PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF NEURONS

NEURONS- are specialized cells in the nervous system responsible for transmitting information throughout the body.

o Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system.

o They are specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals.
o Each neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites and an axon.
o Neurons can vary in shape and size according to their function.
o They communicate with each other through synapses, where neurotransmitters are released and
received.
o Neurons are vital for transmitting signals that control all bodily functions.
o They process sensory information, allowing us to perceive our environment.
o Neurons facilitate communication between different parts of the nervous system.
o They are responsible for reflex actions that protect the body from harm.
o Dysfunction or damage to neurons can lead to neurological disorders.

Dendrites- are the branched, tree-like extensions of a neuron that receive electrical signals from other neurons. They
function as the main receptive surface for incoming synaptic inputs, transmitting these signals toward the neuron's cell
body (soma) for processing.

Nucleus- is a membrane-bound structure found in the cell body (soma) of a neuron, as well as in most other cells. It
serves as the control center of the cell, containing the cell's genetic material (DNA) and regulating gene expression. The
spherical DNA-containing structure of the cell body It contains the nucleolus and chromosomes, which are necessary for
the coded production of proteins within the cell

Soma, or cell body- main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles like mitochondria and
ribosomes. It serves as the metabolic center of the neuron and is responsible for processing signals received from the
dendrites. Additionally, the soma maintains the neuron's health, processes incoming signals, and sends them to the
axon, which then transmits the signals to another neuron or target cell.

Schwann cells- specialized glial cells found in the peripheral nervous system. Their primary role is to form the myelin
sheath, a fatty layer that wraps around the axons of neurons, acting as insulation. Schwann cells also help in the repair
and regeneration of damaged nerves, playing a key role in maintaining nerve function

Myelin sheath- crucial for speeding up the transmission of electrical impulses along the axon, ensuring efficient
communication between neurons. fatty layer that wraps around the axons of neurons, formed by specialized glial cells.
In the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath, while in the central nervous system,
oligodendrocytes perform this function. This insulating layer consists primarily of lipids and proteins and is crucial for the
proper functioning of the nervous system.

Node of Ranvier - a small, unmyelinated gap found along the axon of a neuron, located between segments of the
myelin sheath produced by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous
system. These nodes are characterized by a high concentration of voltage-gated sodium channels, which are essential
for generating action potentials.

Axon terminal- also known as the synaptic terminal or terminal button, is the distal end of an axon where it makes
synaptic connections with other neurons, muscle cells, or glands. This structure contains synaptic vesicles
filled with neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses to other cells.
Axon- a long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body (soma) toward
other neurons, muscles, or glands. Axons vary in length and diameter and can be myelinated (wrapped in a myelin
sheath) or unmyelinated. The myelin sheath, if present, is formed by glial cells and serves as an insulating layer,
enhancing the speed of impulse transmission.

Cell membrane- Membrane is composed of two layers of lipid or fat molecules (phospholipids, in particular). Outer
layer of the cell that separates the extracellular processes to the intracellular processes.

Mitochondria- Sites of aerobic (oxygen-consuming) energy release. Powerhouse of the Cell Aerobic (oxygen-based)
metabolism of nutrients within the membrane structure of mitochondria is used to synthesize adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). The ATP molecule stores energy within its chemical bonds, releasing this energy to fuel cellular processes as
needed. WHERE CELLULAR RESPIRATION OCCUR.

Endoplasmic Reticulum- system of folded membranes in the cell body

• Rough ER (those with ribosomes) play a role in the synthesis of proteins

• Smooth ER (those without ribosomes)
play a role in the synthesis of fats
Cytoplasm- The clear internal fluid of the cell. Composes the bulk of cellular
material.
Ribosomes- Internal cellular structures on which proteins are synthesized; they are located on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum and nucleus.

Golgi complex \ Golgi Apparatus- connected system of membranes that packages molecules in vesicles. It is
responsible for packaging proteins into vesicles prior to secretion and therefore plays a key role in the secretory
pathway.

Microtubules- Tubules responsible for the rapid transport of material throughout neurons. Microtubules in a neuron
are used to transport substances to different parts of the cell. These microtubule arrays provide a structural backbone
for axons and dendrites that allows them to acquire and maintain their specialized morphologies.

Synaptic Vesicle- Spherical membrane packages that store neurotransmitter molecules ready for release near
synapses.

Neurotransmitters- Molecules that are released from active neurons and influence the activity of other cells. Control all
aspects of our behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

Neurons Function in sequence

Send: The electrical signals are transmitted across the synapse, the gap between neurons, using chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters.

Transmit: Neurons receive electrical signals from other neurons through their dendrites.

Receive: Neurons send electrical signals, called nerve impulses or action potentials, along their axons to other neurons,
muscles, or glands.

Neurons act as the communication network of the nervous system, sending and receiving information to and from
different parts of the body
TYPES OF NEURONS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Sensory neurons- (sometimes referred to as afferent neurons) are nerve cells that carry nerve impulses from sensory
receptors toward the central nervous system and brain. are characterized as being pseudounipolar. This means that they
have one axon which is split into two branches.

Motor neurons- (also referred to as efferent neurons) are the nerve cells responsible for carrying signals away from the
central nervous system towards muscles to cause movement. They release neurotransmitters to trigger responses
leading to muscle movement. Are multipolar. This means they have one axon and several dendrites projecting from the
cell body.

• Upper motor neurons – these are neurons that travel between the brain and the spinal cord.
• Lower motor neurons – these are neurons that travel from the spinal cord to the muscles of the body.

Relay neuron- (also known as an interneuron) allows sensory and motor neurons to communicate with each other.
Relay neurons connect various neurons within the brain and spinal cord and are easy to recognize due to their short
axons. Are multipolar. This means they have one axon and several dendrites. The communication between interneurons
assists the brain in completing complex functions such as learning and decision-making, as well as playing a vital role in
reflexes and neurogenesis – which means the regeneration of new neurons.

GLIAL CELLS

• Non-neuronal cells and do not transmit electrical impulses, plays an important role in maintaining equilibrium.
• Glial cell help support, connect, and protect the neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems

GLIAL CELLS IN CNS

• Astrocytes- play critical roles in many functions, including regulation of blood flow, homeostasis of extracellular
fluid, ions and transmitters, energy provision, and regulation of synapse function, and synaptic remodeling
• Oligodendrocytes- are a type of neuroglia whose main functions are to provide support and insulation to
axons within the central nervous system (CNS) of jawed vertebrates.
• Microglia- They act as the brain's own dedicated immune system. The brain needs its own immune system
because the blood-brain barrier isolates the brain from the rest of your body.
• Ependymal cells- develop in the ventricles and fluid-filled compartments of the CNS. They provide the lining for
these fluid-filled spaces and help form and transport cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

GLIAL CELLS IN PNS

• Satellite cells- main purpose appears to be regulating the environment around the neurons, keeping chemicals
in balance.
• Schwann cells- They function a lot like oligodendrocytes by providing myelin sheaths for axons. However,
Schwann cells are found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) rather than the CNS

Synapse- the junction between two neurons. It is not an anatomical continuation. But it is only a physiological
continuity between two nerve cells.

Synapse is classified by two methods:

A. Anatomical Classifications
B. Functional Classification
 ➢ Anatomical Classification
Usually, synapse is formed by axon of one neuron ending, on the cell body, dentrite or axon of the next neuron.
Depending upon ending of axon, synapse is classified into three types:
1. Axoaxonic synapse in which axon of one neuron terminates on axon of another neuron. Axon to axon
2. Axodendritic synapse in which the axon of one neuron terminates on dentrite of another neuron. Axon to dendrites
3. Axosomatic synapse in which axon of one neuron ends on soma (cell body) of another neuron. Axon to soma/cell
body
➢ Function Classification
Function Classification of synapse is on the basis of mode of impulse transmission Synapse is classified into two
categories:
•However, generally the word synapse refers to a Chemical Synapse
1. Electrical Synapse
• Electrical Synapse is the synapse in which the physiological continuity between the presynaptic and the
post
• synaptic delay is very less because of the direct flow of current. Moreover, the impulse is transmitted in
either direction through the electrical Synapse.
• occurs in some tissues like the cardiac muscle fibers, smooth muscle fibers of intestine and the epithelial
cells of lens in the eye
2. Chemical Synapse

• Chemical Synapse is the junction between a nerve fiber and a muscle fiber or between two nerve fibers,
through which the signal is transmitted by the release of chemical transmitter. In chemical synapse,
there is no continuity between the two neurons because of the presence of a space called synaptic
cleft between the two neurons
• Action potential reaching the presynaptic terminal causes release of neurotransmitter substance from
the vesicles of this terminal. Neurotransmitter reaches the postsynaptic neuron through synaptic cleft
and causes the production of potential damage

Main function of the synapse is to transmit the impulses, i.e. action potential from one neuron to another. However,
some of the synapses inhibit these impulses. So, the impulses are not transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron. On the
basis of function, synapses are divided into two types:

1. Excitatory synapses, which transmit the impulses (excitatory function)

2. Inhibitory synapses, which inhibit the transmission of impulses (inhibitory function)