part up to 500 mm long which

considerations gradually increase to 20 mm for large and heavy

of casting casting.

6. Shot Blast the Parts wherever Possible

The shot blasting process improves the endurance limit

of the component, particularly in case of thin sections.
 7. A minimum draft of 3° should be provided, as
illustrated in figure.

Patterns without a draft make a mould difficult and

costly.
Design
considerations
of casting
 8. Outside bosses should be omitted to facilitate a
straight pattern draft as shown in figure.

Design
considerations
of casting
 9. Oval-shaped holes are preferred with larger
dimensions along the direction of forces.

Design
considerations
of casting
 10. The wall adjacent to the drilled hole should have a
thickness equivalent to the thickness of the main body.

Design
considerations
of casting
  Forged components are used under the following
circumstances:

(i) Moving components requiring light weight to reduce inertia

Design
forces, e.g., connecting rod of IC engines.
considerations
of Forging (ii) Components subjected to excessive stresses, e.g., aircraft
structures.

(iii) Small components that must be supported by other

structures or parts, e.g., hand tools and handles.
 (iv) Components requiring pressure tightness where the part
must be free from internal cracks, e.g., valve bodies.

(v) Components whose failure would cause injury and

Design
expensive damage are forged for safety.
considerations
of Forging
 1. While designing a forging, advantage should be taken
of the direction of fibre lines.

 The grain structure of a crankshaft manufactured by the

three principal methods, casting, machining and forging.
Design
considerations  While designing a forging, the profile is selected in such
of Forging a way that fibre lines are parallel to tensile forces and
perpendicular to shear forces.

 Machining that cuts deep into the forging should be

avoided, otherwise the fibre lines are broken and the part
becomes weak.
 Design considerations of Forging

 There are no fibre lines in the cast component and the grains are scattered.

 In case of a component prepared by machining methods, such as turning or

milling, the original fibre lines of rolled stock are broken.

 It is only in case of forged parts that the fibre lines are arranged in a favourable
way to withstand stresses due to external load.
 2. The forged component should be provided with an
adequate draft.

 The draft angle is provided for an easy removal of the

part from the die impressions.

 The angles α and β are drafts for outside and inside

Design surfaces.
considerations
of Forging
 Design considerations of Forging

 As the material cools, it shrinks, and a gap is formed between the outer surface of
the forging and the inner surfaces of the die cavity, with the result that the draft
angle for the outer surface is small.

 On the other hand, when the material cools, its inner surfaces tend to shrink and
grip the projecting surface of the die, with the result that the draft angle for the
inner surface is large.

 For steels, the recommended values of α and β are 7° and 10° respectively.
 3. Position of parting line and forging plane.

 The parting line is a plane in which the two halves of

the forging dies meet and in which flash is formed. A
forging plane is a plane, which is perpendicular to the
die motion.
Design  In most of the cases, the parting line and forging
considerations plane coincide.
of Forging
 Design considerations of Forging

 There are two basic principles for the location of the parting line — The parting line
should be in one plane as far as possible and It should divide the forging into two
equal parts.

 A parting line that divides the forging into two halves ensures the minimum depth
to which the steel must flow to fill the die impressions.
 Design considerations of Forging

 When the parting line is broken, as shown in figure, it results in unbalanced

forging forces, which tend to displace the two die halves.

 Such forces are balanced either by a counter lock or by forging the two
components simultaneously in a mirror-image position.
 4. The forging should be provided with adequate fillet
and corner radii.

 A small radius results in folds on the inner surface

and cracks on the outer surface.
Design
 A large radius is undesirable, particularly if the forged
considerations
component is to be machined, during which the fibre
of Forging
lines are broken.

 Sharp corners result in increasing difficulties in filling

the material, excessive forging forces, and poor die
life.
  The magnitude of fillet radius depends upon the
material, the size of forging and the depth of the die
cavity.

 For moderate size steel forgings, the minimum corner

Design radii are 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 mm for depths up to 10, 25
considerations and 50 mm respectively.
of Forging
 5. Thin sections and ribs should be avoided in forged
components.

 A thin section cools at a faster rate in the die cavity

and requires excessive force for plastic deformation.
Design
 It reduces the die life, and the removal of the
considerations
component from the die cavities becomes difficult.
of Forging
 For steel forgings, the recommended value of the
minimum section thickness is 3 mm.
 Machined components are used under the following
circumstances:

(i) Components requiring precision and high

Design dimensional accuracy

considerations (ii) Components requiring flatness, roundness,

of Machined parallelism or circularity for their proper functioning
Parts (iii) Components of interchangeable assembly

(iv) Components, which are in relative motion with

each other or with some fixed part
 The general principles for the design of machined parts
are as follows:

1. Avoid machining
Design Components made by casting or forming methods are
considerations usually cheaper.
of Machined 2. Specify liberal tolerances
Parts
3. Avoid the sharp corner

4. Design rigid parts

 5. Avoid shoulders and undercuts

6. Avoid hard materials

7. Use Stock Dimensions

Design Using stock dimensions eliminates machining

considerations operations.
of Machined
Parts
 • The temperature at which new stress-free grains are formed in
the metal is called the recrystallization temperature.

• There are two types of metal deformation methods, namely,

hot working and cold working.
Hot and Cold
Working of • Metal deformation processes that are carried out above the

Metals recrystallization temperature are called hot working

processes.

• Metal deformation processes that are carried out below the

recrystallization temperature are called cold working
processes.
 1. Hot working reduces strain hardening.

2. Hot rolled components have higher toughness and ductility.

They have better resistance to shocks and vibrations.

Advantages of 3. Hot working increases the strength of metal by refining the

Hot Working grain structure.
Process
4. Hot working reduces residual stresses in the component.
 1. Hot working results in rapid oxidation of the surface due to
high temperature.

2. Hot rolled components have poor surface finish than cold

Disadvantages rolled parts.
of Hot Working
3. Hot working requires expensive tools.
Process
 1. Cold rolled components have higher hardness and strength.

2. Cold worked components have better surface finish than

hot rolled parts.

Advantages of 3. The dimensions of cold rolled parts are very accurate.

Cold Working 4. The tooling required for cold working is comparatively
Process
inexpensive.
 1. Cold working reduces toughness and ductility. Such
components have poor resistance to shocks and vibrations.

2. Cold working induces residual stresses in the component.

Disadvantages
Proper heat treatment is required to relieve these stresses.
of Cold
Working
Process
  Select the material with high weld-ability.
 Low carbon steel is more easily welded than a high
carbon steel.
 Use minimum number of welds
Design  Distortion is serious problem in welded assemblies.
Considerations  Uneven expansion and contraction in this adjoining area
and parent metal result into distortion.
of welded  When distortion is prevented by clamping fixtures
assemblies residual stresses are build up in the parts and annealing is
required to relieve this stress.
 Do not shape the parts based on casting or forging
 Welded assembly much lighter then the casting
 It should reflect light weight characteristics, flexibility
and economy of the material.
  Use standard components
 Designer should specify standard size for plates, bar and
rolled section.
 Non-standard size involve frame cutting of plate and
addition welding.
Design  Avoid Straps, Laps and Stiffeners
Considerations  Select proper location for weld
of welded  Welded joint should be located in area where stresses and
assemblies deformation are not critical.
 Also it should be located at such a place that welder and
welding machine has unobstructed access to the location.
 Design
Considerations
of welded
assemblies
 Design
Considerations
of welded
assemblies
 Design
Considerations
of welded
assemblies
 Design
Considerations
of welded
assemblies
  The best strategy to lower product cost is to recognize the
importance of manufacturing early in design stage.

1. The guideline for DFMA

Design for
manufacture  Reduce the part count.

and assembly  Design engineer try for product design that uses
[DFMA] minimum number of parts.

 Fewer parts result into the lower cost. It also make

assembly simpler and less defects.
 2. Make parts self locating.

3. Try to design parts with symmetry.

 If symmetry is not possible then make it obvious that the part

needs a specific orientation.
Design for
manufacture 4. Avoid parts that are difficult to handle, i.e. too small, sharp,
and assembly fragile, etc.
[DFMA]
5. Avoid parts that only connect. Try and bring the other parts
together to eliminate the connection.

6. Avoid adjustments, In general, adjustments compensate for

poor design.
 Design for
manufacture
and assembly
[DFMA]
  Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man-
machine-working environment relationship.

 The aim of ergonomics is to reduce the operational difficulties

Ergonomic present in a man–machine joint system, and thereby reduce
Considerations the resulting physical and mental stresses.
in Design  Ergonomics is related to the comfort between the man and
machine while operating the machine.

 The objective of ergonomics is to make the machine fit for

user.
 Ergonomic
Considerations
in Design
  From design considerations, the topics of ergonomic studies
are as follows:

(i) Anatomical factors in the design of a driver’s seat

Ergonomic (ii) Layout of instrument dials and display panels for accurate
Considerations perception by the operators
in Design
(iii) Design of hand levers and hand wheels

(iv) Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations

 Ergonomic
Considerations
in Design
  External appearance is an important feature, which not only
gives style and shine to the product but also dominates sale in
the market.

Aesthetic  This is particularly true for consumer durables like

Considerations automobiles, household appliances and audiovisual
in Design equipment.
 Aesthetic
Considerations
in Design
 Aesthetic
Considerations
in Design
  When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at
stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of
a material is known as fatigue.

Fatigue  Endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum

Considerations amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard
in Design specimen can sustain for an unlimited no. of cycles without
fatigue failure.
 1. Surface finish factor (machined parts have different finish)

2. Size factor (larger parts greater probability of finding

defects)
Fatigue 3. Reliability (accounts for random variation)
Considerations
4. Modifying factor (differences in loading types)
in Design
5. Operating Temperature factor
 1. Scoring [ Scratching of material surface ]

2. Scuffing [ Surface damage caused by the shearing ]

3. Abrasion [ Inclusion of hard particles between two sliding

Wear
or rolling surfaces , So material is removed ]
Considerations
in Design 4. Pitting [ Cavities or "holes" are produced in the material ]

5. Corrosion
 1. Heat Capacity

2. Thermal expansion

3. Melting Point
Thermal
Considerations 4. Thermal Shock resistance
in Design
5. Heat resistance
  Creep is defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated
temperature and constant stress.

 It follows, then, that a failure from such a condition is referred

Creep to as a creep failure or, occasionally, a stress rupture.
Considerations  The temperature at which creep begins depends on the alloy
in Design composition.
 Creep
Considerations
in Design
  A very useful information concerning the behavior of material and its
usefulness for engineering applications can be obtained by making a tension
test and plotting a curve showing the variation of stress with respect to strain.
A tension test is one of the simplest and basic tests and determines values of
Engineering number of parameters concerned with mechanical properties of materials like
Materials strength, ductility and toughness. The following information can be obtained
from a tension test:
STRESS–STRAIN
DIAGRAMS  (i) Proportional limit (ii) Elastic limit

 (iii) Modulus of elasticity (iv) Yield strength

 (v) Ultimate tension strength (vi) Modulus of resilience

 (vii) Modulus of toughness (viii) Percentage elongation

 (ix) Percentage reduction in area

  Cast iron is a generic term, which refers to a family of materials that differ
widely in their mechanical properties. By definition, cast iron is an alloy of
iron and carbon, containing more than 2% of carbon. In addition to carbon,
cast iron contains other elements like silicon, manganese, Sulphur and
phosphorus. There is a basic difference between steels and cast iron. Steels
usually contain less than 1% carbon while cast iron normally contains 2 to
CAST IRON 4% carbon. Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is as follows:

 carbon = 3.0 – 4.0%

 silicon = 1.0 – 3.0%

 manganese = 0.5 – 1.0% Sulphur = up to 0.1% phosphorus = up to 0.1% iron

= remainder
  The mechanical properties of cast iron components are
inferior to the parts, which are machined from rolled steels.
However, even with this drawback, cast iron offers the only
choice under certain conditions. From design considerations,
cast iron offers the following advantages:
CAST  It is available in large quantities and is produced on a mass
scale. The tooling required for the casting process is relatively
IRON simple and inexpensive. This reduces the cost of cast iron
products.
 Cast iron components can be given any complex shape without
involving costly machining operations.
  Cast iron has a higher compressive strength.
 The compressive strength of cast iron is three to five times that
of steel. This is an advantage in certain applications.
 Cast iron has an excellent ability to damp vibrations, which
makes it an ideal choice for machine tool guides and frames.
CAST  Cast iron has more resistance to wear even
conditions of boundary lubrication.
under the

IRON  The mechanical properties of cast iron parts do not change

between room temperature
 and 350°C.
 Cast iron parts have low notch sensitivity.
  Cast iron has certain drawbacks. It has a poor tensile strength
compared to steel. Cast iron parts are section-sensitive.
 Even with the same chemical composition, the tensile strength
of a cast iron part decreases as the thickness of the section
increases.
 This is due to the low cooling rate of thick sections. For thin

CAST sections, the cooling rate is high, resulting in increased hardness

and strength.
 Cast iron does not offer any plastic deformation before failure
IRON and exhibits no yield point. The failure of cast iron parts is
sudden and total.
 Cast iron parts are, therefore, not suitable for applications where
permanent deformation is preferred over fracture.
 Cast iron is brittle and has poor impact resistance. The
machinability of cast iron parts is poor compared to the parts
made of steel.
 Cast irons are classified on the basis of distribution of carbon content in their
microstructure.

 There are three popular types of cast iron—grey, malleable and ductile. Grey cast

 iron is formed when the carbon content in the alloy exceeds the amount that can
be dissolved.

 Therefore, some part of carbon precipitates and remains present as ‘graphite

flakes’ distributed in a matrix of ferrite or pearlite or their combination.

 When a component of grey cast iron is broken, the fractured surface has a grey
appearance due to the graphite flakes. Grey cast iron is specified by the symbol
FG followed by the tensile strength in N/mm2 for a 30-mm section.

 For example, FG200, in general, means a grey cast iron with an ultimate tensile
strength of 200 N/mm2.
 Grey cast iron is used for automotive components such as cylinder block, brake drum,
clutch plate, cylinder and cylinder head, gears and housing of gear box, flywheel and
machine frame, bed and guide.

 White cast iron is formed when most of the carbon content in the alloy forms iron
carbide and there are no graphite flakes.

 Malleable cast iron is first cast as white cast iron and then converted into malleable
cast iron by heat treatment.

 In malleable cast iron, the carbon is present in the form of irregularly shaped nodules
of graphite called ‘temper’ carbon.

 There are three basic types of malleable cast iron—blackheart, pearlitic and
whiteheart—which are designated by symbols BM, PM and WM, respectively and
followed by minimum tensile strength in N/mm2.
 For example,
 (i) BM 350 is blackheart malleable cast iron
 with a minimum tensile strength of 350 N/
 mm2;
 (ii) PM 600 is pearlitic malleable cast iron with
 a minimum tensile strength of 600 N/mm2;
 and
 (iii) WM 400 is whiteheart malleable cast
 iron with a minimum tensile strength of 400
 N/mm2.
 Blackheart malleable cast iron has excellent castability and machinability. It
is used for brake shoes, pedal, levers, wheel hub, axle housing and door
hinges.

 Whiteheart malleable cast iron is particularly suitable for the manufacture of

thin castings which require ductility.

 It is used for pipe fittings, switch gear equipment, fittings for bicycles and
motorcycle frames. Pearlitic malleable iron castings can be hardened by heat
treatment.

 It is used for general engineering components with specific dimensional

tolerances.
 Ductile cast iron is also called nodular cast iron or spheroidal graphite cast
iron. In ductile cast iron, carbon is present in the form of spherical nodules
called ‘spherulites’ or ‘globules’ in a relatively ductile matrix.

 When a component of ductile cast iron is broken, the fractured surface has a
bright appearance like steel. Ductile cast iron is designated by the symbol SG
(spheroidal

 graphite) followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 and minimum

elongation in per cent.

 For example, SG 800/2 is spheroidal graphite cast iron with a minimum

tensile strength of 800 N/mm2 and a minimum elongation of 2%. Ductile cast
iron is used for crankshaft, heavy duty gears and automobile door hinges.
Ductile cast iron combines the processing advantages of grey cast iron with
the engineering properties of steel.
  A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components.
Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of
the following three properties:

BIS SYSTEM OF  (i) tensile strength;

 (ii) carbon content; and
DESIGNATION  (iii) composition of alloying elements.
OF  Steels, which are standardized on the basis of their tensile strength without
STEELS detailed chemical composition, are specified by two ways—a symbol Fe
followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 or a symbol FeE
followed by the yield strength in N/mm2. For example, Fe 360 indicates a
steel with a minimum tensile strength of 360 N/mm2. Similarly, FeE 250
indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250 N/mm2.
  The designation of plain carbon steel consists of

BIS  the following three quantities:

SYSTEM  a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;

OF  a letter C; and

 a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese.

DESIGNA  As an example, 55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55% carbon

TION OF and 0.4% manganese. A steel with 0.35–0.45% carbon and 0.7–
0.9%
STEELS  manganese is designated as 40C8.
  The designation of unalloyed free cutting steels

BIS  consists of the following quantities:

 a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;

SYSTEM  a letter C;
OF  a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese;

DESIGNA  a symbol ‘S’, ‘Se’, ‘Te’ or ‘Pb’ depending upon the element that is

TION OF present and which makes the steel free cutting; and

 a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of the above

STEELS element that makes the steel free cutting.
  As an example, 25C12S14 indicates a free cutting steel with 0.25%
carbon, 1.2% manganese and 0.14% Sulphur. Similarly, a free cutting
BIS steel with an average of 0.20% carbon, 1.2% manganese and 0.15%

SYSTEM lead is designated as 20C12Pb15.

 The term ‘alloy’ steel is used for low and medium alloy steels

OF containing total alloying elements not exceeding 10%. The designation

of alloy steels consists of the following quantities:
DESIGNA  a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon; and

TION OF  chemical symbols for alloying elements each followed by the figure for
its average percentage content multiplied by a factor. The multiplying
STEELS factor depends upon the alloying element.
 The values of this factor are as follows:
 In alloy steels, the symbol ‘Mn’ for manganese is included only if
the content of manganese is equal to or greater than 1%. The
chemical symbols and their figures are arranged in descending order
of their percentage content.
 As an example, 25Cr4Mo2 is an alloy steel having average 0.25%
of carbon, 1% chromium and 0.2% molybdenum. Similarly,
40Ni8Cr8V2 is an alloy steel containing average 0.4% of carbon,
2% nickel, 2% chromium and 0.2% vanadium. Consider an alloy
steel with the following composition:
 carbon = 0.12–0.18%
 silicon = 0.15–0.35%
 manganese = 0.40–0.60%
 chromium = 0.50–0.80%
 The average percentage of carbon is 0.15%, which is denoted by
the number (0.15 ¥ 100) or 15. The percentage content of silicon
and manganese is negligible and, as such, they are deleted from the
designation. The significant element is chromium and its average
percentage is 0.65. The multiplying factor for chromium is 4 and
(0.65 ¥ 4) is 2.6, which is rounded to 3. Therefore, the complete
designation of steel is 15Cr3.
 As a second example, consider a steel with the following chemical
composition:
 carbon = 0.12–0.20%
 silicon = 0.15–0.35%
 manganese = 0.60–1.00%
 nickel = 0.60–1.00%
 chromium = 0.40–0.80%
 The average percentage of carbon is 0.16% and multiplying this
value by 100, the first figure in the designation of steel is 16. The
average percentage of silicon and manganese is very small and, as
such, the symbols Si and Mn are deleted. Average percentages of
nickel and chromium are 0.8 and 0.6, respectively, and the
multiplying factor for both elements is 4. Therefore,
 nickel: 0.8 * 4 = 3.2 rounded to 3 or Ni3
 chromium: 0.6 * 4 = 2.4 rounded to 2 or Cr2.
 The complete designation of steel is 16Ni3Cr2.
 The term ‘high alloy steels’ is used for alloy steels containing more than 10% of
alloying elements.
 The designation of high alloy steels consists of the following quantities: a letter ‘X’;
a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
 chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average
percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer; and chemical symbol to
indicate a specially added element to attain desired properties, if any.
 As an example, X15Cr25Ni12 is a high alloy steel with 0.15% carbon, 25%
chromium and 12% nickel. As a second example, consider a steel with the following
chemical composition:
 carbon = 0.15–0.25%
 silicon = 0.10–0.50%
 manganese = 0.30–0.50%
 nickel = 1.5–2.5%
 chromium = 16–20%
 The average content of carbon is 0.20%, which is denoted by a number (0.20 ¥ 100)
or 20. The major alloying elements are chromium (average 18%) and nickel (average
2%). Hence, the designation of steel is X20Cr18Ni2.
  Depending upon the percentage of carbon, plain carbon steels are classified
into the following three groups:

 Low Carbon Steel Low carbon steel contains less than 0.3% carbon. It is
PLAIN popular as ‘mild steel’. Low carbon steels are soft and very ductile. They
can be easily machined and easily welded. However, due to low carbon
CARBON content, they are unresponsive to heat treatment.

STEELS  Medium Carbon Steel Medium carbon steel has a carbon content in the
range of 0.3% to 0.5%. It is popular as machinery steel. Medium carbon
steel is easily hardened by heat treatment. Medium carbon steels are
stronger and tougher as compared with low carbon steels. They can be
machined well and they respond readily to heat treatment.
 (iii) High Carbon Steel
 High carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon. They
are called hard steels or tool steels. High carbon steels
respond readily to heat treatments. When heat treated,
high carbon steels have very high strength combined
with hardness. They do not have much ductility as
compared with low and medium carbon steels. High
carbon steels are difficult to weld. Excessive hardness is
often accompanied by excessive brittleness.
 Plain carbon steels are available in the form of bar, tube,
plate, sheet and wire.