SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS

INTRODUCTION
Typical methods of fastening or joining parts include the use of such
items as bolts, nuts, cap screws, sets screw, rivets, spring retainers,
locking dives and keys.

Methods of joining parts are extremely important in the engineering

of quality design, and it is necessary to have a thorough understanding
of the performance of fasteners and joints under all conditions of use
and design.

Our purpose is to be able to select and specify suitable fasteners in

the design of machines and devices. Threaded fasteners in this case.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
THREAD STANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS
Major diameter, d- is the largest diameter
of screw thread.

Minor diameter, dr- is the smallest

diameter of screw thread.

The lead, l - is the distance the nut moves

parallel to the screw axis when the nut is
The terminology of screw threads given one turn.
include: For single threads, the lead is the same as
The pitch, p - distance between pitch. Standardized products such as bolts,
adjacent thread forms measured
nuts etc all have single threads.
parallel to thread axis.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
TYPES OF THREADS
Thread form Figure Uses
Vee General use
Square Ideal threads for power
transmission
Trapezoidal Stronger than the square
threads
Buttress Designed to handle heavy
forces in one direction
Round Useful for reduced stress
on softer connectors.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
TYPES OF THREADED FASTENINGS
There are three main types of threaded fastenings in mechanical
engineering. Read pages 371-372 (fundamentals of machine design)
for their use.

Bolts with nuts Studs Cap screw

SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
Screws are used for fastening and for transmitting power or
motion (power screws). In each case the friction developed in
the threads largely determines the action of the screw.

For transmitting power or motion the square thread is more

efficient than the Vee-threads, and the analysis illustrated here
is confined to the square threads.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
Consider the square-threaded jack, under the action
of the axial load W and a moment M applied about
the screw axis.
The screw has a lead L and mean radius r.
The force R exerted by the thread of the jack frame on
a small representative portion of the screw is shown
on the free body diagram of the screw.
If M is just sufficient to turn the screw, the thread of
the screw will slide around and up on the fixed thread
of the frame.
The angle ∅ made by R with the normal to the thread
will be angle of friction, so that tan ∅ = 𝜇
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
The moment of R about the vertical axis of the screw is 𝑅𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(∅ + 𝛼),
and the total moment due to all reactions on the threads is
σ 𝑅𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(∅ + 𝛼).

Since 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(∅ + 𝛼) appears in each term, we may factor it out.

The moment equilibrium equation for the screw becomes
M = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(∅ + 𝛼) σ 𝑅

Equilibrium of forces in the axial direction further requires

W = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅ + 𝛼)] σ 𝑅

Combining the expressions for M and W gives M= 𝑊𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅ + 𝛼)

SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
Determination of helix angle 𝛼 is done by
unwrapping the thread of the screw for one
complete turn where we immediately see that
𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = , ∴ 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐿Τ2𝜋𝑟)
2𝜋𝑟

We may use the unwrapped thread of the screw

as an alternative model to simulate the action of
the entire screw. The equivalent force required
to push the movable thread up to fixed incline is
𝑃 = 𝑀Τ𝑟, and the triangle of the force vector
giving above equation immediately.
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
If the moment M is removed, the friction force
changes direction so that ∅ is measured to the
other side of the normal to the thread. The screw
will remain in place and be self locking, provided
that α < ∅, and will be in a verge of unwinding if
α = ∅.
To lower the load by unwinding the screw, we
must reverse the direction of M as long as α < ∅.
This condition is illustrated in Fig (b) for our From the triangle of
simulated thread on the fixed incline, and we see vectors. Moment required
that an equivalent force P=M/r must be applied to lower screw:
to the thread to pull it down the incline. M= 𝑊𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅ − 𝛼)
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS

If 𝛼 > ∅, the screw will unwind by

itself, and we see fig (c) that the
moment required to prevent
unwinding would be;

M= 𝑊𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛼 − ∅)
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
Corrections of friction coefficient due to flank angle
The previous developed equations apply only for
square threads, but for vee-form threads they FA
FA
must be modified.
′ 𝐹𝑁
Force normal to the flank: 𝐹𝑁 = 𝜑
ൗ
cos( 2)
where, 𝜑is the thread angle.
𝜑
The frictional force created by the effective FN
normal force: FN
𝐹𝑁 ′
𝜑/2
𝐹𝑅 = 𝜇 𝜑 = 𝜇 𝐹𝑁 F N‘
cos( ൗ2)
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS

Effective frictional coefficient

′ 𝜇 ′ −1 𝜇
𝜇 = and ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
cos(𝜑ൗ2) cos 𝜑ൗ2

Therefore the moment required to raise the load (tightening) or

lowering load (releasing) is M =𝑊𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛼 ± ∅′ )

+: for raising load (tightening)

-: for lowering load (releasing)
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
Thread efficiency
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Definition: 𝜂 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

For one turn:

Work output= 𝑊𝐿 = 𝑊 ∗ 2𝜋𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
Work input=P ∗ 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑊 ∗ 2𝜋𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 + ∅′

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
Hence, 𝜂 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼+∅′
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
TYPES OF BOLTS, NUTS AND WASHERS

There are different types of bolts, nuts and washers designed

for various different uses.

Their classification depend on their shape, size, function and

whether they are threaded or not. Please read through
section 10.2 of the fundamentals of machine design (pages
369-370) for more details.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
Torque in the head of bolt during tightening and releasing
da
Moment to be applied:
𝑑𝐴ൗ
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇 + 𝐹𝐴 𝜇 2

𝑑2ൗ ′ 𝑑𝐴ൗ
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹𝐴 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛼 ± ∅ ) + 𝐹𝐴 𝜇 2
d2
Note: + for tightening
- for releasing
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
MECHANICS OF SCREW THREADS
For fasteners with metric threads: 𝑑𝑎 +𝐷𝐻
And 𝑑𝐴 =
tan(𝛼)±tan(∅′ ) 2
Since tan 𝛼 + ∅′ = 𝐷𝐻 =hole diameter
1±tan 𝛼 tan(∅′ )
tan ∅′ = 𝜇′ 𝑑𝑎 =diameter of the contact surface
tan 𝛼 < 0.06 ≅ 2.3𝑜 − 3.5𝑜 𝑑𝑎 =1.5d
Hence for tightening:
tan 𝛼 ± ∅′ = 𝜇′ ± tan 𝛼 𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑑𝑎 + 𝐷𝐻
Replace 𝜇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≅ 𝜇 ≅ 𝜇′ ≅ 0.5𝐹𝐴 𝑑2 𝜇𝑡𝑜𝑡 1+ + tan 𝛼
2𝑑2
𝜇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≅ 0.14 (for normal 𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡 must not exceed the maximum
applications). allowable pre-stressing torque.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
JOINT STRENGTH AND STRESS CALCULATIONS
A threaded joint is able to break at the:
-Head
-Shank
-Nut

A properly dimensioned joint breaks in the shank when it is overloaded.

The threads lengths are selected accordingly (see databook pg. 121)

The standardised dimensions of the bolts, nuts, through and threaded

holes can be found on pgs. 120-125 of the databook.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
STRESSES IN THE THREAD
From the diagram:
Shear stress
Bending stress } ′
𝑑 =
𝑑2 + 𝑑1
2
′
𝑑 + 3𝑑1
𝑑 =

}
Tensile stress 4
Bending stress Critically loaded stress
torsional stress area is subjected to:
Stress area which is critically -Tensile axial force FA
loaded -Shearing force due to
tightening to produce FA
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
STRESSES IN THE THREAD
Tensile stress: For normal metric threads:
𝐹 𝐹𝐴 4. 𝐹𝐴 𝑑2
𝜎𝑡 = = 𝜋 = ≅ 1.1, 𝜑 ≅ 2.3° − 3.5°, 𝜇 ≅ 0.15,
𝐴 2 𝜋𝑑′ 2 𝑑′
𝑑′ 𝛼 = 60°
4
′ −1
𝜇
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≅ 10°
Stress due to tightening torque: cos 30
𝑑2 ′
Thus, 𝜏𝑡 = 0.5𝜎𝑡
𝑀𝑡 𝑇 𝐹𝐴 2 tan(𝛼 + ∅ ) Using maximum distortion energy
𝜏𝑡 = = =
𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝 𝜋𝑑′3 theory:
16 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑡 2 + 3𝜏𝑡 2
𝑑2
𝜏𝑡 = 2𝜎𝑡 tan(𝛼 + ∅′ ) 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑡 1.75 ≅ 1.3𝜎𝑡
𝑑′
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
STRESSES IN THE THREAD
Criterion for judgement
(a)Static load
- Brittle material breaks when
𝜎𝑒𝑞 > 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠
- Ductile material suffers plastic
deformation if 𝜎𝑒𝑞 > 𝜎𝑦
(b) Dynamic load
The screw threads act as a relieve
notches. Hence the change from
smooth shank to the threaded part is
critical. (a) Not favourable Favourable
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
TENSION LOADED JOINTS: PRELOADING OF BOLTS
Except for joints in structural steel work (loaded in shear) most of the
joints are loaded primarily in tension with applied loads more or less
parallel to the axis of the bolts.

The analysis of tension joints usually centres on an analysis of the

tension in the fasteners: first with the initial or preload in the fasteners
when they are initially tightened and then with the working loads that
exist in the fasteners and in the joint members when external forces
are applied to the joints as the product or structure is put into use.

These working loads consist of the preload plus or minus some portion
of the external load seen by the joint in use.
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS

External loads
The first step in the design procedure is to estimate the
external loads which will be seen by each bolted joints.

Such loads can be static, dynamic or impact in nature. They

can be created by inertial forces, by shock or vibration, by
changes in temperature, by fluid pressure or by prime movers
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS
Selecting the target preload
Joints perform as intended only if they are properly clamped together
by the fasteners. Therefore the preload values must be selected very
carefully. In general we always want the greatest preload in the bolts
which the parts (bolts, joint members and gaskets) can stand.

Lower limit for the clamping force on joint.

When computing maximum acceptable forces, we focus on the joint,
because its behaviour can be seriously affected if the interface forces
become too small. The joint, for example, might leak, it might vibrate
loose, or it might have a short fatigue life.
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS
Lower limit for the clamping force on joint..Cont.

To determine lower acceptable limit, we must consider each

potential failure mode separately, estimate the minimum preload
required to control that particular problem and then select the
highest of the these several minimum requirements to establish
The minimum for the system. This is one of the difficult steps of
our procedure.
SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
THREADED JOINT STIFFNESS
Any machine element is elastic to some extent: For threaded joint the
following act as springs:
-bolts and its head
-clamped parts (flanges)
-nut

Like any spring they have stiffness which ca be given as:

𝑑𝐹
𝑘=
𝑑𝛿
From mechanics:
𝑑𝐹. 𝐿 𝐴𝐸
𝑑𝛿 = , ∴𝑘=
𝐴𝐸 𝐿
THREADED JOINT STIFFNESS
Bolts and its head and nut
To calculate spring rate of bolts with different cross
sections, the reciprocal spring rates of each section
are added;
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯.+
𝑘𝐵 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
Thus for the bolt shown in the fig. on the right;
1 1 0.4𝑑 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 0.4𝑑
= + + + +
𝑘𝐵 𝐸 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑠
Where As= tensile stress area. (From data book)
Note that this formula consider the elastic
deformation of the head and engaged thread with
the length of 0.4d each.
THREADED JOINT STIFFNESS
Clamped parts (flanges)
For clamped parts (flanges), tests and n = material factor:
finite element calculations have Steel n=10
shown that: Cast iron n=8
2
𝜋 𝑙𝑓 2 Aluminium n=6
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑑𝑎 + − 𝐷𝐵
4 𝑛 DB

Where; 𝑑𝑎 =bolt head diameter =1.5d

𝑙𝑓 =thickness of clamped flange
𝐷𝐵 =diameter of the bore through 𝑙𝑓
𝑑𝑎 +
flange. 𝑛
ESTIMATING PRELOAD AND THE EFFECT OF EXTERNAL LOADS
Let us consider the bolted joint
shown on the right.
When the joint is preloaded by
tightening the nut, the preload
force Fp will cause a tensile
deformation of the joint
(flanges).
The preload will increase the
length of the bolt by 𝛿𝑏 and
decrease the thickness of the
flange by 𝛿𝑓
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
ESTIMATING PRELOAD AND THE EFFECT OF EXTERNAL LOADS
When an external static load Fw (working load) is applied to the
initially preloaded joint, the bolt will be elongated by 𝛿𝑤, and
according to the compatibility of deformation, this will reduce the
compressive deformation of the joint (flange) by 𝛿𝑤

The relationship between the forces and deformation of the parts

of the joint are represented graphically for both bolts and flanges,
these are then matched to produce a combined force diagram for
the joint.
ESTIMATING PRELOAD AND THE EFFECT OF EXTERNAL LOADS
𝐹𝑝 𝐹𝑝 (b) Bolt
(a) Flange 𝑘𝑏 = , 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑏
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑓 c

𝐹𝑤𝑏
𝑘𝑓

b b
𝐹𝑤𝑓

𝐹𝑝
a a 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤
𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑏
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
ESTIMATING PRELOAD AND THE EFFECT OF EXTERNAL LOADS
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑘𝑏

𝑘𝑓
𝐹𝑤𝑏

𝐹𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝐹𝑤
𝐹𝑤𝑓
𝐹𝑝

𝐹𝑐

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑤
𝛿𝑓
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
ESTIMATING PRELOAD AND THE EFFECT OF EXTERNAL LOADS
Total load on the bolt; 𝐹𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑝 + 𝐹𝑤𝑏

Remaining load on joint; 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑝 − 𝐹𝑤𝑓

The working load is distributed as follows:

𝑘𝑏
Increased load taken by bolt; 𝐹𝑤𝑏 = 𝐹𝑤
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑓
𝑘𝑓
Reduced load taken by flange; 𝐹𝑤𝑓 =
𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘𝑓
𝐹𝑤
 SCREW THREADS AND BOLTED JOINTS
ESTIMATING PRELOAD AND THE EFFECT OF EXTERNAL LOADS
Recommendations (based on the experiments and experience);
𝐹𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≤ 0.9𝐹𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝐹𝑐 = 𝛾𝐹𝑤

Where 𝛾 = 0.3 … . . 0.5

Thus: (1 + 𝛾)𝐹𝑤 = 0.9𝐹𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝐹0.9

F0.9 values for different strength classes of bolts are given in Table
10.8 of fundamentals of machine design.
 EXAMPLE
A tensile-compression fatigue testing machine operated by an oil pump with a
working pressure of 100 bars. The variation of the stresses in the test specimen is
achieved by controlling the direction of the oil flow in a double acting piston and
cylinder using a special valve. This causes the pressure in the cylinder to vary from
0 to 100 bars on each side of the piston. The top part of the cylinder cover is bolted
to the frame of the machine, and each cover (i.e top and bottom cover) is fixed to
the cylinder by 32 bolts of class 8.8. The cylinder and the covers are made of steel
with a Young’s modulus of elasticity of 210x103 N/mm2. Cylinder bore is 250 mm
diameter, all flanges are 20 mm thick, piston rod is 150 mm diameter, centre of bolt
pitch circle is 15 mm from the flange periphery.
For the bottom cover:
• Determine the maximum working load on each bolted joint.
• Pre-select the size of the suitable bolts; Use table 10.8 of the Manuscript
(Nyonyi).
• Determine the bolt and flange stiffness per bolt (Use bolt length of 60 mm).
• Determine the minimum preload on each bolt if the minimum compression on
the flange to avoid leakage should not be less than 30% of the working load.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
SEALING USING GASKETS
INTRODUCTION
Gaskets are used to protect the interior (e.g. gearbox, pipeline) from the
ingress of external agents (such as dust, dirt, moisture etc) or prevent the
leakage of gases or liquids.

Common areas where gaskets are used are:

- Covers of oil containers
- Reservoirs functioning under pressure or vacuum
- Pipe flanges
SEALING USING GASKETS
MATERIALS
The selection of material should be based on the ability of sealing and
the operating conditions such as temperature and resistance to medium
in contact with the gasket

The most common materials are:

(a) Gasket paper
- Paper impregnated with Bakelite or other synthetic resins
- Gasket cardboard
(b) Synthetic materials such as polyvinylchloride, polytrifluoroethylene
N.B synthetic materials offer the best packing properties.
 SEALING USING GASKETS
MATERIALS

(c) Asbestos based material (high temperatures)

- Asbestos paper
- Asbestos cardboard
- Combination of asbestos and natural or synthetic rubber ( for steam
pipes)

(d) Metal gaskets (high temperatures)

- Aluminium sheets
- Aluminium and copper foils etc
SEALING USING GASKETS
PRINCIPLE OF SEALING BY GASKETS
Sealing is effected by compression of gaskets by bolts or other
mechanical means.
To achieve sealing, gasket material must be deformed plastically.
The tightening pressure from the bolts must be larger than the yield
strength of the gasket i.e Pc>y; where Pc is the contact pressure and
y is the yield strength.

Also, experience indicates that the gasket factor (m) which is the
ratio between the resultant contact pressure (FG/AG) and the fluid
pressure (P) should not be less than a certain value if the joint is to
remain tight. 𝐹𝐺
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑚=
𝐴𝐺 𝑃
SEALING USING GASKETS
PRINCIPLE OF SEALING BY GASKETS

The tightening process produces some b –effective yielding width

distortion of flanges and the joint such that
the effective gasket area is reduced.

Hence the force is concentrated at this

effective area which is at the outer edge; and
the area subjected to fluid pressure is
extended to the point where the effective
area starts.
SEALING USING GASKETS
GASKET DESIGN AND SELECTION
Consider two cases;

(a)Built up force; no fluid pressure

When the fluid pressure is zero,𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝐺
where 𝐹𝑏 = Bolt force (total) and
𝐹𝐺 =Gasket force; 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝐺

(b) Forces when fluid pressure is acting

Outward force caused by fluid pressure
is given as a product of area subjected
to pressure and pressure =𝐴𝑓 𝑃
SEALING USING GASKETS
GASKET DESIGN AND SELECTION
Force remaining in the gasket to prevent leakage will be given as 𝐴𝐺 𝑚𝑃

Total force on the bolts; 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐴𝑓 𝑃 + 𝐴𝐺 𝑚𝑃 = 𝑃 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐴𝐺 𝑚

From the equation above, the initial contact pressure Pc on the gasket can
be derived from;
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐴𝐺 𝑚
𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃 +𝑚
𝐴𝐺
This value of actual gasket pressure “Pc” must be larger than the yield
values “y” from Table 8.1 (manuscript). If not the design must be
changed.
SEALING USING GASKETS
DESIGN PROCEDURE SUMMARY
1. Select the gasket and material suitable for working conditions from table 8.1
2. Determine the effective gasket yield width ‘b’ from table 8.2.
3. Calculate the effective area subjected to internal pressure Af
4. Calculate effective gasket contact area AG
5. From table 8.1 find the gasket factor m
6. Calculate the gasket contact pressure Pc and compare with yield values ‘y’
7. Calculate bolt load Fb and check the stress levels.
 SEALING USING GASKETS
EXAMPLE
A cross section through a gasket joint is shown
on the figure. The internal pressure is 34 bars
and 24 bolts are used to hold the cover in
place.
Determine:
(a) Whether or not the gasket chosen is
satisfactory
(b) The force on each bolt