FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL VEHICLES

IV-I CSE

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTALS OF VEHICLES
Automobile:-
“Auto” means self and “mobile” means movable. Thus a self moving vehicle is
known as “automobile”. The term is generally used for motor cars, delivery vans,
trucks etc.

Definition:-
It is a self-propelled vehicle which is used for the transportation of goods and
passengers(on the ground).
Necessity:-
Automobiles are an important part of life in today's world. It is a basic need for
every household. Imagine walking hundreds of miles for days to get from one place
to another, but because of the discovery of automobiles, transportation today is
much faster, easier and reliable.
Classification:-
*Purpose:- > goods
E.g- truck, dump truck, lorry
> Passengers
E.g- car, bus, motorcycle
*Capacity of vehicle:- > light duty
> heavy duty
*On the basis of fuel used:- > petrol
> Diesel
> Electric
> Gas and solar
*No. Of wheels used:- > 2-wheeler
> 3-wheeler
> 4-wheeler
> 10-wheeler etc.
*On the basis of construction:-
> saloon cars
> bus
> trucks, half and full body, folding or
detachable
> pick up vans
> station wagon
> Matador vans
> Vanity vans
> Jeep
> dumper
Components of conventional vehicles
(a)Body: Where passengers sit or luggage is kept
(b) Chassis: This unit which is used as a base for engine-parts and other parts of
motor car.
(c) Engine: This unit is also known as power unit. It includes fuel pump,
carburettor, self, dynamo, distributor, spark plug, lubrication pump, etc.
(d) Running Gear: This unit consists of those parts which give motion to the
vehicle such as front and rear axles, wheels, springs, frame, brake, steering etc.
(e) Transmission System: Those parts of the motor-car which transmit the engine
power to its wheels, such as clutch, gear box, universal joint, propeller shaft,
differential and axle shaft etc. are included in the transmission system.
Variations of speed ratios and forward and reverse motion are obtained
through the transmission system.
Functions of a Car (Main Assembly)
•Motion
•Stopping of Motion
•Changing direction of Motion
•Comfort of the Passenger
•Music and air-conditioning system
•Protection of the Passengers and goods from external environmental factors
→ (Sub Assembly)
•Engine
•Transmission System
•Braking System
•Steering System
•Suspension System
•Electrical System
•Safety System
LAYOUT OF Automobile chassis

Introduction to transmission System

The transmission system is the system utilizing which power developed by the
engine is transmitted to road wheels to propel the vehicle. In automobiles, the
power is developed by the engine which is used to turn wheels.
Therefore, the engine is to be connected to the transmission systems for transmitting
power to wheels. Also, there should be a system utilizing which engine could be
engaged and disengaged with the transmission
system smoothly and without shock so that the vehicle mechanism is not damaged
and passengers do not feel inconvenience. A clutch is employed in automobiles for
this purpose.

The engines employed in automobiles are of very high speed. Hence, a speed
reduction is necessary to reduce the speed to moderate level as well as to get the
required high torque while moving from rest. For this purpose, a gearbox is
employed in automobiles.
The figure shows the general arrangement of a power transmission system of an
automobile.

> The motion of the crankshaft is transmitted to the gearbox through the clutch. The
gearbox consists of a set of gears to change the speed according to the requirement.
The motion is then transmitted to the propeller shaft from the gearbox through a
universal joint. The purpose of the universal joint is to connect two shafts at an
angle for power transmission.
> The power is transmitted to the differential unit through another universal joint.
Finally, the power is transmitted from the differential to wheels through the rear
end. The differential unit is used to provide the relative motion between two-run
wheels while the vehicle is taking a turn
Components(Parts )of Automobile.
An automobile has several numbers of parts. But there are four essential components of
automobile. These are:

1. The Chassis.
2. The Engine.
3. The Transmission System.
4. The Body.
Apart from these four essential parts of automobile, there are controls and auxiliaries.

The controls are meant for controlling the movement of the vehicle. The auxiliaries are
additional components meant for providing comfort to the user of the automobile.

1. The Chassis.
The chassis of an automobile incorporates all the major assemblies consisting of an engine,
components of transmission system such as clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, axles, a control
system such as brakes and steering, and suspension system of the vehicle. In other words, it is
the vehicle without its body.
The chassis of an automobile has the frame, suspension system, axles, and wheel as the main
components. The frame could be in the form of conventional chassis or unit construction may
be adopted.

In a conventional chassis frame, the frame forms the main skeleton of vehicle. It supports
engine, power transmission, and car body.

The frame is supported on wheels and axles through springs. The frame carries the weight of the
vehicle and passengers, withstands engine, transmission, accelerating, and braking torques.

It also withstands the centrifugal forces while cornering and takes up stresses due to the rise and
fall of axles.

In the unit construction type, there is no frame. The structure of the body of the automobile is
first formed, and then different components such as the engine, transmission system, and other
parts are placed at suitable places in the body structure.

The transmission system itself consists of a number of parts such as clutch assembly, gearbox,
propeller shaft, differential, and axles.

The other parts include the interior details which are utilized by the passengers and driver of the
vehicle. Through suitable designing, the parts are so arranged that they provide maximum
comfort and make journeys in the automobile enjoyable.

The other parts of the chassis are suspension system, axles, and wheel. The suspension system
absorbs the vibrations due to up and down movement of wheels.

Springs and shock absorbers connecting the frame and the axle perform this function. The
springs can be leaf spring, coil spring, or torsion bar. Even rubber or air can form the material of
springs.
 The wheels of the vehicle can be suspended independently on springs or on spring-suspended
axles. The axle may be ‘live’ if power from the engine is transmitted to it.

It may be a ‘dead’ axle if no power is supplied to it and it is just supporting the weight of the
vehicle. In ‘four-wheel drive,’ the power is supplied to both the axles and therefore both the
axles are ‘live.’

In addition to providing support to the weight of the vehicle, the axle also resists the stresses
due to braking and driving torque.

2. The Engine.
The engine is the source of motive power to an automobile. Obviously, it is a very
important part of the automobile because in the absence of an engine, the automobile
may not move at all, and its basic function of transporting passengers or goods would
be defeated.

The power of the engine determines the working of the automobile. In the same
manner, the efficiency of the engine determines the efficiency of an automobile.

The engine, nowadays, is invariably an internal combustion engine. This may be a

spark-ignition engine consuming petrol as fuel.

Alternatively, it could be a compression ignition engine using diesel as fuel.

The engines used are multi-cylinder engines. A single-cylinder engine, though capable
of providing the desired power may become very heavy and therefore may be
unsuitable.

In a multi-cylinder engine, each cylinder handling a smaller amount of power may keep
engine light in weight. In an internal combustion engine, total heat produced by the
burning of fuel is not converted into work.

Part of it causes over-all heating of engine which is undesirable. This heat is to be

dissipated properly. Coolant in the form of air or water may be used to take away this
heat.

So an engine can be air-cooled or water-cooled. These days some chemicals have

been developed which have a cooling property, and these remain unaffected for a
longer period of time.

These chemicals are being used as coolants, and these do not require frequent
replacement. Apart from their long life, they are more efficient also.
Similarly, lubrication is another aspect to be taken care of in an engine requiring
periodic attention from the user.

The moving parts in an engine need regular lubrication to reduce unwanted friction.
The chemistry of lubricant is now highly developed. There is a standard rating for
lubricants and for every purpose a specific lubricant is available.

3. The Transmission System.

The transmission system transmits power developed by the engine to the road wheels.
The power available as output from the engine is in the form of rotation of the crankshaft.

This movement is to be transferred to the road wheels to cause their rotary motion. Their
rotary motion makes possible the movement of the vehicle.

The transmission system consists of different parts. These include clutch, gearbox,
propeller shaft, differential and axle, live axle to be more precise.

The road wheels are at the ends of the axle. The motion is transmitted through these
parts. Every part of the transmission system performs its own function.

i. Clutch.
The clutch, part of the transmission system is next to the crankshaft. It is a mechanism
enabling the rotary motion of one shaft transmitted to the second shaft ‘at will.’

When the engine starts, it should not be connected to road wheels, i.e., these should not
start moving as soon as the engine starts.

Secondly, this motion should be smoothly transferred so that passengers in the car do not
feel discomfort, and its mechanism is not spoiled.

In the case of vehicles used for the transportation of goods, the smooth transmission
process is essential as otherwise, it may cause damage to goods.

Read Also: Soldering vs Brazing; Its Process, Advantages, Disadvantages.

ii. Gearbox.
The gearbox is the component of the transmission system next to the clutch. It has got a
gear train, and it provides different gear ratios. These ratios determine the rotary speed of
output shaft from the gearbox.

The torque transmitted to the road wheels gives rise to a propulsive force or (tractive
effort) between these and the road. When starting from rest, a large tractive effort is
required.

This makes essential the introduction of considerable ‘leverage’ between the engine and
the wheels so that torque from the engine, which is almost constant, produces the large
tractive effort.
This ‘leverage’ is provided by the gearbox.

Different gear ratios available in the gearbox can provide the required tractive effort to
overcome the resistance faced by the automobile under different conditions.

Propeller shaft transmits the output from the gearbox to the axle. This axle may be in the
rear or in the front or in some cases both the rear and front axle may receive output from
the gearbox.

The output from the gearbox is in the form of rotary motion of the shaft, and this motion is
transferred to the axle.

iii. Differential.
The differential is the next component of the transmission system. The motion of propeller
shaft is fed to the differential which turns it through 90 degrees. This is essential as the
axle is at 90 degrees to the propeller shaft.

The function is performed with the help of a pinion and a gear. Another important function
of the differential is to reduce the speed of inner wheels and at the same time, enhance
the speed of outer wheels by the same amount.

This is required when the automobile is moving on a curved path. On a curved path, the
outer wheels are required to traverse a circle of a bigger radius than the inner wheels.
This means that the outer wheels are required to traverse larger distance as compared to
inner wheels. As the automobile is to move as a single unit, all the four wheels must travel
together.

Therefore, the outer wheels should travel larger distance and inner wheels should travel
smaller distance in the same time period.

Hence, the variation in the speed of inner and outer wheels is needed. This is performed
by the differential with the help of sun and planet gear system.

iv. Axle.
The axle is the next component of the transmission system. The axle receiving power from
the engine is termed as ‘live’ axle. It is in two halves.

The ends of the axle have road wheels connected to it. These road wheels are in direct
contact with the road surface. The body of the automobile is above the axle.

The axle also takes up the various loads including the weight of the automobile. It also
transmits motion to the road wheels.

4. The Body.
The use of a separate frame to which the body structure is attached is now almost
obsolete except for some applications for heavy-duty commercial vehicles.

Many heavy vehicles now use ‘sub-frames’ of simple construction to which the engine and
gearbox are attached.

The sub-frame is supported on the mainframe and is fixed on it through some suitable
rubber connections to isolate the engine vibrations.

Due to development in spot welding and sheet pressing techniques, most of the vehicles
have integral construction. All the assembly units of the vehicles are attached to the body,
which also acts the frame.
It makes the vehicle compact, lightweight, and also its cost is reduced. Some intermediate
designs using a light chassis and a pressed steel body are also in use.

The light chassis, in such designs, is strengthened by using platform made of a sheet of
steel. Apart from the four basic components described above, the automobile has the
control systems and auxiliaries.

The control systems are used to control the motion of an automobile and therefore are
essential in an automobile. These include;

i. The steering system, and

ii. Braking system or brakes.
i. Steering system.
The automobile, while moving, may be required to traverse a circular path. It has to be
turned through some angle if the path is not straight.

There may be other situations also when the road is turning towards left or right, and an
automobile is required to turn to left or right.

This turning of the automobile towards left or right or on the curved path is provided
through steering mechanism.

The steering system is required to be quite accurate as the automobile should turn
accurately along with the path.

ii. Braking system.

This causes a reduction in speed of the vehicle and brings it to rest when necessary.
Bringing an automobile to rest is as important as its movement.

Obviously, when we have reached our destination, we would like to stop; and therefore,
the vehicle should come to rest.

Also, there may be some kind of emergency and vehicle may be required to slow down or
stop on the way. At that time, also its motion is to be controlled.

This control on the motion is provided with the help of brakes.

5. The Auxiliaries.
These are the components of an automobile which may not be essential, but it can make
the driving more comfortable.

The fact is that with the passage of time, some auxiliaries become essential. A few years
back, the indicators—to indicate the turning vehicle—were not used. But now these have
been made mandatory by the government.
Though air-conditioner is not essential and is just to provide comfort conditions, now it is
provided in every vehicle in developed countries and is being adopted by more and more
people.

The study of automobile engineering involves going through an in-depth study of all the
components and parts of automobile.

These include engine, transmission system, control, and auxiliaries system.

The engine used in an automobile is an internal combustion engine. The transmission

system consists of a number of parts, the introduction of which has already been
presented.

Suspension systems, wheels, and tires are also important components, parts of
automobile. Study of steering mechanism and brakes is also important as these form the
control system in an automobile.

Drawbacks of conventional vehicles

Pollution and lower resale value, among other factors, are still a few
major disadvantages of gasoline cars. The following pros and cons of
gasoline cars detail further.

1. Emission is still among dreaded disadvantages of conventional vehicles

Even if Petrol vehicles are on average less polluting than diesel vehicles,
they do emit carbon monoxide and other particulates into the environment
upon combustion. Although the emission of fine particles and CO2 is less,
there are around 1.3 billion cars out on the road worldwide, that many
vehicular emissions seem too much to deteriorate the air quality.

2. Low fuel efficiency

Gasoline cars have low fuel efficiency means that, even if you can avail
fuel for your car easily, you won’t be able to travel farther without
refueling your car. This counts as one of the biggest disadvantages of
gasoline cars as compared to hybrid and diesel counterparts.

3. Lower Resale value

Fuel efficiency and engine capacity of a gasoline car detriments over time.
These factors directly affect the resale value of a vehicle as the same
accounts for a limited lifespan.

4. Health Hazards
Exposure to Gasoline can occur from filling your tank, from a gas leak in your
engine, or from general spills and accidents. Every year, more than 5000 gas
station fires are reported in the US alone.

Humans can be affected by ingestion, inhalation, or even fire incidents at gas

refilling stations. Gasoline cans reportedly ignited or exploded in about 5% of
thermal burn injuries and fatalities.

5. Fossil Fuels Dependency

It’s a fact that Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy, and gasoline
is processed from these sources underneath the earth’s surface. We may run
out of gasoline in the nearing years, which is among the greatly feared
disadvantages of gasoline cars and other vehicles. The value of gas-powered
cars will plummet strikingly.

Need for electric vehicles

Zero Tailpipe Emissions. Driving an electric vehicle can help you reduce your
carbon footprint because there will be zero tailpipe emissions. You can reduce the
environmental impact of charging your vehicle further by choosing renewable
energy options for home electricity. Tax and financial benefits.

Tax and financial benefits:Registration fees and road tax on purchasing electric vehicles
are lesser than petrol or diesel vehicles. There are multiple policies and incentives offered by the
government depending on which state you are in. To find out more about electric vehicle incentives,
click below .

Petrol and diesel use is destroying our planet

The availability of fossil fuels is limited, and their use is destroying our planet. Toxic emissions from
petrol and diesel vehicles lead to long-term, adverse effects on public health. The emissions impact of
electric vehicles is much lower than petrol or diesel vehicles. From an efficiency perspective, electric
vehicles can covert around 60% of the electrical energy from the grid to power the wheels, but petrol
or diesel cars can only convert 17%-21% of the energy stored in the fuel to the wheels. That is a
waste of around 80%. Fully electric vehicles have zero tailpipe emissions, but even when electricity
production is taken into account, petrol or diesel vehicles emit almost 3 times more carbon dioxide
than the average

EV. To reduce the impact of charging electric vehicles, India is ambitious to achieve about 40 percent
cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by the year
2030. Therefore, electric vehicles are the way forward for Indian transport, and we must switch to
them now.

Electric Vehicles are easy to drive and quiet

Electric vehicles don’t have gears and are very convenient to drive. There are no complicated
controls, just accelerate, brake, and steer. When you want to charge your vehicle, just plug it in to a
home or public charger. Electric vehicles are also quiet, so they reduce noise pollution that traditional
vehicles contribute to.

Convenience of charging at home

Imagine being at a busy fuel station during peak hours, and you are getting late to reach your
workplace. These problems can easily be overcome with an electric vehicle. Simply plug your vehicle
in at your home charger for 4-5 hours before you plan to go. If you are able to get a charger where
you park at home, it is very convenient to plan your journeys in advance. What if you forget to plug in
your machine someday? Then you can easily take the help of fast chargers or even battery swapping
services if you are on a two-wheeler on the road.

No noise pollution

Electric vehicles have the silent functioning capability as there is no engine under the hood. No
engine means no noise. The electric motor functions so silently that you need to peek into your
instrument panel to check if it is ON. Electric vehicles are so silent that manufacturers have to add
false sounds in order to make them safe for pedestrians.
 What Are the Main Reasons for the Demand for
Electric Vehicles in India?
 Environmental Concerns:
The escalating levels of air pollution in Indian cities have propelled the demand for electric
vehicles in India as a cleaner alternative to conventional petrol and diesel vehicles. Using
the Environmental benefits of electric vehicles helps to make cities cleaner and healthier
because they don't produce as much pollution as regular vehicles.
 Government Incentives:
The Indian government has taken steps like giving discounts, tax breaks, and money back to
encourage people to choose the best electric scooter in India. Programs like FAME have
made electric vehicles cheaper for a lot of people, which has made more people want to buy
them, which has increased the demand for electric vehicles in India.
 Rising Fuel Costs:
Fuel prices have been rising steadily, which has forced people to look for more affordable
options. As a result, demand for electric vehicles in India has increased rapidly. When
compared to their fossil fuel alternatives, electric bikes and scooters provide a more cost-
effective form of transportation due to their considerably lower operating expenses.
 EV technology advancements:
The fast progress in making electric vehicles better, especially in how long their batteries
last and how far they can go, has made people more sure about buying them. They work
better, there are many places to charge them up on the go, and they also have cool new
things that make them even better. That's why more people want to buy electric vehicles as
their main way to get around.
 Reduced Operating Costs:
Electric vehicles, like electric scooters and bikes, save money because they don't require
fuel and need as much maintenance when compared to traditional vehicles. This makes
them very appealing to people who want to save money. Many people are choosing electric
vehicles for getting around cities because of this reason. Demand for electric vehicles in
India is also surging due to these cost-saving benefits and the increasing awareness of
environmental sustainability.
 Urbanization and Traffic Congestion:
 India's cities are getting more crowded with buildings and people, which is making traffic
and pollution worse. To fix these problems, we need to use transportation that doesn't harm
the environment. Electric scooters and bikes are a perfect choice because they help reduce
traffic and pollution in busy city areas.
 Global Sustainable Mobility Trends:

Many people in India are choosing electric scooters and bikes because they care about the
environment. They want to help to reduce pollution and protect the planet. This shift
towards the demand for electric vehicles in India is happening because people are becoming
more aware of how important it is to take care of our world.
 Charging Infrastructure Development:
The EV charging infrastructure development and expansion across the country has been
pivotal in driving the demand for electric vehicles in India. With the establishment of
charging stations in urban centers and along major highways, range anxiety is alleviated,
making electric scooters and bikes a practical choice for daily commuting and long-distance
travel.
 Advocacy and Awareness Campaigns:
Efforts to make people aware and advocate for electric vehicles have been really important
in shaping what people think. Campaigns and educational programs that talk about how
electric scooters are good for the environment and can save money have helped many
people who care about the environment.
 Innovative Government Policies:
Smart government strategies that support the EV market growth factors and have fostered a
favorable environment for the electric vehicle market in India, thus fueling the demand for
electric vehicles in India. Policies like rewards for companies making electric vehicles,
financial aid for buyers, and requirements for using electric vehicles in public transport
have encouraged investment and advancements in the EV industry outlook.
 Corporate Fleets and Incentives:
More businesses are incorporating electric vehicles, such as scooters and bikes, into their
fleets. They are encouraging employees to make the switch to these electric options, driven
by the growing demand for electric vehicles in India. This shift not only helps companies
reduce their environmental impact but also supports the widespread adoption of e lectric
transportation.
 Improved Battery Technology:
Advancements in EV battery technology trends, including higher energy densities, faster
charging capabilities, and extended lifespan, have been instrumental in overcoming one of
the primary barriers to EV adoption. The EV adoption trends increased availability of better
and cheaper batteries also made electric vehicles more attractive and practical, driving the
demand for electric vehicles in India.

ELECTRIC VEHICLE HISTORY

The history of EVs is interesting. It includes the insurgence of EVs following the
discovery of electricity and the means of electromechanical energy conversion and
later being overtaken by gasoline-powered vehicles. People digressed from the
environmentally friendly mode of transportation due to lack of technology in the
early years, but they are again focused on the correct track today.
THE EARLY YEARS
Prior to the 1830s, the means of transportation was only through steam power,
because the laws of electromagnetic induction, and consequently, electric motors
and generators, were yet to be discovered. Faraday demonstrated the principle of
the electric motor as early as in 1820 through a wire rod carrying electric current
and a magnet, but in 1831 he discovered the laws of electromagnetic induction that
enabled the development and demonstration of the electric motors and generators
essential for electric transportation. The history of EVs in those early years up to its
peak period in the early 1900s is summarized below:
• Pre-830-Steam-powered transportation
• 1831—Faraday’s law, and shortly thereafter, invention of DC motor
• 1834—Non-rechargeable battery-powered electric car used on a short track
• 1851—Non-rechargeable 19 mph electric car
• 1859—Development of lead storage battery
• 1874—Battery-powered carriage
• Early 1870s-Electricity produced by dynamo-generators
• 1885—Gasoline-powered tricycle car
• 1900—4200 automobiles sold:
• 40% steam powered
• 38% electric powered
• 22% gasoline powered
The specifications of some of the early EVs are given below:
• 1897—French Krieger Co. EV: weight, 2230 lb; top speed, 15 mph; range, 50
mi/charge
• 1900—French B.G.S. Co. EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge
• 1912—34,000 EVs registered; EVs outnumber gas-powered vehicles 2-to-1
• 1915—Woods EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge
• 1915—Lansden EV: weight, 2460 lb, top speed, 93 mi/charge, capacity, 1 ton
payload
• 1920s—EVs disappear, and ICEVs become predominant
The factors that led to the disappearance of EV after its short period of success were
as follows:
1. Invention of starter motor in 1911 made gas vehicles easier to start.
2. Improvements in mass production of Henry T (gas-powered car) vehicles sold for
$260 in 1925, compared to $850 in 1909. EVs were more expensive.
3. Rural areas had limited access to electricity to charge batteries, whereas gasoline
could be sold in those areas.
1960s
Electric vehicles started to resurge in the 1960s, primarily due to environmental
hazards being caused by the emissions of ICEVs. The major ICEV manufacturers,
General Motors (GM) and Ford, became involved in EV research and development.
General Motors started a $15 million program that culminated in the vehicles called
Electrovair and Electrovan. The components and specifications of two Electrovair
vehicles (Electrovair I (1964) and Electrovair II (1966) by GM) are given below.
Systems and characteristics:
Motor—three-phase induction motor, 115 hp, 13,000 rev/m
Battery—silver-zinc (Ag-Zn), 512 V, 680 lb
Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
Top speed—80 mi/h
Range—40 to 80 miles
Acceleration—0–60 mi/h in 15.6 s
Vehicle weight—3400 lb
The Electrovair utilized the Chevy Corvair body and chassis. Among the positive
features was the acceleration performance that was comparable to the ICEV
Corvair. The major disadvantage of the vehicle was the silver-zinc (Ag-Zn) battery
pack that was too expensive and heavy, with a short cycle life and a long recharge
time.
An additional factor in the 1960s that provided the impetus for EV development
included ―The Great Electric Car Race‖ cross-country competition (3300 miles)
between an EV from Caltech and an EV from MIT in August 1968. The race
generated great public interest in EVs and provided an extensive road test of the EV
technology.
However, technology of the 1960s was not mature enough to produce a
commercially viable EV.
1970s
The scenario turned in favor of EVs in the early 1970s, as gasoline prices increased
dramatically due to an energy crisis. The Arab oil embargo of 1973 increased
demands for alternate energy sources, which led to immense interest in EVs. It
became highly desirable to be less dependent on foreign oil as a nation. In 1975,
352 electric vans were delivered to the U.S. Postal Service for testing. In 1976,
Congress enacted Public Law 94–413, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research,
Development and Demonstration Act of 1976. This act authorized a federal
program to promote electric and hybrid vehicle technologies and to demonstrate the
commercial feasibility of EVs.
1980s AND 1990s
In the 1980s and the 1990s, there were tremendous developments of high-power,
high-frequency semiconductor switches, along with the microprocessor revolution,
which led to improved power converter design to drive the electric motors
efficiently. Also in this period, factors contributed to the development of magnetic
bearings used in flywheel energy storage systems, although these are not utilized in
mainstream EV development projects. In the last 2 decades, legislative mandates
pushed the cause for zero-emission vehicles. Legislation passed by the California
Air Resources Board in 1990 stated that by 1998 2% of vehicles should be zero-
emission vehicles (ZEV) for each automotive company selling more than 35,000
vehicles. The percentages were to increase to 5% by 2001 and to 10% by 2003. The
legislation provided a tremendous impetus to develop EVs by the major automotive
manufacturers. The legislation was relaxed somewhat later due to practical
limitations and the inability of the manufacturers to meet the 1998 and 2001
requirements.
The mandate now stands that 4% of all vehicles sold should be ZEV by 2003, and
an additional 6% of the sales must be made up of ZEVs and partial ZEVs, which
would require GM to sell about 14,000 EVs in California. Motivated by the
pollution concern and potential energy crisis, government agencies, federal
laboratories, and the major automotive manufacturers launched a number of
initiatives to push for ZEVs. The partnership for next-generation vehicles (PNGV)
is such an initiative (established in 1993), which is a partnership of federal
laboratories and automotive industries to promote and develop electric and hybrid
electric vehicles. The most recent initiative by the DOE and the automotive
industries is the Freedom CAR initiative.
The trends in EV developments in recent years can be attributed to the following:
• High level of activity exists at the major automotive manufacturers.
• New independent manufacturers bring vigor.
• New prototypes are even better.
• High levels of activity overseas exist.
• There are high levels of hybrid vehicle activity.
• A boom in individual ICEV to EV conversions is ongoing.
• The fuel cell shows great promise in solving the battery range problem.
The case studies of two GM EVs of the 1990s are given below:
1. GM Impact 3 (1993 completed):
a. Based on 1990 Impact displayed at the Los Angeles auto show
b. Two-passenger, two-door coupe, street legal and safe
c. Initially, 12 built for testing; 50 built by 1995 to be evaluated by 1000 potential
customers
d. System and characteristics:
i. Motor—one, three-phase induction motor; 137 hp; 12,000 rev/m
ii. Battery pack—lead-acid (26), 12 V batteries connected in series (312 V), 869 lb
iii. Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs)
iv. Top speed—75 mph
v. Range—90 miles on highway
vi. Acceleration—0 to 60 miles in 8.5 s
vii. Vehicle weight—2900 lb
e. This vehicle was used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.
2. Saturn EVl
a. Commercially available electric vehicle made by GM in 1995.
b. Leased in California and Arizona for a total cost of about $30,000.
c. System and characteristics:
i. Motor—one, three-phase induction motor
ii. Battery pack—lead-acid batteries
iii. Motor drive—DC-to-AC inverter using IGBTs
iv. Top speed—75 mph
v. Range—90 miles on highway, 70 miles in city
vi. Acceleration—0 to 60 mi in 8.5 s

d. Power consumption:
i. 30 kW-h/100 mi in city, 25 kW-h/100 mi on highway
e. This vehicle was also used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.

RECENT EVs AND HEVs

All of the major automotive manufacturers have production EVs, many of which
are available for sale or lease to the general public. The status of these vehicle
programs changes rapidly, with manufacturers suspending production frequently
due to the small existing market demand of such vehicles. Examples of production
EVs which are or until recently have been available are GM EVl, Ford Think City,
Toyota RAV4, Nissan Hypermini, and Peugeot 106 Electric. There are also many
prototypes and experimental EVs being developed by the major automotive
manufacturers. Most of these vehicles use
AC induction motors or PM synchronous motors. Also, interestingly, almost all of
these vehicles use battery technology other than the lead-acid battery pack. The list
of EVs in production and under development is extensive, and readers are referred
to the literature3,4 for the details of many of these vehicles.
The manufacturers of EVs in the 1990s realized that their significant research and
development efforts on ZEV technologies were hindered by unsuitable battery
technologies. A number of auto industries started developing hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs) to overcome the battery and range problem of pure electric
vehicles. The Japanese auto industries lead this trend with Toyota, Honda, and
Nissan already marketing their Prius, Insight, and Tino model hybrids. The hybrid
vehicles use an electric motor and an internal combustion engine and, thus, do not
solve the pollution problem, although it does mitigate it. It is perceived by many
that the hybrids, with their multiple propulsion units and control complexities, are
not economically viable in the long run, although currently a number of
commercial, prototype, and experimental hybrid vehicle models are available from
almost all of the major automotive industries around the world. Toyota, Honda, and
Nissan are marketing the hybrid vehicles well below the production cost, with
significant subsidy and incentive from the government. However, the cost of HEVs
and EVs are expected to be high until production volume increases significantly.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) can be a viable alternative to battery electric
vehicles, serving as zero-emission vehicles without the range problem. Toyota is
leading the way with FCEV, announcing the availability of its FCEV in 2003. The
Toyota FCEV is based on the Toyota RAV4 model.

Types of Electric Cars

Different types of electric cars changed and are developed continuously giving
users and potential users choices. Today the world is increasingly familiar with the
terms BEV, HEV, PHEV and FCEV. How does an electric car work? How an
electric vehicle works is depend on the type. This article will briefly discuss the
types and working principles of electric cars or vehicles marketed in the World and
Indonesia today.

An electric car is a vehicle that is fully or partially propelled by electric motors,

using energy stored in rechargeable batteries. The first practical electric cars were
produced in the 1880s. Electric cars were popular in the late 19th century and early
20th century. Innovation and advanced development in internal combustion engines
(ICE) and mass production of cheaper gasoline vehicles has led to a decline in the use of
electric vehicles.
The development of energy storage technology, especially battery technology, makes electric
cars become more popular again at this time. So how an electric car work really?

How Does An Electric Car Work? – General

When pedal of the car is pressed, then:

 Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries and inverters
 With the controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of electrical
energy to the motor (according to the depth of pressure on the pedal)
 Electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotation)
 Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission so the wheels turn and
then the car moves.
Note: The working principle above is for battery electric vehicle (BEV)
type.

Types of Electric Vehicles

There are 4 (four) types of electric cars, with the following outline:

 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

 Hybrid
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)

 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV):Fully powered by electricity. These are more

efficient compared to hybrid and plug-in hybrids.
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle:
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): The vehicle uses both the internal combustion
(usually petrol) engine and the battery-powered motor powertrain. The petrol
engine is used both to drive and charge when the battery is empty. These vehicles
are not as efficient as fully electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Uses both an internal combustion engine
and a battery charged from an external socket (they have a plug). This means the
vehicle’s battery can be charged with electricity rather than the engine. PHEVs are
more efficient than HEVs but less efficient than BEVs.

 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV):Electric energy is produced from

chemical energy. For example, a hydrogen FCEV.
 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
 BEVs are also known as All-Electric Vehicles (AEV). Electric Vehicles using BEV technology
run entirely on a battery-powered electric drivetrain. The electricity used to drive the vehicle is
stored in a large battery pack which can be charged by plugging into the electricity grid. The
charged battery pack then provides power to one or more electric motors to run the electric
car. To find out more about BEVs, click below.
 Main Components of BEV:
 Electric motor, Inverter, Battery, Control Module, Drive train
 Working Principles of BEV:
 The power for the electric motor is converted from the DC Battery to AC. As the accelerator is
pressed, a signal is sent to the controller. The controller adjusts the speed of the vehicle by
changing the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor. The motor then
connects and leads to the turning of wheels through a cog. If the brakes are pressed, or the
electric car is decelerating, the motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is
sent back to the battery
 Examples of BEV:
 MG ZS, TATA Nexon, TATA Tigor, Mahindra E20 plus, Hyundai Kona, Mahindra Verito
Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), also called All-Electric Vehicle (AEV), runs
entirely on a battery and electric drive train. This types of electric cars do not have
an ICE. Electricity is stored in a large battery pack that is charged by plugging into
the electricity grid. The battery pack, in turn, provides power to one or more electric
motors to run the electric car.

Architecture and Main Components of

Working Principles of BEV

 Power is converted from the DC battery to AC for the electric motor
 The accelerator pedal sends a signal to the controller which adjusts the vehicle’s speed by
changing the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor
 The motor connects and turns the wheels through a cog
 When the brakes are pressed or the electric car is decelerating, the motor becomes an
alternator and produces power, which is sent back to the battery

Examples of BEV
Volkswagen e-Golf, Tesla Model 3, BMW i3, Chevy Bolt, Chevy Spark, Nissan
LEAF, Ford Focus Electric, Hyundai Ioniq, Karma Revera, Kia Soul, Mitsubishi i-
MiEV, Tesla X, Toyota Rav4.

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

This type of hybrid cars is often called as standard hybrid or paralel hybrid. HEV
has both an ICE and an electric motor. In this types of electric cars, internal
combustion engine gets energy from fuel (gasoline and others type of fuels), while
the motor gets electricity from batteries. The gasoline engine and electric motor
simultaneously rotate the transmission, which drives the wheels.

The difference between HEV compared to BEV and PHEV is where the batteries in
HEV can only charged by the ICE, the motion of the wheels or a combination of
both. There is no charging port, so that the battery cannot be recharged from outside
of the system, for example from the electricity grid.

Architecture and Main Components of HEV

Working Principles of HEV

 Has a fuel tank that supplies gas to the engine like a regular car
 It also has a set of batteries that run an electric motor
 Both the engine and electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time
Examples of HEV
Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Prius Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry
Hybrid.

 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV):

 HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs have both engine and electric
motor. The engine gets energy from fuel, and the motor gets electricity from batteries. The
transmission is rotated simultaneously by both engine and electric motor. This then drives the
wheels. To find out more about HEVs,

  Main Components of HEV:
 Engine, Electric motor, Battery pack with controller & inverter, Fuel tank, Control module
 Working Principles of HEV:
 The fuel tank supplies energy to the engine like a regular car. The batteries run on an electric
motor. Both the engine and electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time.
 Examples of HEV:
 Engine, Electric motor, Battery pack with controller & inverter, Fuel tank, Control module

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV):

The PHEVs are also known as series hybrids. They have both engine and a motor. You can choose
among the fuels, conventional fuel (such as petrol) or alternative fuel (such as bio-diesel). It can also
be powered by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be charged externally. To find out more
about PHEVs, click below.

PHEVs can run in at least 2 modes:

 All-electric Mode, in which the motor and battery provide all the car’s energy
 Hybrid Mode, in which both electricity and petrol/diesel are employed

Main Components of PHEV:

Electric motor, Engine, Inverter, Battery, Fuel tank, Control module, Battery Charger (if onboard
model)

Working Principles of PHEV:

PHEVs start-up in all-electric mode and make use of electricity until their battery pack is depleted.
Once the battery gets drained, the engine takes over, and the vehicle operates as a conventional,
non-plug-in hybrid. PHEVs can be charged by plugging into an outside electric power source, engine,
or regenerative braking. When brakes are applied, the electric motor acts as a generator, using the
energy to charge the battery. The engine’s power is supplemented by the electric motor; as a result,
smaller engines can be used, increasing the car’s fuel efficiency without compromising performance.

Examples of PHEV:

Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, BMW 330e, Porsche Panamera S E-hybrid, Chevy Volt, Chrysler
Pacifica, Ford C-Max Energi, Mercedes C350e, Mercedes S550e, Mercedes GLE550e, Mini Cooper
SE Countryman, Ford Fusion Energi, Audi A3 E-Tron, BMW i8, BMW X5 xdrive40e, Fiat 500e,
Hyundai Sonata, Kia Optima, Volvo XC90 T8.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
PHEV is a type of hybrid vehicle that both an ICE and a motor, often called
as series hybrid. This types of electric cars offers a choice of fuels. This type of
electric cars is powered by a conventional fuel (such as gasoline) or an alternative
fuel (such bio-diesel) and by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be
charged up with electricity by plugging into an electrical outlet or electric vehicle
charging station (EVCS).
PHEV typically can run in at least two modes:

 All-electric Mode, in which the motor and battery provide all the car’s energy
 Hybrid Mode, in which both electricity and gasoline are employed.
Some PHEVs can travel more than 70 miles on electricity alone.

Architecture and Main Components of PHEV

Working Principles of PHEV

PHEVs typically start up in all-electric mode and operate on electricity until their
battery pack is depleted. Some models shift to hybrid mode when they reach
highway cruising speed, generally above 60 or 70 miles per hour. Once the battery
is empty, the engine takes over and the vehicle operates as a conventional, non-
plug-in hybrid.
In addition to plugging into an outside electric power source, PHEV batteries can be
charged by an internal combustion engine or regenerative braking. During braking,
the electric motor acts as a generator, using the energy to charge the battery. The
electric motor supplements the engine’s power; as a result, smaller engines can be
used, increasing the car’s fuel efficiency without compromising performance.

Examples of PHEV
Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid , Chevy Volt, Chrysler Pacifica, Ford C-Max Energi,
Ford Fusion Energi, Mercedes C350e, Mercedes S550e, Mercedes GLE550e, Mini
Cooper SE Countryman, Audi A3 E-Tron, BMW 330e, BMW i8, BMW X5
xdrive40e, Fiat 500e, Hyundai Sonata, Kia Optima, Porsche Panamera S E-hybrid,
Volvo XC90 T8

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle(FCEV):

FCEVs are also known as Zero-Emission Vehicles. They employ ‘fuel cell technology’ to generate the
electricity required to run the vehicle. The chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into electric
energy. To find out more about FCEVs, click below.

Main Components of FCEV:

Electric motor, Fuel-cell stack, Hydrogen storage tank, battery with converter and controller

Working Principles of FCEV:

The FCEV generates the electricity required to run this vehicle on the vehicle itself.

Examples of FCEV:

Toyota Mirai, Riversimple Rasa, Hyundai Tucson FCEV, Honda Clarity Fuel Cell, Hyundai Nexo.

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), also known as fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) or
Zero Emission Vehicle, are types of electric cars that employ ‘fuel cell technology’
to generate the electricity required to run the vehicle. In this type of vehicles, the
chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into electric energy.

Architecture and Main Components of FCEV

Working Principles of FCEV
The working principle of a ‘fuel cell’ electric car is different compared to that of a
‘plug-in’ electric car. This types of electric cars is because the FCEV generates the
electricity required to run this vehicle on the vehicle itself.

Examples of FCEV
Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Tucson FCEV, Riversimple Rasa, Honda Clarity Fuel Cell,
Hyundai Nexo.

Advantages and applications of Electric Vehicles.

Advantages of electric vehicles

Lower running costs

The running cost of an electric vehicle is much lower than an equivalent petrol or diesel vehicle.
Electric vehicles use electricity to charge their batteries instead of using fossil fuels like petrol or
diesel. Electric vehicles are more efficient, and that combined with the electricity cost means that
charging an electric vehicle is cheaper than filling petrol or diesel for your travel requirements. Using
renewable energy sources can make the use of electric vehicles more eco-friendly. The electricity
cost can be reduced further if charging is done with the help of renewable energy sources installed at
home, such as solar panels.

Zero Tailpipe Emissions

Driving an electric vehicle can help you reduce your carbon footprint because there will be zero
tailpipe emissions. You can reduce the environmental impact of charging your vehicle further by
choosing renewable energy options for home electricity.

Tax and financial benefits

Registration fees and road tax on purchasing electric vehicles are lesser than petrol or diesel
vehicles. There are multiple policies and incentives offered by the government depending on which
state you are in. To find out more about electric vehicle incentives

Petrol and diesel use is destroying our planet

The availability of fossil fuels is limited, and their use is destroying our planet. Toxic emissions from
petrol and diesel vehicles lead to long-term, adverse effects on public health. The emissions impact of
electric vehicles is much lower than petrol or diesel vehicles. From an efficiency perspective, electric
vehicles can covert around 60% of the electrical energy from the grid to power the wheels, but petrol
or diesel cars can only convert 17%-21% of the energy stored in the fuel to the wheels. That is a
waste of around 80%. Fully electric vehicles have zero tailpipe emissions, but even when electricity
production is taken into account, petrol or diesel vehicles emit almost 3 times more carbon dioxide
than the average EV. To reduce the impact of charging electric vehicles, India is ambitious to achieve
about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy
resources by the year 2030. Therefore, electric vehicles are the way forward for Indian transport, and
we must switch to them now.

lectric Vehicles are easy to drive and quiet

Electric vehicles don’t have gears and are very convenient to drive. There are no complicated
controls, just accelerate, brake, and steer. When you want to charge your vehicle, just plug it in to a
home or public charger. Electric vehicles are also quiet, so they reduce noise pollution that traditional
vehicles contribute to.

Convenience of charging at home

Imagine being at a busy fuel station during peak hours, and you are getting late to reach your
workplace. These problems can easily be overcome with an electric vehicle. Simply plug your vehicle
in at your home charger for 4-5 hours before you plan to go. If you are able to get a charger where
you park at home, it is very convenient to plan your journeys in advance. What if you forget to plug in
your machine someday? Then you can easily take the help of fast chargers or even battery swapping
services if you are on a two-wheeler on the road.

No noise pollution

Electric vehicles have the silent functioning capability as there is no engine under the hood. No
engine means no noise. The electric motor functions so silently that you need to peek into your
instrument panel to check if it is ON. Electric vehicles are so silent that manufacturers have to add
false sounds in order to make them safe for pedestrians.

Applications
Electric vehicles are used for many different applications, including transportation, shipping and
delivery services, passenger transportation, and military operations. They provide an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional gasoline-powered cars, buses, and trucks, as
they produce no emissions while in use. Electric vehicles can also be used in remote areas that
don’t have access to other
William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion
system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid-1889.

He went on to test and market the Patton Motor Car, a gas-electric hybrid system used to
drive tram cars and small locomotives.

A gasoline engine drove a generator that served to charge a lead acid battery in parallel with the
traction motors. A conventional series-parallel controller was used for the traction motors.

A prototype was built in 1889, an experimental tram car was run in Pullman, Illinois, in 1891,
and a production locomotive was sold to a street railway company in Cedar Falls, Iowa, in 1897

In 1896, the Armstrong Phaeton was developed by Harry E. Dey and built by the
Armstrong Company of Bridgeport, CT for the Roger Mechanical Carriage Company.

Though there were steam, electric, and internal combustion vehicles introduced in the early
days, the Armstrong Phaeton was innovative with many firsts. Not only did it have a gasoline
powered 6.5-liter, two-cylinder engine, but also a dynamo flywheel connected to an onboard
battery.

The dynamo and regenerative braking were used to charge the battery. Its electric starter was
used 16 years before Cadillac's. The dynamo also provided ignition spark and powered the
electric lamps. The Phaeton also had the first semi-automatic transmission (no manual clutch).

The exhaust system was an integrated structural component of the vehicle. The Armstrong
Phaeton's motor was too powerful; the torque damaged the carriage wheels repeatedly.

In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche developed the Mixte,[a
4WD series-hybrid version of "System Lohner–Porsche" electric carriage that previously
appeared in 1900 Paris World Fair.[ George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England in 1901;
Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902.

Figure 1 of Henri Pieper's 1905 Hybrid Vehicle Patent Application

In 1905, Henri Pieper of Germany/Belgium introduced a hybrid vehicle with an electric
motor/generator, batteries, and a small gasoline engine. It used the electric motor to charge its
batteries at cruise speed and used both motors to accelerate or climb a hill. The Pieper factory
was taken over by Impéria, after Pieper died.

The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-
cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the
vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to
take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.

The Woods hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too
difficult to service. In England, the prototype Lanchester petrol-electric car was made in 1927.
It was not a success, but the vehicle is on display in Thinktank, Birmingham Science
Museum. The United States Army's 1928 Experimental Motorized Force tested a gasoline-
electric bus in a truck convoy.[citation needed]

In 1931, Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower electric
car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum speed was 25 miles per
hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport Office, taxed by the German
Revenue Department and patented by the German Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-
charged by the motor when the car went downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was
provided by a cylinder of compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by
vibrations of the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxyhydrogen gas. No production
beyond the prototype was reported.
Here are the advantages of electric vehicles in India.

1. Lower running costs

Since you are not paying for petrol or diesel to keep your EV running, you save a lot of money on fuel.
The cost to charge an electric vehicle compared to the price of petrol or diesel is substantially low.
You can reduce the electricity cost further by utilising renewable energy sources such as solar.

2. Low maintenance costs

Petrol or diesel-powered vehicles require regular maintenance since they have multiple moving parts.
That’s not the case with electric vehicles since they have comparatively lesser moving parts. This
means that your electric car is likely to have lower maintenance costs in the long run.

3. Tax and financial benefits

With India embracing the inclusion of EVs, the government offers several policies and incentives to
encourage the usage of such vehicles. For instance, the registration fees and road tax on purchasing
EVs are lesser than ICE vehicles.

4. Better performance
In the past, EVs were seen as impractical. However, that has changed over the years, with
manufacturers offering well-designed and good-looking EVs. Even the performance of EVs has
changed for the better. Electric Vehicles are lighter in weight, and their acceleration is impeccable
compared to fuel-powered vehicles.

5. Zero tailpipe emissions

EVs emit zero tailpipe emissions, helping reduce the carbon footprint. You can further reduce your
carbon footprint by utilising renewable energy to charge your EV.

Also, read: Electric Car Insurance

6. Easy to drive and quiet

With lesser moving parts and uncomplicated controls, EVs are easy to drive. Also, you can plug such
a vehicle into a public or home charging station when you want to charge it. They are also quiet,
thereby reducing the sound levels that fuel-powered vehicles generate.

7. Convenience of charging at home

There is no need to find the nearest petrol station to fill fuel. Charge your EV at home and get moving.
With new-age charging technology, you can charge an EV quickly or even take advantage of battery
swapping services to keep driving without worrying about the availability of conventional fuel.

8. No fuel, no emissions
One of the most significant advantages of EVs is their impact on our environment. Pure EVs have
zero tailpipe emissions, which reduces air pollution. Since the electric motor of the EV operates on a
closed circuit, it does not emit any harmful gases. Pure electric cars do not require petrol or diesel,
which is excellent for the environment.

9. Spacious cabin and more storage

With less moving parts, electric vehicles offer the opportunity to convert these spaces into storage
and offer larger cabin room. You can also find storage spaces under the hood since the conventional
ICE is no more there. EV motors and batteries do not take a lot of space compared to fuel-powered
vehicles.

10. They are future proof

With several countries pledging to gradually reduce their dependence on petrol and diesel (fossil
fuels), EVs are considered a sustainable alternative.