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Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in Flood Risk

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In: Flooding and Climate Change ISBN: 978-1-62948-317-7
Editors: D. D. Chadee, J. M. Sutherland and J. B. Agard © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter S

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

TECHNOLOGIES IN FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT

Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saeed and Ron Mahabir

The Centre for Caribbean Land and Environmental Appraisal Research (CLEAR)
The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago

ABSTRACT
Flooding is the most common of all major disasters that regularly affect populations
and results in extensive damage to property, infrastructure, natural resources, and even to
loss of life. To ensure better outcomes, planning and execution of flood management
projects must utilize knowledge on a wide range of factors, most of which are of a spatial
nature. Advances in geospatial technologies, specifically remote sensing and Geographic
Information System s (GIS), have enabled the acquisition and analysis of data about the
Earth's surface for flood mitigation projects in a faster, more efficient and more accurate
manner.
Remote sensing and GIS have emerged as powerful tools to deal with various aspects
of flood management in prevention, preparedness and relief management of flood
disaster. GIS facilitates integration of spatial and non-spatial data such as rainfall and
stream flows, river cross sections and profiles, and river basin characteristics, as well as
other information such as historical flood maps, infrastructures, land use, and social and
economic data. Such data set s arc critical for the in-depth analysis and management of
floods.
Remote sensing technologies have great potential in overcoming the information
void in the Caribbean region. The observation, mapping, and representation of Earth’s
surface have provided effective and timely information for monitoring floods and their
effect. The potential of new air- and space-borne imaging technologies for improving
hazard evaluation and risk reduction is continually being explored. They are relatively
inexpensive and have the ability to provide information on several parameters that are
crucial to flood mapping and monitoring.
This chapter examines the use of the new imagery data as an up-to-date and
affordable source of information for establishing the necessary information for flood
management in the Caribbean region. The chapter also reviews the use of an integrated
GIS approach to fulfil data and analysis needs for planning and emergency operations
and how it can become the backbone of emergency management.
138 Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saccd and Ron Mahabir

1. INTRODUCTION
Of the various gcohazards that disrupt the natural and man -made environments, flooding
is the most common and most costly. In fact, of all natural risks, floods pose the most widely
occurring hazard to life today. A flood is commonly defined as any level of flow that exceeds
the natural carrying capacity of a watercourse, overflows its banks, and inundates the adjacent
low lying lands (OAS 1991). The United States Geological Survey defines a flood as a
“relatively high water that overflows the natural or artificial banks of a stream or coastal area
that submerges land not normally below water” (USGS 2007).
The leading cause of floods is a prolonged heavy rainfall that creates high runoff in
rivers, or a build up of surface water in areas of low relief. On the other hand, intense rainfall
over short periods from storms and hurricanes may produce rapid runoff and sudden but
severe flash floods across river valleys, resulting in insurmountable losses to human life and
property compared to any other type of flooding. Coastal areas are also prone to flooding
when storms and large waves bring seawater onto the land (Few et al., 2004). Small Island
Developing States are especially impacted since a great majority of the population live and
work near coastal areas. Other conditions that may cause flooding are those events that occur
less frequently but result in major consequences when they occur. These include events such
as earthquakes, bursting of reservoirs, failure of dams, dikes and weir gates, and tsunamis.
Specific to developing countries, including the Caribbean region, the flooding problem is
further intensified by inappropriate land use and environmental degradation in areas that arc
vulnerable to erosion, rapid water runoff, and slope failure. Poor land-use practices (e.g.,
slash and bum agriculture, quarrying, deforestation, and rapid urbanization and development)
lead to heavy sedimentation in river channels, thus, reducing their carrying capacity. In
parallel, the removal of vegetative cover leads to much shorter lag times between rainfall and
the water reaching the waterways causing the already reduced channels to overflow, leading
to massive floods (Ramlal and Baban 2008).
Further upset in flood events is also expected as a result of global climate change, leading
to consequent increase in extreme climatic events such as severe dry spells, heavy rainstorms
and tidal surges. It is expected that areas most vulnerable will continue to be further
devastated (Few et al., 2004; Ramlal and Baban 2008). Such findings are supported by reports
made available by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and related research from
scientific bodies with similar interests worldwide.
According to the UN World Water Assessment Programme, floods accounted for 15% of
all deaths related to natural disaster s, and approximately 66 million people suffered flood
damage from 1973 to 1997 (WWAP 2006). Persons can be both directly and indirectly
impacted by floods. Direct impacts include loss of lives, damage to property, disruption of
transportation, communications, health and community service s, crop and livestock damage,
and interruptions and losses in businesses. The indirect effect s of floods are far more
damaging and include elements of society that reflect a more in-depth and personal
assessment of flooding on the wellbeing of people (Badilla 2008).
 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in Flood Risk Management 1 39

Figure 8.1. Total number of reported disasters caused by floods in the World: 1974 - 2003 (Hoyois and
Guha-Sapir 2004).

Developing countries are disproportionately affected by disasters. Economic losses

attributable to natural hazards in developing countries are about 5 times higher per unit of
gross domestic product (GDP) than those of more affluent countries. Furthermore, developing
countries accounted for over 50% of all disaster fatalities from 1992 to 2001 , which translates
into approximately 1 3 times more people die per reported disaster than in developed countries
(Van Westen 2002; WWAP 2006). This problem is further exacerbated with knowledge that
the magnitude and frequency of floods will continue to increase as indicated by the trend in
Figure 8.1 (Badilla 2008; Hoyois and Guha-Sapir 2004).
Given the severe negative impacts of floods there is therefore an urgent need to introduce
proper management measures to ensure that vulnerable areas arc protected and flooding
impact is minimized. Whether using structural, non-structural or mixed strategics, improving
the capabilities to mitigate and respond to flood hazards would require better understanding
and mapping of the hazards, as well as identifying the nature and extent of vulnerability of the
areas under consideration. These activities prompt both the need and use of spatial data
representative of the disaster and factors that can be used in assisting all phases of a
comprehensive disaster management program.
This chapter is divided into 4 sections from this point on. Section 2 will review the
different phases and activities of a disaster management program, and highlights the specific
required spatial datasets within each phase. Section 3 will introduce, in general, the use of
Geographic Information System s (GIS) and remote sensing techniques in flood management,
while Section 4 will identify, in greater detail, specific studies and cases for the application of
these technologies as they relate to the different phases of disaster management. Finally,
section 5 provides conclusions.

2. DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

Disaster management endeavours to reduce or avoid the potential losses from hazards,
assure prompt and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and
effective recovery. Activities related to disaster management can be grouped into pre-event
140 Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saccd and Ron Mahabir

activities (mitigation and preparedness), actions during and immediately following an event
(rescue and relief), and post-disaster activities (rehabilitation and reconstruction). These
phases arc related to each other and arc typically represented as a cycle since the occurrence
of a disaster event will eventually influence the way society is preparing for the next one
(Mansor ct al., 2004; OAS 1991; Van Wcstcn 2002). The following sections will provide a
synopsis of the activities in each phase with the objective of identifying the required spatial
data.

2.1. Mitigation

Mitigation activities focus on eliminating or reducing the probability of a disaster

occurrence and reducing the impact of unavoidable disaster. This phase involves essentially
three kinds of studies (OAS 1991);

• Natural Hazard Assessments provide information on the probable location and

severity of natural hazards and their likelihood of occurring within a specific time
period in a given area;
• Vulnerability Assessments estimate the degree of loss or damage that would result
from the occurrence of a natural hazard of given severity; and
• Risk Assessments integrate information from the analysis of an area’s hazards and its
vulnerability to them, into an estimate of the probability of expected loss from a
hazardous event.

The effectiveness of disaster mitigation depends on the availability of information related

to the hazards and the various sectors affected by them. As such, data collection and analysis
is required to identify and evaluate appropriate measures. Hazard assessment studies rely
heavily on geologic, geomorphic, and soil maps; climate and hydrological data; topographic
maps, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery; as well as historical information on previous
occurrences of the hazard. Vulnerability assessments, on the other hand, need to incorporate
and analyse information on human population, capital facilities and resources, and economic
activities (OAS 1991).

2.2. Preparedness

The goal of disaster preparedness is to develop plans that minimize the loss of life and
damage to property during a natural event. Disaster preparedness promotes the development
of a system for monitoring known hazards, a warning system, emergency and evacuation
plans, and emergency routes. Additionally, this phase includes a number of efforts aimed at
increasing the amount of information disseminated to the public and at promoting cooperation
between the public and the authorities in case of an emergency (Johnson 2000; OAS 1991).
 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in Flood Risk Management 141

2.3. Rescue and Relief

Following the occurrence of the disaster, activities in this phase arc designed to provide
emergency assistance for victims that include search and rescue, emergency shelter, medical
care, and mass feeding. They also seek to stabilize the situation and reduce the probability of
secondary damage (Johnson 2000). The success of these activities is heavily dependent on
real time information with respect to service routes and up-to-date information on the location
and resource availability at the various critical facilities.

2.4. Post-Disaster Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

Post-disaster activities are necessary to return all systems to a state of normalcy or at least
to a state that is better than that immediately following the occurrence of a disaster. These
activities have a short-term goal of restoring vital life support systems to minimum operating
standards. Additionally, this phase includes long-term rehabilitation activities to re-establish
the functions of public services, business, and commerce, to repair housing and other
structures, and to return production facilities to operation (Johnson 2000; OAS 1991 ).
Investigations at the post -disaster phase will re-examine the qualitative and quantitative
aspects of natural hazards, often improving on information produced by modelling and
conjecture, by indicating areas where development should be extremely limited or should not
take place (OAS 1991 ).

3. ROLE OF GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT

An effective flood management program, and all its phases, depends on a wide range of
parameters and large volumes of accurate, relevant, and timely gcoinformation. Besides,
geographical data and tools arc an absolute necessity if scientific understanding is to be
translated into effective evidence -based and place-based policy (Murphy et al., 2010). As
indicated in the previous section, the required physical information includes topography and
terrain, soil types, watershed /catchments, land cover and forestry, and the intensity of the
triggering factors. Ultimately, flood risk management requires socio-economic data (housing
location, valuation data, demographic structure, census information) as well as land use
information, administrative boundaries, development pressure, and environmental constraints.
Flowever, there is a severe shortage of reliable and compatible data set s generally in the
whole Caribbean region. Infonnation needed for accurate planning is often outdated, non¬
existent, or very expensive and time consuming to collect (Al-Tahir et al., 2006). Without
such information, the investigation of flood susceptibility, and the formation of proper
national planning policies in many Caribbean island states will be both difficult and error
prone.
Modem geospatial technologies, especially in the disciplines of photogrammetry, remote
sensing, and spatial infonnation science, can assist in crisis management through observation,
mapping, and analysing relevant infonnation in each of the critical disaster management
phases (Altan and Kemper 2010). Geospatial data and tools have a key role in the saving of
142 Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saccd and Ron Mahabir

lives, the limitation of damage, and the reduction in the costs to society of dealing with
emergencies. Recent improvement in computer software and hardware have allowed remote
sensing and GIS to provide the way forward in collecting and managing relevant data set s,
and in developing management scenarios to evaluate mitigation strategics (Ehlcrs 2004).

3.1. The Role of GIS

Flooding is a dynamic process and exhibits spatial characteristics in the sense that floods
occur at a particular location at which various contributing factors for the event exist. For
example, typical flood conditions include areas gently sloping or basins, heavy rainfall,
saturated soil and blocked channels (Alkema 2004). The primary function of GIS is to store
and link multiple digital databases and many different themed layers of information,
graphically display that information as maps, and to examine how the layers interrelate. These
layers, such as those depicted in Figure 8.2, would carry the key elements needed for flood
hazard management (GAO 2004). This information may come from many sources, including
remote sensing, GPS, censuses, soil samples, stream gage systems, and weather stations.
Additionally, historical data help in identifying where flood may occur since areas most
commonly flooded are expected to flood again.
Having acquired and stored the required data, GIS based analysis is then conducted to
determine the amount of influence of each of the factors and their impacts in different
scenarios. GIS provides an enabling technology by means of presenting a feasible solution,
providing tools and methods that support all phases of flood management. Specifically, GIS is
used for locating critical and vulnerable assets, planning, mitigation activities, assisting in
response, and aiding in recovery management (Khanna ct al., 2006). Tabic 1 lists various
common applications of GIS in hazard management in general.

Table 8.1. Common applications of GIS in hazard management (Marfai 2003)

Function Potential Applications

Data display • Aid in the analysis of spatial distribution of socio-economic
infrastructure and natural hazard phenomena.
• Use of thematic maps to enhance reports and/or presentations.
• Link with other databases for more specific information.
Land information Filing, maintaining, and updating land related data (c.g., land ownership,
storage and records of previous natural events, permissible uses, etc.)
retrieval
Zone and district • Maintain and update district maps, such as zoning of floodplain maps.
management • Determine and enforce adequate land-use regulation and building codes
Site selection Identification of potential sites for particular uses
Hazard impact Identification of geographically determined hazard impacts
assessment
Develop me nt/land Analysis of suitability of particular parcels for development.
suitability
modelling
 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in Flood Risk Management 1 43

Data Source: Layer/Theme:

Figure 8.2. GIS Layers for Flood Mapping (GAO 2004).

By overlaying or intersecting different spatial layers, flood-prone areas can be identified,

thereby enabling more effective mitigation and response to Hooding events. GIS is also used
to present flood-related information visually in 2D or 3D such that it might be more
intuitively understood, particularly by a lay audience. GIS-generated maps provide an
effective means of informing the public or news media on evacuation routes, on the extent
and impact of a Hood when it occurs, and on the government’s response efforts (Shanley et
al., 2006). This information can be disseminated with the use of web technologies, creating
interactive maps that can be queried and updated in real time, and linked to additional
information.

3.2. The Role of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is another advancing technology that has benefited flood modelling and
flood risk assessment in providing a cost effective means of acquiring accurate spatial and
temporal data (Khanna ct al., 2006). Remote sensing of the environment involves the
measurement of electromagnetic radiation reflected from or emitted by the Earth’s surface
and relating these measurements to the types of land cover and habitat in the area being
observed by the sensor (Al-Tahir et al., 2006). Observing Earth’s surface using sensors on
board various space and air platforms has evolved into a multinational enterprise producing a
144 Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saccd and Ron Mahabir

large amount of digital data on various physical parameters that characterize the earth system
(Murphy ct al., 2010).
Remote sensing continues to expand making use of new kinds of sensors that exploit
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and achieve finer levels of spatial, temporal,
or spectral resolution (Murphy ct al., 2010). Considerable advances in remote sensing
technology have occurred both in acquiring digital aerial photography and high resolution
satellite data. Parallel to this, new techniques have been developed for improved processing
and extraction of spatial information from these new data set s (Ehlers 2004).
The distinction between aerial photography and satellite remote sensing is based on the
fact that each of them provides some capabilities that cannot be achieved by the other. Such
comparative capabilities include ground coverage, repeatability of observations, spectral
ranges, and geometry for three dimensional mapping (Li 1998). Aerial photo data are of
immense value, especially when long term spatial data is required, such as in the case of
hydrology and flooding (Rango et al., 2008) considering that aerial photography extends back
into the mid 1940s in most of the Caribbean states. Satellites on the other hand have been
around for a much shorter period, with the early images of the earth’s surface collected in the
1970s. The principal advantages in using satellite images stems from their higher spectral
resolution.
Information from earth observation platforms, combined with other relevant data in GIS,
have triggered advancements in flood modelling and demonstrated their utility in providing
historical, recent, and repetitive data for a wide range of applications in disaster management.
Earth observation techniques are used for mapping geomorphologic elements, historical
events and sequential inundation phases, including duration, depth of inundation, and
direction of current to indicate which areas are potentially vulnerable (Altan and Kemper
2010; Van Westen 2002). Moreover, images of an area can be analyzed together with various
land cover input parameters, essential for use and development of hydrological modelling for
risk analysis.
High resolution images offer great opportunities to identify individual structures and
natural features as well as their functions that are important for the assessment of their
vulnerability and value. This is a very critical aspect in monitoring the increasing risks and
impacts of Hoods, especially for urban areas that experience fast and uncontrolled expansion
into hazardous areas (Alkema 2004). Because of its availability and temporal resolution, high
resolution imagery provides a critical tool for monitoring floods before, during and after the
event, supporting a much more in depth analysis of the hazard and hydrological models.
Digital elevation model (DEM) (or alternatively, digital terrain model; DTM) is essential
for flood management and hydrological modelling. DEM is used for deriving critical
information sets such as possible sinks, flow direction, and rate of flow of floods. Such data is
yet another data set that can only be provided effectively by remote sensing. Aerial surveys
using airborne cameras and/or airborne LIDAR sensors are able to deliver a high density
digital terrain model. DEM can also be extracted from space- borne sources such as satellite
stereo images of SPOT, or radar data such as those collected by the Shuttle Radar Terrain
Measurement (SRTM) data. Using DEM in combination with other data in a GIS analysis
basin boundary, drainage network, area, and elevation can be extracted, and risk estimations
can be carried out (Badilla 2008). The resolution of the DEM is critical since this will dictate
the smallest structural features (e.g., rivers) that can be reconstructed (Alkema 2004).
 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in Flood Risk Management 1 45

4. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATED GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES

IN FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT

The following sections will review some specific eases where remote sensing and GIS
have provided the tools for data collection and analysis in support of pre-disaster
preparedness programs, in-disaster response activities, and post-disaster reconstruction.

4.1. Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness

The most promising application of remote sensing is its use for risk analysis as a function
of hazard and vulnerability assessments. The mapping of areas affected by floods is essential
for both planning and the assessment of incurred damages as a result of the disaster.
Achieving this will require mapping flooded areas before and after flood waters recede.
Satellite and aerial remote sensing provides a suitable alternative to traditional field surveying
techniques for producing flood inundation maps. Besides, they offer the possibility of
validating the output of developed models by comparing the observed extent of the flood with
the modelled prediction (Alkcma 2004; Wilson and Atkinson 2003).
Due to its advantageous synoptic view of the hazard, geospatial imagery can be added
into the GIS as a layer after being gcorcfcrcnccd. The extent of flooding is then delineated
and further superimposed onto additional spatial variables for analysis. Also, images
representing the extent of flooding can be collected at different time intervals in order to
monitor both the progression and recession of the flood inundation within a short period of
time which can be used for planning and organizing mitigation or response operations
effectively (Khanna et al., 2006).
Flood susceptibility mapping and risk area delineation is another task that can benefit
from an integrated use of GIS and remote sensing. In a study carried out in Malaysia, a GIS
and remote sensing -based flood susceptibility model was prepared using the known extent of
flooded areas (Pradhan 2009). Historical flooded areas extracted from RADARSAT images,
and terrain characteristics extracted from the DEM (e.g., slope, aspect, flow direction), soil,
soil texture, land cover, and precipitation information were updated to enable the
quantification of flood associated attributes. A flood susceptibility map was then produced
using a logistic regression model that assessed all these factors.
Most studies typically assess flood risks purely in terms of economic damage while
neglecting the social and economic impacts, leaving the map to assess the risk.
One may face a challenging task when incorporating several factors in identifying both
potential areas to be flooded and the associated level of risk should the hazard be realized.
This becomes an issue of concern since different factors exert different levels of influence
based on present situation and their interactions within the environment. In this event weights
must be given to the different criteria for indicating the level of impact that each risk criterion
has on flooding. In studies by Meyer ct al. (2009) and Wallingford (2007), a multi-criteria
approach towards flood-risk management is given. GIS provides an optimum environment for
providing different possibilities for multi-criteria analysis of spatial problems such as floods.
Hydrological models arc used as another approach in flood hazard mapping in parallel
with the use of historical events as the main indicator. A study by Katie ct al. (2006)
146 Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saccd and Ron Mahabir

integrated flood simulation modelling with remote sensing and GIS data for flood hazard
mapping in the Baghmati River, Nepal. Dry season satellite images were used to update the
existing land use map in the flood affected areas. Following this, a hydrologic model was
developed in combination with a digital elevation model, and was used for delineating the
inundation area extent, and estimating the flood depths in areas where images capturing the
peak flood events were not available. Consequently, flood hazard maps were prepared for a
50-ycar flood followed by designing a flood-hazard ranking system by combining flood
extent, flood depth, land-use types and population. A specific large segment of the river bank
was subsequently identified as the main spilling reach for structural countermeasures (Katie
et al„2006).
It is evident from all previous discussions that digital elevation model (DEM) plays a
very essential role in hydraulic models and risk analysis. As such, several studies have
focused on the varying means for acquiring elevation data, and the impact of their resolution
and accuracy on the analysis. Such a study was conducted by Wilson and Atkinson (2003) for
the use of LiDAR, stereo photogrammetry, and ERS interferometric SAR (InSAR) elevation
data for flood inundation modelling. Each dataset was used to predict flood inundation for a
60 day event during a series of major flooding of the Avon River, England, that occurred in
autumn 2000. Predictions using each elevation dataset were then compared to aerial
photography of the flooding acquired close to the flood peak. The most accurate prediction of
inundation was obtained using the LiDAR data (after the removal of above surface features),
followed by photogrammetric data (Wilson and Atkinson 2003).
In another study, concerns over the suitability of using a coarse resolution of DEM (50
metre) to reconstruct small structural features of small rivers, especially those with narrow
banks like Onga River on Kyushu Island in Japan were investigated (Mori 2007). To achieve
the goals for this study, a 2-mctcr meshed DEM was generated using the airborne laser
system with a vertical resolution of 0.1 metre. For estimating flooded areas around the Onga
River, 3D topographic maps and 1 -meter contour lines were created using the DEM data in
the GIS system. The study concluded that the higher resolution DEM was the key for
providing precise water levels and, hence, more accurate estimations of the flooded area.

4.2. During and Post-Disaster Applications

During the event of flooding, the integrated use of remote sensing and GIS has been
effectively applied in issuing warnings (such as cyclone tracking), appraising the extent of
damage, and providing alternative evacuation routes during rescue and relief efforts.
Developed evacuation plans need to be rapidly updated in response to new images and
information over the affected population as well as the damaged routes and shelters. Figure
8.3 depicts such a GIS and remote sensing approach to dynamic response to a disaster. Such
an approach, though, depends on a rich source of accurate and up-to-date GIS and auxiliary
data, and satellite imagery. In some cases particular resources, including human and
technology needed to execute the system may not be available due to either financial
limitations or lack of political will. Such is usually the case for developing countries.
 Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in Flood Risk Management 1 47

Figure 8 3. GIS evacuation plan (Naghdi ct al., 2008).

One example in this respect is the island of Haiti where in January 201 0 an earthquake of
magnitude 7.0 struck resulting in massive destruction to property and killing over 100,000
persons. Relief efforts would have failed if not for the quick thinking of government and
private organizations worldwide making available vast amounts of up-to-date mid- to high-
resolution satellite imagery of the island. Using these images, relief organizations were able
to better plan their routes using visual analysis as well as integrated GIS technologies and
become more effective in their approach.
The technologies of remote sensing and also GIS play a critical role in the post-disaster
and rehabilitation phase. In addition to offering rapid flood monitoring and assessment,
satellite images of real flood events and information from the ground are useful for actual
flood damage assessment, future flood mitigation planning, and validation of hydraulic
analysis (Altan and Kemper 2010).
Such an integrated approach was used in the city of Muscat, Oman that was hit by a
cyclone (Azaz 2007). GIS and satellite images were used to organize the damage information
and the post-disaster census information, in addition to evaluating sites for reconstruction. In
this study, two high-resolution satellite images (IKONOS) were utilized; one image before
the cyclone and one after. The two images were geometrically corrected, and a change
detection technique was then applied to identify and assess the damage (Azaz 2007).
Another study developed a methodology to combine the spectral, spatial and contextual
information captured by IKONOS images to produce an accurate property damage map after
flooding that affected villages in the southern part of the Netherlands in 1995 (van dcr Sandc
et al., 2003). The detailed land cover map, water depth, and known relations between water
depth and property damage were all contributed to the creation of this map. The study
confirmed that maps derived from high spatial resolution geospatial imagery arc most
accurate for flood simulations and actual property damage assessment (van dcr Sandc ct al.,
2003).
The results of the two previous studies emphasize the importance of using remote sensing
and GIS in the damage assessment phase as part of an effective disaster management plan.
148 Raid Al-Tahir, Intesar Saccd and Ron Mahabir

However, there is usually an overwhelming cloud cover in the aftermath of a flood,

particularly in the Caribbean islands. Thus, it is very difficult to obtain clear satellite image in
the visible and near infared region. Having the capability to penetrate clouds and rain, radar
images would thus be a better alternative in such cases. In fact, radar imagery was utilized to
promptly obtain flood extent and assess flood damage in aftermath of the flood disaster in
China along Changjiang River in 1998 (Yang ct al., 2002). A RADARSAT image obtained
after the flood was used for determining the flood extent while optical satellite images
(LANDSAT) were used to provide the land cover status before the flood.

CONCLUSION
Flooding is the most common and most predominantly occurring geohazard in today’s
world. It accounts for a substantial proportion of human and economic distress with both
direct and indirect impacts. Management of flood disaster can be successful only when
detailed knowledge is obtained about the character and magnitude of the flood as well as the
vulnerability of the people, residential properties, infrastructure, agricultural crops, and
economic activities in the potentially vulnerable area.
This chapter has presented the use of Earth observation and Geographic Information
System s as enabling technologies for assisting in a comprehensive disaster management
system. Having reviewed several cases for their applications, these technologies have
emerged as powerful tools for dealing with various aspects of flood prevention, preparedness,
relief, and recovery efforts of flood disaster.
Earth observation and GIS techniques can significantly contribute to improving the
efforts in modelling flood events, developing proper flood-mitigation strategies, and
providing relevant agencies with important information for alleviating flood damage. They
can supplement or complement other structural and non-structural measures in flood
management systems. Extensive use of these technologies can prospectively create long term
databases on flood proneness, risk assessment and relief management.

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