HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A.

- Lexicology - 2014
UNIT 5
HOMONYMY

WHAT ARE HOMONYMS?

Homonyms are words which are the same in sound and spelling, or,
at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meanings.
Let us examine a few examples in the following sentences:
- The dog began to bark when we were carving our initials in the
bark of the tree.
- ―We eat what we can, and what we can't eat we can‖
- The wind blew my blue shirt into the pool.
- Cheryl rode along as we rowed the boat from the island to the
lakeside road.
- I‘ve never seen such a beautiful scene.
- We want a site for our home that will be out of sight.
- The seam in the tent doesn‘t seem to hold back the rain.
- Due to the dry weather, we do not see any dew on the grass.
The state or quality of a given word‘s having the same spelling and
the same sound or pronunciation as another word, but with a different
meaning is called homonymy.
Homonymy exists in many languages, but in English it is particularly
frequent, especially among monosyllabic words. In the list of 2540
homonyms given in The Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2004), 89%
are monosyllabic words and only 9.1% are words of two syllables.

CLASSIFICATION OF HOMONYMS
Traditionally, homonyms are classified into three types namely,
homonyms proper, homophones and homographs. This is the most widely
accepted classification of homonyms.

1. Homonyms proper
Homonyms proper are words that are identical in both pronunciation
and spelling.
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 HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2014
Study these puns:
a. “Is life worth living?” ”It depends upon the liver.”
b. “What do you do with the fruit?” “We eat what we can, and what
we can't eat we can”
The words “liver” meaning ―a living person‖ and “liver” meaning
―the organ that secretes bile‖ (a) and words “can”, an auxiliary verb and
“can”, a notional verb (b) are, for instance, intentionally present in the
above play upon words:
Other examples are:
back n ―part of the body‖ - back adv ―away from the front‖ - back v
―go back‖;
ball n ―a gathering of people for dancing‖ - ball n ―round object used
in games‖;
bark n ―the noise made by dog‖ - bark v ―to utter sharp explosive
cries‖;
bark n ―the skin of a tree‖;

2. Homophones
Homophones are words that are the same sound but of different
spelling.
For example,
air - heir; arms - alms;
buy - by; him - hymn;
knight - night; not - knot; or - oar and many others.
In the following sentence the sound complex [rait] stands for 4
different nouns, one adjective and one verb, having four different spellings:
“The play-wright on my right thinks it right that some conventional
rite should symbolize the right of every man to write as he pleases‖.
Homophones are often used to create puns and to deceive the reader
or to suggest multiple meanings.
e.g. ―My daughter has arranged a little piece for the piano.‖
―Good! It‘s about time we had a little peace!‖

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HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2014
3. Homographs
Homographs are words that are the same in spelling but different in
sound. For example,
implement [„impliment] (v): to carry out, to put into effect
implement [„implimənt](n) : a tool, a piece of equipment
content [kən‟tent] (a): feeling satisfaction of what one has
content [„kɒntent] (n): things contained in something
sewer [`souə] (n): person sewing something
sewer [su:ə] (n): underground pipe or passage that carries sewage
away.
wind [wind] (n): air in motion
wind [waind](v)]: bend, turn round
Some linguists hold that the subdivision of homonyms into
homonyms proper, homophones and homographs is not precise enough and
does not reflect certain important features of these words, and, most
important of all, their status as parts of speech. According to them, the
classification of homonyms should reflect this distinctive feature. Also, the
paradigm of each word should be considered, because it has been observed
that the paradigms of some homonyms coincide completely, and of others
only partially.
From this perspective, A.I. Smirnitsky suggested a different way of
classifying homonyms. According to him, homonyms can be classified into
two main types: full homonyms and partial homonyms.

1. Full homonyms
Full lexical homonyms are words, which represent the same category
of parts of speech and have the same paradigm.
ball n. ―a gathering of people for dancing‖
ball n. ―a round object used in games‖
row [rou] (n): a line of people or things
row [rau] (n): a noisy or violent argument or quarrel
2. Partial homonyms
Partial homonyms are subdivided into three subgroups:

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 HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2014
a. Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to
the same category of parts of speech and they have one identical form in
their paradigms. For example,
(to) fell v
fell v (past indef. of to fall)
(to) wound v
wound v (past indef., past part of wind)
(to) saw v
saw v ( past part. of to see)
b. Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different
categories of parts of speech, which have one identical form in their
paradigms.
way n. - weigh v.
right a. - right n.
due a. - dew n.
founder n. - founder v
ate (v) - eight (num).
c. Partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of
speech which are identical only in their original forms.
to lie (lay, lain) v
to lie (lied, lied) v
to hang (hung, hung) v
to hang (hanged, hanged) v
to can (canned, canned)
(I) can (could)

SOURCES OF HOMONYMS
Why do we have homonyms? Why does the English language in
particular have homonyms? The answer is homonyms can come into
existence in languages in several ways.

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HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2014
1. Phonetic changes
Homonyms come in a language because of the convergent phonetic
development of two or more different lexical units. Most of the homonyms
in a language have their origin in this way. Phonetic changes pertaining to
the loss of affixes, simplification of conjunct consonants, loss of syllables
etc. affecting either one of the words or both of them lead to creation of
homonymy, e.g.
Sound n. ―strait, a fish‘s swimming bladder‖ OE. sund. ―swimming‖
Sound a. ―healthy‖ OE. gesund ―healthy‖.
to knead (O. E. cnedan) and to need (O. E. neodian)
sea (O.E sae, and to see (O. E. seon)
Homonyms appearing by this process are etymologically unrelated.
But in these cases also, even after the phonetic convergence, the two words
may be taken as polysemantic. For instance, English ear ―organ of hearing‖
and ear ―spike of corn‖ are etymologically unconnected, but the two words
are treated as related by some persons because the spike of the corn is
considered as the ear of the corn in the same way as eye of needle, mouth or
river, foot of hill etc.
Concerning phonetic changes, we cannot but mention the
assimilation of sounds causing homonymy, for example,
They‟re hanging their coats over there.
You‟re crazy if you pierce your ankle!

2. Borrowing
Words borrowed from different languages also contribute to
homonymy. These borrowings may also undergo phonetic changes. The
homonyms of this type may be of different types:
(a) One word is borrowed from another language: e.g.
mean ―average‖ Latin medianus and mean ―think‖ OE. marnan
bank (mound) and bank (financial institution -Italian banca)
(b) Sometimes both the words of the pair of homonyms are
borrowed:
piece, n (OFr piece, from Lat. Pecia – fragment) and peace, n, (O.
Fr. Pais (Fr. Paix) from Lat. Păx – peace).

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3. Word-building
Conversion is, for sure, the type of word formation that results in the
greatest number of homonyms.
bottle, n.- to bottle, v., ink ,n. – to ink
green, a., - to green, v., yellow, a. to yellow
to win, v.- win, n. , to lose – lose –n.
Other types of word formation such as shortening, affixation, sound-
imitation also contributes quite a few homonyms.
Shortening: Veterinarian = Vet = veteran
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome = AIDS = aids/aides
Flu (influenza) = flu = flew
Affixation: washer (automatic washing machine)
= washer (small flat ring placed between two surfaces)
founder (person who founds or establish something)
= to founder (fail, break down)
Sound imitation: quack (the sound made by a duck)
= quack (Brit sl) a doctor
low (the sound made by cattle)
= low (a) not high or tall
4. Split polysemy/ disintegration
As said in Unit 4 - Meaning, the semantic structure of a polysemantic
word presents a system within which all its constituent meanings are held
together by logical associations. In most cases, the semantic unity is
determined by the central meaning.
If this meaning, for some reason, disappears from the word's
semantic structure, the associations between the meanings may be severed,
the semantic structure loses its unity and fails into two or more parts which
then become accepted as independent lexical units.
Let us consider the three words ―board”
board, n - a long and thin piece of timber
board, n - daily meals, esp. as provided for pay, e.g. room and board
board, n - an official group of persons who direct or supervise some
activity, e.g. a board of directors.
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HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2014
It is not easy now for us to find semantic and logical associations
among them. Yet, most larger dictionaries still enter a meaning of board
that once held together all these other meanings ―a table‖ which developed
from the meaning ―a piece of timber‖ by transference based on contiguity
(association of an object and the material from which it is made). The
meanings ―meals‖ and ―an official group of persons‖ developed from the
meaning ―table‖, also by transference based on contiguity: meals are easily
associated with a table on which they are served; an official group of people
in authority are also likely to discuss their business round a table.
Nowadays, however, the item of the furniture, on which meals are
served and round which boards of directors meet, is no longer denoted by
the word board but by the French Norman borrowing table, and board in
this meaning, though still registered by some dictionaries, can very well be
marked as archaic as it is no longer used in common speech. That is why,
with the intrusion of the borrowed table, the word board actually lost its
corresponding meaning. But it was just that meaning which served as a link
to hold together the rest of the constituent parts of the word's semantic
structure. With its diminished role as an element of communication, its role
in the semantic structure was also weakened. The speakers almost forgot
that board had ever been associated with any item of furniture, nor could
they associate the notions of meals or of a responsible committee with a
long thin piece of timber (which is the oldest meaning of board).
Consequently, the semantic structure of board was split into three units.
Also, in course of time the different related meanings of a word
become so very different that the relatedness of meanings is no longer
perceived and the words are treated as homonyms. But this is very fluid and
uncertain field. Much depends on the speaker's judgement which is not
infrequently subjective.
For example, chest 'large box' (OE. cyst, from Lat. cista)
chest 'part of human body'
Bank-mound, bank-financial institution and river bank actually have
a common origin, the Gothic word benc, which originally referred to a
small mound. Then it was also used metaphorically for river bank, and also
as a metaphor for a low table, especially those where bankers used to
exchange money, which gave Italian banca, French banque, and English
bank. Bankruptcy originates in banqueroute, i.e. "bank on the road".

HOMONYMY VERSUS POLYSEMY

One of the most controversial points in semantics has been the
differentiation between polysemy and homonymy. The general principle of
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differentiation has been the relatedness of the meanings. If the meanings are
related it is a case of polysemy, if not, it is a case of homonymy. The
question of relatedness of meanings can be viewed form two points of view:
historical and synchronic. Historically related meanings are those which can
be traced back to the same source that is the meanings are etymologically
connected or one meaning can be derived form the other. If they are not
etymologically connected they are not related and are homonyms.
Synchronic consideration has the intuition of the speakers of the
language as its basis. If the speakers perceive relationship between the
meanings of a word it can be said that the meanings are related and form the
semantic structure of one and the same word. If the speaker feels the
meanings are not related it is a case of homonymy. But the intuition is not
always a reliable guide. It can be quite subjective. The speakers may
establish relatedness of meaning where there is none etymologically. We
have noted the example of ear earlier.
The speaker may find the meanings unrelated in spite of the fact that
these are derived form the same source. English crane ―bird‖ and crane a
―machine‖ may be treated as unrelated although the latter is a figurative
extension of the same. Zgusta (1971, 85). In such cases the etymology is
not relevant. An example from Nida may make it clearer. The form stock
may occur in three very different types of contexts,
e.g. He has a lot of stock in the warehouse.
He sells stocks and bonds.
He feeds the stock on his farm well.
Though historically these three sets of meanings are related, for many
present day speakers of English there seem to be no meaningful connections.
(Nida,1975,13).
In some cases the figurative extensions of the meaning may not be
recognizable by the speakers.
e.g. in ―He will foot the bill‖ the meaning of foot may not be related to
foot ―the part of the body‖. But if the meaning of foot which occurs in ―the foot
of the column‖ is taken into consideration a relation may be established in the
sense that a person pays the sum at the foot of the bill. (Nida, 1975, 128)
In fact, the distinction between polysemy and homonymy is, in some
cases, very uncertain and as observed by Lyons (1968, 406) is ―in the last
resort indeterminate and arbitrary‖.

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Questions for discussion and activities

1. What are homonyms?
2. Traditionally, how many types can homonyms be classified
into?
3. Can the traditional approach to the classification of
homonyms be applied to your native language?
4. Do you agree that homonymy is a rich source for jokes as
well as absurb misunderstandings?
5. According to A.I. Smirnitsky, how many types can
homonyms be classified into?
6. What is the basic difference in the criteria for the traditional
and Smirnitsky‘s classification of homonyms?
7. What is the difference between homonyms proper in the
traditional classification and full homonyms suggested by
Smirnitsky?
8. What is the general principle of differentiation of homonymy
and polysemy?

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