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Basic Components:
Motherboard
A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer. The motherboard is a
computer’s central communications backbone connectivity point, through which all components
and external peripherals connect. The large PCB of a motherboard may include 6-14 layers of
fiberglass, copper connecting traces and copper planes for power and signal isolation. These may
include processor sockets, DIMM, HTX and PCI slots as well as power supply connections.
Typically motherboards offer additional connectivity through a Southbridge chip such as PCI,
SATA, Thunderbolt, USB and more.
Hard Disk
A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive or fixed disk is a data storage device that
uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital information using one or more rigid rapidly
rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material. Data is accessed in a random-
access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order and
not only sequentially. HDDs are a type of non-volatile memory, retaining stored data even when
Processor
RAM
Alternatively referred to as main memory, primary memory, or system memory, Random Access
Memory (RAM) is a hardware device that allows information to be stored and retrieved on a
computer. RAM is usually associated with DRAM, which is a type of memory module. Because
information is accessed randomly instead of sequentially like it is on a CD or hard drive, the
computer can access the data much faster.
Keyboard
A computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a computer that looks similar
to those found on electric typewriters, but with some additional keys. Keyboards allow you to
input letters, numbers, and other symbols into a computer that can serve as commands or be used
to type text. The following image shows a 104-key Site keyboard with indicators pointing to each
of the major key sections of a keyboard including the control keys, function keys, LED indicators,
wrist pad, arrow keys, and keypad.
Mouse
A mouse is a small device that a computer user pushes across a desk surface in order to point to a
place on a display screen and to select one or more actions to take from that position. The mouse
first became a widely-used computer tool when Apple Computer made it a standard part of the
Apple Macintosh. Today, the mouse is an integral part of the graphical user interface (GUI) of any
personal computer.
Screen resolution
In days gone by, screen resolution (also called display resolution) wasn’t much of an issue.
Windows came with a few preset options and to get higher resolution or more colors (or both) you
would install a driver for your video card. As time went on, you could choose better video cards
and better monitors as well. Today we have lots of options when it comes to displays, their quality
and the supported resolutions.
Basic Components
Hard Drives
Laptop hard drives are smaller and more expensive than their desktop counterparts. While a
desktop computer often comes with a hard drive with between 500 gigabytes and 2 terabytes of
capacity, most laptops get by with a standard-issue drive with only 100 to 500 gigabytes. That’s
still enough for thousands of songs and pictures or dozens of movies.
Memory
There is an old saying in the computer industry that you can never be too rich or have too much
memory. It’s true. When a computer loads a program, it takes the information from the
comparatively slow hard drive and temporarily stores it in its much faster Random Access Memory
(RAM) drive. Having more RAM will allow you to open up more programs simultaneously
without slowing down the computer.
Processor Speed
In the old days, you would have judged a computer almost exclusively by the speed of its
processor. Today, most new computers feature processors that are more than sufficient for most
everyday tasks including the use of office applications and Internet browsing. Laptops marketed
as net books come with low-voltage processors that will extend your battery life, while traditional
laptops will have standard processors.
Screen Size
Think seriously about how much screen size you really need, because a large screen will feel much
less portable. The smallest net books have screen sizes of eight or nine inches, while laptops built
for presentations and large-scale viewing can have screens up to 17 inches. Eight or nine inches
will be plenty for surfing and reading emails, but if you’re working with larger documents, photos,
or movies, you’ll need at least 11 inches.
Screen Backlight
An LED screen is a great new feature for your laptop. LED lighting technology offers a better
picture, is more durable, and consumes less power. The older, florescent displays usually fail after
a few years and cost you a lot to replace, while LED backlights should outlive the rest of your
laptop’s components. Moreover, less power consumption translates into a longer battery life.
Keyboard
The size of your laptop’s keyboard will depend on the screen size you choose. If you seek the
portability of a small screen, you probably won’t have a full-sized keyboard. Small keyboards are
tough to begin with if you have big hands or big fingers, but they’ll also be missing some of the
shortcut keys you might be used to.
Before you buy a laptop, make sure that the keyboard fits your hands and is easy to use.
Additionally, some laptops have traditional, raised keys while others have a keyboard that sits
more flush with the laptop. The slight difference can make a big difference in comfort. Some also
offer backlit keys to help you in the dark, though that convenience can drain the battery power.
Battery Life
One of the limiting factors of any laptop is its battery life. You need to consider your lifestyle and
decide how important battery life is to you and how much extra you’re willing to pay for a
computer with a long-lasting battery. Factors that can increase battery life include LED lit screens,
solid state drives, and low-power processors. These newer technologies consume less power,
which is a far more convenient way to extend battery life than including a larger and heavier
battery.
The best laptops will offer a battery life of close to 10 hours. This can enable students to use their
laptop throughout the day without ever having to plug it in. A longer battery life can also be very
useful to work at coffee shops, or watch movies on long car rides and plane trips. With most
laptops, you can also purchase a second battery to extend your computer’s battery life.
LAN Adapter
A LAN adapter is a device used to allow a computer to interface with a network. Many computers
may have some sort of LAN adapter already installed, but others may require a special installation,
which is accomplished by adding a network interface card to the system or possibly connecting
the adapter to a USB port.Most networks that are used in an office or home environment are known
as local area networks (LANs). This type of network is one used over a limited geographic area.
Most of the time, the network goes no further than the building which houses its main components,
though that is not always the case. A LAN adapter is simply one that is able to access this type of
network.
HUB
Hubs are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their low cost. Small hubs
with four or five ports (often referred to as workgroup hubs) cost less than $50; with the requisite
cables, they provide everything needed to create a small network. Hubs with more ports are
available for networks that require greater capacity.
Advantages of Hub :
1) Hub is less expensive product.
2) Hubs can extend a network total distance.
3) Hubs do not seriously affect network performance.
Disadvantages of Hub:
1) It will broadcast to all the ports
2) It runs half duplex
3) If 10 Ports in a hub it will share bandwidth of 100 Mb Ps. So each port share 10 Mbps
Applications of Hub
Networking Hub is widely used networking connectivity device. It has many advantages over
other connectivity devices. Some Application of Networking Hub are given below:
Switches
A network switch also connects computers to each other, like a hub. Where the switch differs from
a hub is in the way it handles packets of data. When a switch receives a packet of data, it determines
what computer or device the packet is intended for and sends it to that computer only. It does not
broadcast the packet to all computers as a hub does which means bandwidth is not shared and
makes the network much more efficient
Advantages of Switches:
mapping
4) Compared to Bridge, Switches are more H/w oriented therefore operations are less CPU
intense [Basic operations].
5) The cost to number of ports ratio is best for a cheaper cost you get switches with more number
of ports available than Routers.
Disadvantages of Switches :
Router
A router connects networks. Based on its current understanding of the state of the network it is
connected to, a router acts as a dispatcher as it decides which way to send each information packet.
A router is located at any gateway (where one network meets another), including each point-of-
presence on the internet. A router is often included as part of a network switch.
Advantage of Routers -
Disadvantage of Routers -
Bridge
A network bridge helps to join two otherwise separate computer networks together to enable
communication between them. Bridge devices are used with local area networks (LANs) for
extending their reach to cover larger physical areas.
Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC addresses, and sometimes the frame
size - in making individual forwarding decisions. Bridge devices operate at the data link layer
(Layer 2) of the OSI model.
Several different kinds of bridge devices exist, each designed for specific kinds of
networks including Wireless bridges - support Wi-Fi wireless access points .Wi-Fi Ethernet
bridges allows connecting Ethernet clients and interfacing them to a local Wi-Fi network, useful
for older network devices that lack Wi-Fi capability
Wireless Bridging
Bridging is especially popular on Wi-Fi computer networks. In Wi-Fi, wireless bridging requires
access points communicate with each other in a special mode that supports the traffic needing to
flow between them. Two access points that support wireless bridging mode work in pairs. Each
continues to supports their own local networks of connected clients while additionally
communicating with the other to handle bridging traffic. Network professionals sometimes use the
term "BSS" - Basic Service Set - to refer to an access point and its local clients. Wireless bridging
joined two BSS networks together. Bridging mode can be activated on an access point through an
administrative setting or sometimes a physical switch on the unit. Not all access points support
wireless bridging mode; consult the manufacturer's documentation to determine whether a given
model supports this feature.
Transmission Mediums
Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals are
transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another. Electromagnetic
signals travel through vacuum, air or other transmission mediums to travel between one point to
another (from source to receiver).
Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) includes power, voice, visible
light, radio waves, ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another.
The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven layer model is dedicated
to the transmission media, we will study the OSI Model later.
• Flexible
• Cheap
• It has high speed capacity,
• 100 meter limit
• Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.
This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).
It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It
is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.
• Easy to install
• Performance is adequate
• Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
• Increases the signal rate
• Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Difficult to manufacture
• Heavy
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is
surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
barid or both. Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor
which completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The
outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Here the most common coaxial standards.
• Bandwidth is high
• Used in long distance telephone lines.
• Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
• Much higher noise immunity
• Data transmission without distortion.
• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared
to twisted pair cable
Disadvantages :
The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of refraction as
compared to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to protect
the cladding. The fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)
• These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
• Used for both analog and digital signals.
• It is expensive
• Difficult to install.
• Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
• Do not allow complete routing of light signals.
• Radio Transmission
• MicroWave Transmission
Radio Transmission
Its frequency is between 10 kHz to 1GHz. It is simple to install and has high attenuation. These
waves are used for multicast communications.
Types of Propogation
Radio Transmission utilizes different types of propogation :
Microwave Transmission
It travels at high frequency than the radio waves. It requires the sender to be inside of the receiver.
It operates in a system with a low gigahertz range. It is mostly used for unicast communication.
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
• It is Very costly
Crimping tool
A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or both of them
in a way that causes them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a crimp. A good
example of crimping is the process of affixing a connector to the end of a cable. For instance,
network cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool (shown below) to join the RJ-
45 and RJ-11 connectors to the both ends of either phone or CAT5 cable
Connector
Electrical connector, a device for joining electrical circuits together (sometimes known as ports,
plugs, or interfaces) AC power plugs and sockets, devices that allow electrically operated
equipment to be connected to the primary alternating current power supply in a building. RF
connector, an electrical connector designed to work at radio frequencies in the multi-megahertz
range. Circular connector
The cable can be categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6 UTP cable. Cat 5 UTP cable can support
10/100 Mbps Ethernet network, whereas Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP cable can support Ethernet network
running at 10/100/1000 Mbps. You might heard about Cat 3 UTP cable, it's not popular anymore
since it can only support 10 Mbps Ethernet network.
Straight and crossover cable can be Cat3, Cat 5, Cat 5e or Cat 6 UTP cable, the only difference is
each type will have different wire arrangement in the cable for serving different purposes.
Straight Cable
You usually use straight cable to connect different type of devices. This type of cable will be used
most of the time and can be used to:
If you need to check how straight cable looks like, it's easy. Both side (side A and side B) of
cable have wire arrangement with same color. Check out different types of straight cable that are
available in the market here.
Crossover Cable
Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to connect same type of devices. A
crossover cable can be used to:
In you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both side (side A and side B) of cable have
wire arrangement with following different color . Have a look on these crossover cables if you
plan to buy one. You can also find more network cable choices and information from Comtrad
Cables.
3. Arrange wires
5. Attach connector
6. Check
7. Crimp
8. Test
Step 6 – Check
⚫ Do all wires extend to end?
Step 7 – Crimp
Network topology
A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
There are two ways of defining network geometry : the physical topology and the logical (or signal)
topology. The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of work-stations.
There are several common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration.
Bus topology:
In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus.
Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the
network.
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Star topology:
In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the workstations are
directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other through the central
computer.
Ring topology :
In the ring network topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration.
Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly
connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes.
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Mesh topology :
The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full mesh and partial mesh. In
the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial
mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are connected only to
those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Tree topology :
BTCS403 Computer Networks–I Page 33
B -tech CSE Computer network lab manual
The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The central
computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network
of star networks.
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
Packet Tracer
Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco Systems that allows
users to create network topologies and imitate modern computer networks. The software allows
users to simulate the configuration of Cisco routers and switches using a simulated command line
interface. Packet Tracer makes use of a drag and drop user interface, allowing users to add and
remove simulated network devices as they see fit. The software is mainly focused towards
Certified Cisco Network Associate Academy students as an educational tool for helping them learn
fundamental CCNA concepts. Students enrolled in a CCNA Academy program can freely
download and use the tool free of charge for educational use.
In addition to simulating certain aspects of computer networks, Packet Tracer can also be used for
collaboration. As of Packet Tracer 5.0, Packet Tracer supports a multi-user system that enables
multiple users to connect multiple topologies together over a computer network. Packet Tracer
also allows instructors to create activities that students have to complete. Packet Tracer is often
used in educational settings as a learning aid. Cisco Systems claims that Packet Tracer is useful
for network experimentation.
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