Week 2 Students learning objectives

1. Classify computers: by type of data accepted, by size, by purpose, by use and by computer
generations.
2. Define computer hardware and give examples.
3. Explain what each part of hardware does.
4. Define peripheral devices and give examples
5. Define computer input devices, give examples and explain their functions.
6. Explain the processing unit of the computer :- central processing unit,
7. Differentiate between the ALU, control and the internal Memory and what they do in a
computer.
8. Differentiate between ROM, RAM and cache types of memory.

Topics

Classification of computers
 Computer hardware: - input devices, central processing unit, storage devices and output
devices.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

There are several methods of classifying computers:

a) By the type of data accepted for processing and form in which output data/information
appears (i.e. Digital, Analogue & Hybrid computers).
b) Classification by purpose.
c) Classification by generation/age of technology.
d) Classification by size and capabilities.
e) Classification by use.

1. CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA ACCEPTED

a) Digital Computers
They process data that is represented in the form of discrete numbers or digits such as 0 and
1. Their arithmetic operations and logical comparisons are based on digits and on other
characters that have been numerically coded.
b) Analogue Computers
They are computers that deal with variable/continuous data/quantities such as temperature,
pressure, humidity etc. The output from them is often in form of graphs or smooth curves
from which the information can be read. They perform arithmetic operations and logical
comparisons by measuring changes in physical magnitudes such as electronic voltage,
pressure changes.
c) Hybrid
These are the computers that have the combined features of digital and analogue computers.
Both the digital and the analogue features are built within the sane processor.

2. CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

1. Special purpose; These are computers designed for a particular job only. They solve
problems of a restricted nature e.g. Weapon guidance systems or the ones used in digital
watches.
2. General Purpose; These are computer designed to solve a wide variety of problems.

3. CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE

a) Mainframe
These are large general-purpose computers with extensive processing, storage and input/output
capabilities. A large number of peripherals can be attached to them. Atypical application is the
airline reservation system. The airlines have a mainframe computer at their head office where
information of all the flights is stored. Small computers, installed at the booking offices, are
attached to the central data bank so that up to date information of all flights is always available.
 b) Mini – Computers
These are physically smaller computers as compared to mainframes. They are used for
special purpose or small-scale general-purpose work.

c) Micro – computers
Various integrated circuits are replaced by a single integrated one. They can be categorized
by size and relative capabilities into workstations, desktops and laptops.

d) Super Computers;
They are the largest and the fastest machines.

4. CLASSIFICATION BY USE

a) A personal computer (PC) - a microcomputer designed for independent use by an

individual at work or in the home. Some PC’s are portable.
b) A Home Computer - A low cost microcomputer of limited capabilities designed for
domestic use with programs such as playing games on controlling family finances.

c) Embedded Computers - These computers are within some other devices/systems but are not
accessed directly e.g. Small computers found in digital watches, video recorder, washing
machines etc.

5. CLASSIFICATION BY GENERATION

The first electronic computers were made in 1940’s. Since then a series of radical breakthroughs in
electronics have occurred. The computer generations are the stages in the evolution of electronic
circuitry, hardware, software, programming languages and other technological developments.

These include:
1) First Generation.(1940- 1956) – Vaccum Tubes
These computers used vacuum tubes as their electrical switching devices. Their CPU speeds were
very low. The input devices were paper tapes or punched cards. Electronic typewriters,
programmed to type by a paper tape or punched card reader were used for printing reports. They
had between 1K and 4K of RAM. The computers received its instructions in machine language or
electrical on/off signals. There were no programming languages.

The application software available was tabulating, now called spreadsheets. Since computers could
only perform one task a time, the computer work was done in batches thus the operating system
was called batch processing systems in 1950’s.

2) Second Generation (1956 - 1964) - Transistors

These used transistors, which were much smaller cooler and reliable. Processing speed has
improved by a factor of five.

They utilized keyboards and video display monitors. The first light pen was used as an input device
for drawing on the face of the monitor. High-speed printer came into use.
RAM grew from 4K to 32K, making it possible for the computer to hold more data and instructions.
Use of magnetic tapes and disks was introduced to replace permanent storage on computer cards.
The IBM 1401 didn’t have an operating system; instead it used a special language called Symbolic
Programming System (SPS) to create programs. This generation marked the common use of high-
level languages. FORTRAN (1957) was used for scientific purposes and COBOL (1961) for
business purposes. There were also improvements in system software. Almost every computer had
its unique operating system, programming language and application software.

3) The Third Generation (1964-1971) – Integrated circuits

Started with the introduction of IBM 360 in about 1960s which used integrated circuits (a number
of electrical components on a single slice of silicon) termed as hybrid integrated technology where
separate transistors and diodes were inserted into circuits.

There were several improvements such as:-

• Increased processing speeds
• Increased accuracy.
• Integration of hardware and software.
• The ability to perform several operations simultaneously
• Data communication advances.
Many high level programming languages were developed among them BASIC and Pascal. IBM
created os/360 operating system. Software growth enhanced due to unbundling, or selling the
software separate from the hardware.

4) The Fourth Generation (1971 - 1988) - Microprocessors

Large-scale integration, a technique for packing more and more circuitry in a single chip was
developed. “4th generation brought major advances in 2nd generation mainframes, in 3rd
generation minicomputers and added a brand new category of machine; the microcomputer or
personal computer. There was dramatic increase in processor speed. The keyboard and the video
monitor have become standard 1/0 devices. The mouse began playing a major role.

There was introduction of fourth - generation languages programs.

5) The Fifth Generation (1983 .................) – Artificial Intelligence

Super chip development is truly at the Center of the fifth generation. (A chip is a thin piece of
silicon on which electronic components are etched). Much advancement is still going on e.g. use
of object-oriented languages, artificial intelligence.
The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Questions
1. Describe the advantages of third generation over the 2nd generation computer.
2. What were the major problems with using vacuum tubes in computers?
 3. Describe the fourth generation and the start of the fifth generation.
4. What is the primary difference between the first and second-generation computers? What
were some of the advantages of the second-generation computers over the first generation
computers?
5. What are the negative impacts of computers to society?

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Computer architecture refers to the design and construction of a computer system.

Computer System Components

A computer set has the following major elements:-
• Input devices
• Output devices
• The processors (CPU)
• The storage devices
The organization of computer Hardware is based on the Von-Newman Architecture, which is
based on the concept of binary representation of numbers in the computer. This organization, also
known as the computer theoretical organization, describes how the different types of computer
hardware interact with each other, in the processing of data, so that the desired results can be
achieved. The figure below illustrates the architecture:

SECONDARY MEMORY
OR
AUXILLIARY STORAGE

INPUT MAIN DEVICES

DEVICES MEMORY

CONTROL Key:

Data Flow
ARITHMETIC /
LOGIC UNIT Command

Peripheral devices
These are equipment that are used with the computer but are not integral part of it. They include
printers, keyboards, monitors, mice, disk drives.
 Monitor

Systems Unit

Keyboard

Mouse

I n p u t D e vi c e s
Input refers to the process of entering programs, commands, user responses and data into main
memory. The most common input devices are:

a) Keyboard:
Users input data to a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. As the user enters the data
on the Keyboard it displays on the screen. It has several keys such as:-

• The function keys labeled with letters F1 - F12. Which perform different tasks depending on
the software program you are using.
• The arrow keys/cursor control keys used to move the cursor.
• The Data Keys used to enter the letters, numbers and symbols.
• Special purpose keys e.g. Backspace, Del. Shift, Alt., Ctrl, Enter ,Esc., Pause etc.
Function Keys

Numeric Keypad

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Backspace Key
Cursor-Control
Keys
b) Mouse
This is a small lightweight device that easily fits in the palm of your hand. Software programs
designed to use mouse display a mouse pointer on the screen. The pointer may be an arrow, small
rectangle, an I-beam or even a hand with a pointed finger.

To move the pointer, you gently slide the mouse around the mouse pad. Mouse has a language of
its own.
E.g.
Point - to move a pointer to a desired spot.
Click - press and release the left hand button.
Double click - press and release button twice as quickly as possible.
Drag - press and hold the right mouse button while moving the pointer to another
Location.
Drop - release the mouse button after dragging.

c) Trackball
It is a pointing device that is used as an alternative to a mouse. You roll the ball to position the

pointer on the screen. Unlike the mouse, a trackball doesn’t move on the desk and therefore
requires less space.

d) Scanners
Scanners convert texts, characters or images into a form that can be processed by the computer.

Other input devices include

e) Touch screens
f) Graphic input
g) Optical character reader (OCR)
h) Optical mark reader (OMR)
i) Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

The System Unit

The system unit also known as a base unit, is the main body of a desktop computer of the computer
system.

The front part has the following buttons:-

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 • Reset button – used to restart the system without disconnecting the Power supply.
• Power indicator – indicates that the system has been powered.
• Power switch – Used to switch on the PC.
• Hard disk/floppy disk/CD indicators – are LEDs that come on when respective disk is being
read or written.

Inside the System Unit

In a typical microcomputer, the system unit contains the power supply, storage devices and the
main circuit board with the computer’s main processor and memory.

The Power Supply

This component converts the AC electricity from the outlet to the DC electricity for PC uses. A fan
keeps the power supply and other components in the system unit from overheating.

The Main board/Motherboard.

This is the main circuit board that houses the integrated circuits in the system unit. It contains the
microprocessor, the RAM, expansion cards and is connected to peripheral devices that collect input
and produce output.

Memory
Memory is electronic circuitry that holds the data and program instruction. It is sometimes called
primary storage. There are four major types of memory, namely random access memory (RAM),
virtual memory, CMOS memory and read-only memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

This is an area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds data before and after it is
processed. For example, when you enter a document, the characters you type usually are not
processed right away. They are held in RAM until you tell the software to carry out process such as
printing.

In RAM, the microscopic electronic parts called capacitor hold the electronic signals for the binary
codes that represent the data. RAM is volatile i.e. if the computer is turned off or the power goes
out, all the data stored in RAM instantly and permanently disappears.

Functions of the RAM

The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process any data. The CPU receives
instructions from RAM, uses the data in RAM for processing and keeps the results of processing
temporarily in RAM until they are needed again or stored on disk.

RAM stores user data, operating system instructions and program instructions temporarily. Every
time you turn on your computer, it copies a set of operating system instructions from disk into
RAM. These instructions, which help control basic computer functions, remain in RAM until you
turn the computer off.
RAM also holds program instructions. When you use a word processing program, the computer
copies the instructions that turn your computer into a word processor from disk into RAM.

RAM capacity

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The storage capacity of RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or Gigabytes (GB). Most recent
micro-computers have between 128 MB – 2 GB of RAM. The amount of RAM your computer
needs depends on the software you use.
Virtual Memory
The computer sometimes uses space on the computers hard disk as an extension of RAM. A
computer’s ability to use disk storage to simulate RAM is called virtual memory.

Virtual memory allows computers without enough real memory to run large programs, manipulate
large data files and run more than one program at a time. One disadvantage of a virtual memory is
reduced performance.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

This is a set of chips containing instructions that help a computer prepare for processing tasks.
These instructions also called firmware are permanent, and the only way to change them is to
remove the ROM chips from the main board and replace them with another set.

When you turn on your computer, the CPU receives electrical power and is ready to begin
executing instructions. But because the computer was turned on, RAM is empty with no
instructions for CPU to process. This is when ROM finds its use.

When you turn on your computer, the CPU performs a series of steps by following instructions
stored in ROM. This series of steps is called the boot process.

• Programmable read-only memory (PROM) - acts the same as ROM when it is part of the
computer. I.e. it can only be read but its contents cannot be altered. However the data or
programs are not stored in the memory when they are manufactured. Instead it can be loaded
with special programs during installation.

• Erasable Prom (EPROM) - their data can be erased using special ultraviolet light device that
destroys the bit settings within the memory.

CMOS Memory
Metal oxide semi conductor memory. This is a type of memory which is more permanent than
RAM but less permanent than ROM which is used to store boot data such as the number of hard
disk tracks and sections. CMOS require very little power to retain its contents and as such can be
powered by battery. To change CMOS data, you usually run a CMOS configuration, or set up
program.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the circuitry in a computer that executes instructions to process data. CPU is the heart of the
computer system. It retrieves instructions and data from RAM, processes them and places the result
back into RAM so they can be displayed or stored.

CPU Architecture

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The CPU consists of one or more integrated circuits. In microcomputer the CPU is a single
integrated circuit called a micro-processor.

The CPU has two main parts; the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU).

The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.
It also performs logical operations such as comparing two numbers. It uses registers to hold the
data that is being processed. In ALU, the results of an arithmetic or logical operation is held
temporarily in the accumulator.

The CU (Control Unit) - directs and coordinates processing and places it in a special instruction
register. The CU then interprets the instruction to find out what needs to be done. According to its
interpretation, the control unit sends signals to the data bus to fetch data from RAM, and to the
ALU to perform a process.

CPU Performance
CPU performance/speed is influenced by several factors such as clock rate, word size, cache and
instruction set size.

Clock rate
A computer contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing for all system
operations. The “system clock” is not the same as “real-time clock” that keeps track of the time of
day.

The system clock sets the speed for data transport and instruction execution. The clock rate set by
the system clock determines the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction. The time
to complete an instruction circle is measured in megahertz (MHz).

Word Size
This refers to the number of bits the CPU can manipulate at a time. e.g. CPU with 8 - bit word size
is referred to as an 8 -bit processor. Today’s faster computers use 32 bit or 64 - bit micro
processors.

Cache
This is a special high-speed memory that give the CPU more rapid access to data. As you begin a
task, the computer anticipates what data the CPU is likely to need and loads or caches this data into
the cache area. The CPU then takes the data from cache instead of fetching it from RAM, which
takes longer. Therefore more cache means faster processing.

Instruction Set Complexity

A computer with a complex instruction set is known as a complex instruction set computer (CISC).
A computer whose CPU has a reduced instruction set called a reduced instruction set computer
(RISC) has a limited set of instruction that it performs very quickly. Therefore RISC machine is
more faster than CISC machine for most processing tasks.

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Output Devices

Output is the data that has been processed into useful form/information that can be used by a person
or a machine.
Most outputs are in form of reports or graphics. The most used output devices are:-

1. Printers
Printers can be classified by how they transfer characters from the printer to the paper.

Impact Printers
Transfer images into paper by some type of printing mechanism striking paper, ribbon, and
character together.

Non-Impact Printers
Printing occurs w/o having a mechanism striking against a sheet of paper.
Speed
Another way of classifying printers is by speed:-

• Low speed- print one character at a time.

• Medium and high-speed printers - called line printers, can print multiple characters on a line
at the same time.

• Very high-speed printers - can print excess of 3,000 lines per minute, often called page
printers.

Types of Printers

1) Dot Matrix Printers

Create letters and graphics by striking an inked ribbon with a column of small wires called pins. By
activating some wires in the column, but not activating others, the printer creates patterns for letters
and numbers.
A d va n t a ge s
• Low operating costs
• Low price
• Can print multi-part forms – Make carbon copies
• Durable
Limitations
• Noisy
• Low to medium quality output
• Slow
2) Ink-jet Printers
Produce characters and graphics by spraying ink onto paper. The print-head is a matrix of fire
spray nozzles, patterns are created by activating selected nozzles.
A d va n t a ge s

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 • Moderate price
• Inexpensive to operate
• High quality color printouts/high quality output.
• Quiet
• Durable
Disadvantages
• Slow
• Cannot print multi-part forms – cannot make carbon copies
• Poor quality colour compared to laser printers
3) Laser Printers
Use the same technology as the duplicating machines.
A d va n t a ge s
• Quiet
• High quality output
• Fast
• High quality color
• Durable

Limitations
• Expensive color
• Cannot print multi-part forms
• More expensive to operate

Others
4) Daisy wheel printers
5) Thermal printers
6) Chain printers
7) Band printers

2. The Monitor (The Screen)

Also called cathode ray tube (CRT) or video display terminal (VDT). It lets you see the
information you are exchanging with the computer. They can be either monochrome or color.
Monochrome display only two colors, either black and white or green and black. The size is
measured diagonally (like TV) in inches e.g. 14”. Inside the monitor is a video display adapter,
which is an expansion card that translates the signal, processed by the CPU into a format that the
monitor can display.

3. Plotters
Used to produce high-quality line drawing, such as building plans, charts or circuit diagrams. The
two types are (a) pen plotters - create image on a sheet of paper by moving the paper under the tip
of pen (b) electrostatic plotters.
4. Computer Output Microfilm
COM is an output technique that records output from a computer as microscopic images on roll or
sheet film.

5. Voice Output

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Consist of spoken words that are conveyed to the user from the computer. The data that
produces voice output is usually created in one of two ways:-

a) A person can talk into a device that will encode the words in digital pattern. The
digital data is then stored on a disk. It can later be translated back from digital data
into voice.

b) Voice Synthesizer:- can transform words stored in main memory into speech.

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage

Stores programs and data when they are not being processed. They are non-volatile ie. data
and programs are retained when the power is turned off.

1) Hard Disk:
This is where most of the computer data is stored especially the programs and personal files. It
consists of one or more rigid metal platters coated with a metal oxide material that allows data to
be magnetically recorded on the surface of the platter.

2) Floppy Disks/Diskettes/Floppies/Disks
Consists of a circular piece of a thin Mylar plastic (actual disk) which is coated with oxide
material.
The circular piece is enclosed in a flexible square plastic jacket.

This type of storage is convenient, reliable and relatively low in cost. The storage capacity
ranges between 360 K to 2.88 MB. They come in several sizes: Most common being 3½ inch.

3) Magnetic Disk
This is used for medium and large computers. They are similar to the devices used in PC’s but
have larger capacities.

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