Practicals:

Course: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Course Code : 313317
Practical Practical Titles Page.No
No
1 *Specimen preparation of a given material for microscopic examination.
2 *Interpretation of microstructure of steels and alloy steels using
metallurgical microscope on standard specimens.
3 *Hardness testing on Brinell Hardness tester of given sample material.
4 Hardness testing on Rockwell Hardness tester of given sample material.
5 Hardness testing on relevant hardness testers of given Copper and
Brass specimens.
6 *Microstructure of cast iron using metallurgical microscope on standard
specimens.
7 *Adhesive strength determination of cellophane tape and duct tape
using a relevant peel tester.
8 *Identification of different types of plastics using flame tests.
9 *Identification of behavior of the shape-memory alloy as a function
with regards to temperature using High-temperature oven or electrical
current.
10 *Comparison of hardness of mild steel using quenching mediums like oil
,water & brine in a muffle /box type furnace .
11 Comparison of hardness of alloy steel using quenching mediums like
oil ,water & brine in a muffle /box type furnace .
12 Comparison of Ancient Indian material development processes with
recent processes.

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Practical No 1: Specimen preparation of a given material for microscopic examination (brass, steel or
aluminium sample)

Abstract:Proper preparation of metallographic specimens to determine microstructure and content requires that
a rigid step-by-step process be followed. In sequence, the steps include sectioning, mounting, course grinding, fine
grinding, polishing, etching and microscopic examination. Specimens must be kept clean and preparation
procedure carefully followed in order to reveal accurate microstructures. Each student will prepare and examine a
brass, steel or aluminium sample for metallographic examination

Theoretical Background:
1. Sectioning:
Purpose: Sectioning involves cutting the sample into thin slices or sections for microscopic examination. This is
essential for studying internal structures or features of the material.
Techniques:
 Mechanical Sectioning: Using a specialized cutting tool called a microtome, the sample is sliced
into thin sections with precise control over thickness.
 Electron Beam Sectioning: In electron microscopy, samples can be sectioned using a focused ion
beam (FIB) to mill away material layer by layer.
2. Mounting: Purpose: After sectioning, the thin slices of the sample need to be affixed to a support for stability
during subsequent preparation steps and examination.
Techniques:
 Adhesive Mounting: The sample is typically attached to a glass slide using an adhesive such as
glue or resin.
 Hot Mounting: For some materials like thermosetting polymers or metals, mounting may involve
embedding the sample in a hot thermosetting resin which solidifies around it upon cooling.

3. Grinding :Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool. The purpose
of the grinding step is to remove damage from cutting, planarize the Specimen, and to remove material
approaching the area of interest. Grinding removes saw marks and levels and cleans the specimen.
 Coarse Grinding: Purpose: Coarse grinding is the initial step in reducing the thickness of the
sample slices and removing excess material to bring the sample closer to the desired thickness.
o Abrasive Grinding: Coarse grinding is usually achieved by using abrasive papers or
wheels with progressively finer grit sizes to remove material efficiently.
 Fine Grinding: Purpose: Fine grinding follows coarse grinding and further refines the sample
surface, reducing scratches and other surface imperfections left by coarse grinding. o
Techniques: ▪
 Polishing Abrasives: Finer abrasives such as diamond paste or alumina suspensions are used in
conjunction with polishing cloths or pads to achieve a smooth, uniform surface.
4. Polishing: Polishing is the final step in sample preparation, producing a mirror-like surface finish suitable for
microscopic examination, especially under high magnification. It is the step which is required to completely
eliminate previous damage
 Chemical Polishing: Some materials may undergo chemical polishing, where a chemical solution
etches away a thin layer of material to reveal a smooth surface.
 Mechanical Polishing: Using polishing compounds and pads, the sample is buffed to a high shine,
removing any remaining surface imperfections.

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5.Etching:
Microscopic examination of a properly polished, unetched specimen will reveal only a few structural features such
as inclusions and cracks or other physical imperfections. Etching is used to highlight, and sometimes identify,
microstructural features or phases present. Etching occurs when the acid or base is placed on the specimen surface
because of the difference in rate of attack of the various phases present and their orientation. The etching process
is usually accomplished by merely applying the appropriate solution to the specimen surface for several seconds to
several minutes.
Nital, a Nitric Acid - Alcohol mixture, is the etchant commonly utilized with common irons and steels. Nital is
dripped onto the specimen using an eye-dropper or cotton swab. Ten seconds to one minute is usually sufficient
for proper etching depending on sample and nital concentration. The sample is immediately washed under running
water, rinsed with alcohol and dried in an air blast. Do not touch, wipe or swab the specimen following etching; dry
off the rinsing alcohol on the specimen with the air blast and then move on to the microscopic examination stage

Required Resources /Apparatus/Equipment with specification:

Sr. No. Name of Resource Broad Specification Quantity

Suggested
1 Given specimen Carbon/ Alloy steel rod or 1 piece of 25 mm
bar of 25 mm dia. or thickness per student
25mm x25mm c/s area
2 Slitting Machine 1
3 Polishing Machine Double Disk polishing 1
Grinding/polishing disc machine. Two
independent polishing
units mounted on a
common MS frame, Disc
dia. 200mm, made of

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 Aluminum. Speed
continuously variable up
to 950RPM. Rating - 0.25
HP single phases 220 Volt
A.C. provided with sink
and swing type laboratory
water tap. Waterproof
Formica table top
4 Aluminum oxide Commercial grade 1 bottle per
abrasive solution 10students
5 Emery papers (80,120,240,400,600,1200)
Grades 1 set of Each for 4
students

Practical Related Questions.

1. Explain the correlation of grade number of the emery paper with its nature.
2. List the various commercial brands of emery papers.

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Practical No 2: Interpretation of microstructure of steels (low carbon steel) and alloy steels using
metallurgical microscope on standard specimens

Minimum Theoretical Background:

Structures which are coarse enough to be differentiated by the naked eye or under low magnifications are termed
'macrostructures’. Those which require high magnification to be visible are termed 'microstructures'. Microscopes
are required for the examination of the microstructure of the metals.. Metals and alloys are polycrystalline, that is,
they are composed of crystals commonly referred to as grains. The size, shape, and configuration of the grains
within a metal or an alloy are a function of the way in which the metal was produced and used. The metallographic
examination of specimens allows the metallographer to observe and record the crystalline structures and to
interpret from them the history of manufacture and use of the material.

Phases in Steel
1. Ferrite (α-Fe): The BCC structure, soft and ductile, low carbon solubility.
2. Austenite (γ-Fe): The FCC structure, non-magnetic, can dissolve more carbon than ferrite, stable
at high temperatures.
3. Cementite (Fe₃C): Hard, brittle iron carbide phase, important in pearlite and other structures.
4. Pearlite: Eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite in a lamellar structure.
5. Martensite: A supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron, formed by rapid quenching of
austenite, very hard and brittle.
6. Bainite: A mixture of ferrite and cementite, with a microstructure that is finer than pearlite
Procedure: Perform all the sample preparation steps as that of experiment No-1

(Table: etching reagents used for steel and steel alloys)

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Required Resources /Apparatus/Equipment with specification: Standard Specimen of plain carbon
steel and alloy steel, Metallurgical Microscope, etchant.

Microstructure: In its undeformed state and with slow cooling during solidification, low carbon steel will
exhibit a microstructure made up of pearlite and ferrite.Pearlite features a lamellar structure, consisting
of alternating bands of ferrite and cementite.
The microstructures typically appear as follows:

Figure shows The microstructure of low carbon steel in which the light phase as ferrite and the dark
phase as pearlite.

Practical related questions:

1. State types of steel with example

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Practical No 3: Hardness testing on Brinell hardness tester of given sample material (mild steel)
Theoretical Background:
The method of hardness testing was introduced by J.A. Brinell in 1900. In this test, a standard hardened steel ball
made of either hardened steel or tungsten carbide, is indented into the surface of the specimen by a gradually
applied load which is maintained on the specimen for a time (usually 10 or 15 sec). Ball of 10 mm, 5 mm, and 2.5
mm are generally used. The applied load depends on the hardness of material. As a thumb rule the load used for
measuring the hardness of steel = 30 D 2 kg; where D is the diameter of the ball. If D = 10mm the load to be used =
3000kg. The machine consists of a loading device connected to the indenter and a moveable stand to place the
sample. The sample stand is raised so that it touches the indenter. Thereafter the specified load is applied. After a
specified length of hold time the load is withdrawn. This leaves an indentation mark. Its diameter (d) is measured
using a graduated eyepiece. If P is the applied load ,the Brinell hardness number (BHN) of the material is given by
load / area of the indentation. the Brinell hardness number (B.H.N.) is found out by following formula.

2p
BHN=
πD ( D−√ D −d )
2 2

Where
P is the applied load (in kgf)
D is the diameter of the indenter (in mm)
d is the diameter of the indentation (in mm).

Experimental setup (Model):

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Required Resources /Apparatus/Equipment with specification:

Procedure:
Step 1: select load P based on the type of materials. For mild steel P = 3000kg is taken.
Ball Indenter diameter 10mm is taken.

Step 2: Specimen is placed on the supporting table then hand will below the table is turned in a
clockwise direction until the gap between the surface of the specimen and the indenter is 5 mm.
Step 3: The motor is switch on. the hand lever is pulled into the load position .the load is applied for a
period of 10 to 15 seconds.
Step 4: The hand liver is pulled back into unload position. the diameter of the impression is measured
through microscope attached to the Apparatus
Step 5: Calculate BHN number for trial 1
Step 6: Repeat the same procedure for other trial.
Step 7: calculate average value of BHN

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Observation:
Material Diameter of Load P (kg ) Diameter of BHN in Average
indenter D indentation (Kg/mm2 BHN
( mm ) d ( mm ) ( Kg/mm2)
Mild steel 10 3000 4.6 170.49 165.22
4.74 159.94

Result: hardness of mild steel is 165.22 Kg/mm^2

Practical Related Questions

1. Very hard materials cannot be tested in Brinell hardness testing machine.
2. State the reason for using ball indenters of different diameter for Brinell hardness testing

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Practical No 4: Hardness testing on Rockwell Hardness tester of given sample material (mild steel)
Theory :
Rockwell hardness test differs from Brinell hardness test in that the hardness is determined from the
depth of indentation made by the indenter under a constant load. Various types of indenters may be
used in Rockwell hardness tests: diamond indenter and steel-ball indenters of diameter 1/16, 1/8, 1/4,
or 1/2 inch. In this test, the indenter is pressed into the specimen surface under an initial minor (light)
load followed by a major (heavy) load. The additional depth of indentation made by the indenter under
the major load beyond that by the minor load is measured and converted to a hardness number. The
hardness number is inversely related to the depth of indentation. In regular Rockwell hardness tests, the
minor load is always 10 kg while the major load can be 60, 100, or 150 kgf. A letter is assigned to each
scale that employs a particular combination of indenter and major load. A hardness number is suffixed
by first the letter H (for hardness), then the letter R (for Rockwell), and finally the letter that indicates
the scale used. For example, a value of 45 on the Rockwell C scale is expressed as 45 HRC.
Specification of Hardness Testing M/C and Indenters:
Rockwell hardness testing machine essentially consist of a supporting table for placing the specimen, a
hand wheel to raise or lower the supporting table, a Rockwell ball indenter which is a hardened steel
ball 1/6'' in diameter, a Rockwell cone indenter which is a diamond cone of 120°.The dial gauge has two
set of graduation B and C, corresponding to the ball type indenter and the cone type indenter.

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 Table: Rockwell hardness testing scale

Indentation Process:

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Procedure
1. Choose a diamond cone (for hard materials) or a steel ball (for softer materials) based on the
material and Rockwell scale.in our case we are performing hardness test on mild steel. Hence
steel ball is used as indenter
2. Choose the appropriate test load (measured in kilograms) based on the material and Rockwell
scale.
3. Ensure the sample is properly aligned and stable.
4. Lower the indenter until it makes contact with the sample surface.
5. Apply the preliminary (minor) load (usually 10 kgf) to seat the indenter and establish a reference
point.
6. Apply the major load (additional load) smoothly to the indenter.
7. The total load is the sum of the preliminary and major loads.
8. Maintain the load for a specified dwell time to ensure proper indentation.
9. After the dwell time, remove the major load while maintaining the preliminary load.
10. The depth of indentation after the removal of the major load is measured automatically.
11. The Rockwell hardness number is displayed directly on the machine’s dial or digital readout.
12. Record the hardness value.
13. For more accurate results, take multiple hardness readings at different locations on the sample.

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Calculation:
depth of penetration∈mm
1.Rockwell hardness number (ball indenter) = 100 -
0.002

depth of penetration∈mm
2. Rockwell hardness number (diamond indenter) = 130 -
0.002

Observation Table:

Trial Material Total load Scale used RHB Avg RHB

P (Kg)
1 Mild Steel 100 B 99 89
2 79

Result : Average Rockwell hardness number for mild steel is 89.00 RHB

Practical No 5: Hardness testing on relevant hardness testers Brass specimens

Procedure: same procedure as that of experiment number-04

Observation table :

Result: Rockwell hardness number for brass is 68.50 RHN

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Practical No 6: Microstructure of cast iron ( Gray and Nodular cast iron) using metallurgical
microscope on standard specimens.

Equipment’s used:
1. Sample pieces of Gray and nodular cast iron ,
2. Abrasive Polishing paper 80 grit to 1200 grit.,
3. cotton swab and a petri dish
4. Etching reagents:
Etchant (Nital) concentration Etching time
Nital: 100ml Seconds to minutes
Ethanol
Nitric acid 10ml

5. D-winter metallurgical microscope

• Mechanical stage: 180mm X 155mm. Moving range 80mm X 50mm.
• Epi-Koehler’s illumination. Aperture iris diaphragm 5W LED lamp AC 85-230V
• Magnification: 10X - 500X.
• Eyepiece: Wide field 10X (paired) F.O.V. 20mm

Procedure: Procedure for metallurgical examination of microstructure of cast iron consists of polishing,
etching and examination of prepared sample under the microscope these are as follow,
1. Polishing:
2. Etching:
The last step in the process is to etch the sample to bring out the microstructure. Use a cotton
swab and a petri dish for the etching. Gently swab the surface of your sample with the etchant.
Roughly spreading the etchant will scratch your surface. Let the etchant stand for15
seconds .Once etching is done ,sample is mounted on mechanical stage of microscope for
further examination
3. Examine specimen under the microscope.

Results:
1. Microstructures Gray cast iron :
Microstructure of Gray cast iron shows graphite in the form of flakes in the ferritic matrix.as
shown in the figure 1.Gray cast iron has an interconnected graphite flake . Due to the continuity
of the graphite through the structure, and the properties of graphite, gray iron is soft, low
strength, but brittle and is easily machined.

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 Figure 1: Microstructure of gray cast iron

2. Microstructures nodular cast iron :

Figure 2 shows spheroidal nodules of graphite in ferritic matrix when nodular cast iron specimen
etched with 2% nital .Due to spheroidal shape of graphite it shows better machinability and
higher strength to weight ratio.

Figure 2 (right): Fully ferritic ductile iron etched with 2% nital

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Practical No 7: Adhesive strength determination of cellophane tape and duct tape using a relevant peel
tester.

Name of tape Load (N) Thickness (t) mm Width (b) mm Avg Peel
Strength N/mm2
Cellophane Tape 0.050 25.4

Add Graph image

Questions:
1. State the five brands of cellophane tape in market.
2. Define the term 'Peel Strength'
3. Explain whether the process that makes adhesive tape sticky is physical or chemical.

Practical No 8: Identification of different types of plastics using flame tests.

Questions:
1. State the major sources of raw materials for the manufacture of plastics.
2. State the different tests other than flame test for identification of plastics.
3. Explain the different methods to recycle the plastics.

Practical No 9: Identification of behavior of the shape-memory alloy as a function with regards to

temperature using High-temperature oven or electrical current.
Questions:
1. State the difference between shape memory and super elasticity on a macroscopic level and on a
microscopic level
2. State Practical applications for shape memory alloys.
3. Justify, the nitinol wire change shape, but not the steel wire

Practical No 10: Comparison of hardness of mild steel using quenching mediums like oil ,water & brine
in a muffle /box type furnace

Questions
1. State the importance of cooling rate.
2. State the reason for stresses develops during quenching.
3. Explain environmental impacts are associated with each quenching medium, and how can they be
mitigated

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Practical No 11: Comparison of hardness of alloy steel using quenching mediums like oil, water & brine
in a muffle /box type furnace .
Questions:
1. Some heat treated components develop cracks? Give reason
2. Explain how do the alloying elements influence the steel's response to heat treatment and quenching
3. Explain how does the cooling rate of each medium affect the formation of martensite and other
phases in the alloy steel.

Practical No 12 Comparison of Ancient Indian material development processes with recent processes.
Questions:
1.Explain indian Wootz steel production process
2.Explain Lost-Wax casting technique.
3. Explain recent Indian material development processes.
4. State the sources of natural dyes that were used in indian textiles productions

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