Zwozdiak-Myers, P. (2012). Dimension 3: link theory with your own practice.

In
The Teacher's Reflective Practice Handbook: Becoming an Extended Professional
through Capturing Evidence-informed Practice (pp. 65-80). Oxon: Routledge. Dimension 3 69
Chapter 5 (Extract)
(Excerpt)
(1988) concludes that the poor transfer of theory to practice often arises when
Dimension 3 there is a lack of integration of the theories presented in teacher education into the
conceptions that student teachers bring to their course.
Link theory with you r own practice 2 The feed-fornnml. problem can arise ifstudent teachers are introduced to theories in
teacher education that they are unable to connect to their own actions in concrete
practical situations, e.g. the fruitfulness of a given theory might be perceived as
untimely or wholly irrelevant to other more pressing concerns they experience,
which can influence their motivation and willingness to study it.
3 The type of abstract, systematised, expert knowledge presented in teacher
Learning objectives
education might lack relevance to the authentic school context as student teachers
This chapter enables you to consider: need concrete solutions for situations that may arise, particularly when trying to
accomplish complex and often conflicting goals.
the nature of theory relevant to teachers;
how episteme and phronesis relate to teacher cognition and teacher behaviour Although the traditional applicatim-of-theory approach is still evident in many
within a Gestalt framework; programmes worldwide', these examples illuminate the need to bridge several gaps that
sources of the knowledge base for teaching and how these may be developed; can emerge between theory and practice. In promoting the transfer of knowledge from
the significance and use of processes inherent within pedagogical reasoning and teacher education to school practice, Brouwer (1989) notes that one important factor is
action. the extent to which theory and practice follow an integrative design within the teacher
education curriculum. In recent decades, alternative ways of preparing teachers for
the profession have been developed, placing a strong emphasis on reflective teaching
T heory relevant to teachers (Korthagen and Kessels, 1999: 6) and conceptualise teacher development as:
A significant amount ofeducational, psychological and sociological research has emerged
in past decades, which in principle provides professional practitioners with a useful body the on-going process of experiencing practical teaching and learning situations,
of knowledge. Teacher educators for example, have made a priori choices about which reflecting on them under the guidance of an expert, and developing one's own
particular theories (axioms, principles, rules) should be transferred to student teachers insights into teaching through the interaction between personal reflection and
during teacher education. Experts working in universities have traditionally taught this theoretical notions offered by the expert.
knowledge and tried to simulate its transfer to the classroom context. However, as Ben
Peretz (1995: 546) cautions: The nature of theory within such programmes takes on a different shade of meaning
when compared with the traditional application-of-theory approach.
The hidden curriculum of teacher education tends to communicate a fragmented
view of knowledge, both in coursework and field experience. Moreover, knowledge
is 'given' and unproblematic. These views of knowledge are likely to become quite Reflective task Teacher education experience
problematic as teachers gain experience.
Consider t he ways In which your teacher education programme draws links between
Studies have shown that placing an emphasis on expert knowledge and the tendency theory and practice. Is the curriculum designed In an Integrative way or are notable
to focus on specific knowledge bases in reacher education often fail to influence the gaps evide nt between theory and practice?
practice of many studem teachers. Reporting from a cognitive psychological perspective,
Korthagen and Kessels (1999) identify three major factors that can inhibit the transfer
of knowledge from teacher education to the school context: Episteme and phrones/s
1 The prior kno111Jedge of student teachers can exert a powerful influence on their Drawing on Aristotle's concepts of tpisteme and phroneris>Korthagen and Kessels
comprehension and learning as many have developed preconceptions about explain two different meanings associated with the term theory. For example, when
teaching that differ from theories they are taught in teacher education. In part, as a teacher educator offers epistemic knowledge, he uses general conceptions that can
a result of the socialisation process of being a pupil in school for many years, they apply to a wide variety of situations: this knowledge is based on research and can be
have built preconceptions about the nature of teaching, e.g. how to teach subject characterised as objective theory. This type of knowledge plays a central role in the
matter, plan lessons and create a purposeful active learning environment. Many traditional application-of-theory approach to teachet· education. Although epistemic
have also developed a restricted view of their pupils' learning styles. Corporaal knowledge serves an important purpose, teachers also need context-specific knowledge
 72 Dimensions of refle c t ive practice Dimension 3 73

T heory Thercto1T '' schema c.:an be described ;lS '' conscious 1w.:nt:1l fhunc.:ll'ork of concepts
(a logical ordering and rdationships. The kind of knO\\'Icdgc embedded ll'ithin a schema shoii'S
of the relations In
the schen1a)
c.:hamcreristics of phroncsis :1s it builds on Gestalts connected ro sped lie situations and
personal perception. Holl'c\'\:r, the! knoll'lcdge in schemata is often more generalised
m·cr diffe rent situations and m:1kes usc of c.:onc.:cprs, ll'hich mc:111s that schem:lt;l can
Theory formation Reflection
also sholl' ch.. racteristics of cpisteme.
When the focus tor reflection is ar the schem;l lc1·el this can lead ro the dc1·dopmenr
of t!Jwry as rh..: reach<!r <.:an m;lkc logio.:al o.:onno.:ctions bcnn:cn the n:huionships in his
Schema sd1cm:1. for cx:unple, some relmionships within the schema might :1ppear to be logk.11
(network of consequcno.:cs of others or ;lppcar robe it:..thcn relationships, ll'hich apply to '' ll'hok
Level ··eduction
elements and mngc:: of sin1<1tions.
relations)
The formuhltion of <lxioms (basi..: relationships ), dd1nitions and logically derin:d
propositions occurs at the theory lei'C:I, which h;~s t he dcare;:st ch:ll'acte;:ristics ofcf)istemc.
After a period of rime, knoll'h:dge in the sd1c:ma or th~:ory lcl'd can become self-e,·idcm
Schematization Reflection
to the te~lC hcr and be:: used in a less conscious, more intuitive ll':ly, as t hough the whole
sdlcl11<l or theory h;~s been reduced to one Gestalt. Van Hide ( 1986: 46) rcfi: rs to this
;~s /.:t>el rcriuctiun: the rde1·;mt schemata and theories need less attention ;~nd en;~bk

Gestalt
tt:;lchers to t(>ctiS thc::ir thinking on orher aspects of their pmcticc.
(holistic) An understanding of this model should help you to recognise th;H ;IllY c:pistcmc
nm connco.:ted to already existing phronesis is un likely to influcnc.: Qr dl<mgc practice.
El'l:n if a teacher dcn:lops Gestalts into his schemata and then into sound theories,
lc1·cl reduction should t;lke phKe bd'ore any kl'l:l of theory ;'lttained c;ln influem:e
Gestalt formation split-sco.:ond beh~n·iour. This means the the01·~· in the teacher's mind 'should itself
become '' Gesmlt, that is, a d~·namic unity intertwined ll'ith bch;wiour in a certain
type of situation' ( Korthagen and Kcssds, 1999: 13 ), ll'hio.:h no longer requires much
conso.:ious reflection .
Experiences with
concrete examples

Figure 5. I Levels in the process of learning w ith regard to a ceo'tain domain

Adapted from Korthagen and Kessels (I 999: I 0)

holl' rcflc:o.:tion on action (So.:hon, 1987} c:m dc.:1·elop epistcmic knoll'ledgc by using
levels in the proo.:c.:ss of learning a ~c: rmin domain, ;IS illusrr;uc:d in Figu rc 5 .1.
Gestalts term at the b;~sc of this model. When reachers :m: encouraged co. t;lkc ti me:,
stand b;lo.:k and look dose I~· :lt rhti r 0 11'11 reaching or come :Jt:ross uncxpc.:ctc.:d situations,
reflection on their own Gestalts is promoted. By :1n.1lysing "'hat t:Krors guide.: their
0\1'11 bch:wiour, te;lo.:hers ma1· bccom~: more .m·arc of the c:kments that constitute
these: Gestalts ;md explore r<::l:ltiollships bt:tii'C cn them. The process..:s of perception -t
interpretation ~ analysis -t decision - t action can be.: ;'lll:llvsed ll'hen the.: reacher is
opc:r;~ting at ,, o.:onscious kvd, particularly ll'hc:n engaged in ·reflection-on -:~<:tion after T he knowledge base for teaching
the lesson. This involves :~ n:~ l ysing .1nd o.:hu·i~·ing 'indi1·idual .md o.:ultural cxperieiH.:es,
meanings, perceptions, assump tions, prc:judgemc.:nrs, and pn:suppositions, t(>r the There arc sel'eral ti·anKIH>rks in the literature that seck to o.:apture the knoll'lcdgc: base
purpose of orienting practio.::~l actions' (van t\tbnen, 1977: 226 ). This process enables for teaching (e.g. Banks, Lead1 and Moon, 1999; Grossman, 1990 ). To exemp li ~· rhe;:
te<Khers to de1·clop a consciously ;ll'ailnbk .>'clmnn, ll'hio.:h on thc one hand is tied to otcnsiw r<lllgt: of knml'lc.:dgc requ ired by te:1..:hers, Shulman ( 1986 ) idemi~c.:s SCI'en
concrete experiences <lnd on the other, bco.:omcs mme dct:l..:hcd fi·om these npnicnccs. categories, as shcllm in Figure 5.2, 11·hic.:h :1rc c.:x~)lored briefl y bdo11·.
74 Dimensions of reflective practice Dimension 3 75

guidance material available related to those programmes, and characteristics that

serve as the indications and contraindications for the use of particular curriculum
or programme materials in particular circumstances, e.g. knowledge of alternative
curriculum materials available for a given subject or topic within a specific age
range such as alternative texts, multimedia technologies and visual materials. This
type of knowledge serves as the 'tools of the trade' for teachers. This category
also includes lateral curriculum knowledge, e.g. the ability to relate the content
of a series of lessons to topics being taught simultaneously in other curriculum
areas, and vertical curriculum knowledge, e.g. familiarity with topics and issues
that have been and will be taught in the same subject area during the preceding and
subsequent years in school, along with materials that embody them.
Pedagogical content knowledge goes beyond knowledge of subject matter per
se and requires an tmderstanding of the subject matter knowledge for teaching,
which encompasses the most useful and powerful ways of representing and
formulating the subject ·SO that it can be understood by others, e.g. through
analogies, demonstrations, exemplars, explanations, illustrations, images and the
use of metaphor. This category includes an understanding of what makes learning
particular topics within the subject area easy or difficult, e.g. the conceptions,
misconceptions and preconceptions learners bring to the learning of these topics.
Knowledge of leame1·s and their characte1'istics requires an understanding of the
cognitive development of learners which incorporates knowledge of how child
Figure 5.2 Knowledge base for teaching development informs practice and how knowledge of working with a particular
group of learners over time enables teachers to personalise learning as they gain
Content lmowledge goes beyond knowledge of the facts or concepts per se within a insight into what their learners can know, do or understand and what they might
given subject area and requixes an understanding of the substantive and syntactic struggle to know, do and understand. This category incorporates knowledge of
(Schwab, 1978) structures of the subject matter. the emotional, physical, psychological and social development of learners and how
The substantive structures are ways in which the basic concepts and principles numerous factors might influence their behaviour, self-esteem, communication
of the discipline are Ol'gan ised to incorporate its facts and focus on the natt~1'e skills and interpersonal relationships.
of enqttiry within a discipline. Knowledge of educational ends requires an understanding of the aims and purposes
ii The syntactic Stl'uctures are ways in which truth or falsehood, validity or of education based on historical and philosophical grounds, which shape the values
invalidity within the discipline are established. Teachers must be able to and priorities of the type of education pupils receive. Teaching is both effective
define the accepted truths within a subject area and explain why a particular and normative: it is concemed with means and ends, e.g. teaching is a purposeful
proposition is justified, why it is wonh knowing and how it relates to other activity, which can be evidenced in the short-term goals and objectives teachers
propositions, within the discipline and beyond (in theory and practice), and identify for a particular lesson or series of lessons. Some teachers might argue that
focus on the methods of enqttiry within a discipline. education should be viewed as intrinsically worthwhile, in and of itself, whereas
Teachers must also understand why a particular topic is central to a subject or others might see education in relation to long-term goals, such as preparing young
discipline whereas another may be more peripheral. people to become socially responsible citizens and ready for the world of work.
General pedagogical knoJvledge requires an understanding of the broader principles Knowledge of edt~cationat contexts requires an understanding of all settings
and strategies that transcend subject matter, which are designed to guide classroom where learning may take place within school and beyond and which can affect
teaching, classroom organisation and classroom management to ensure the content development and classroom performance. These range from the workings of
knowledge can be transformed into meaningful learning activities for pupils. the gl·oup or classroom, school governance and financing, to the character of
Teachers must be responsive to the immediate demands of teaching and exercise culruxes and social communities and include: the size of classes, how leamers are
flexibility in adapting content knowledge for a range of leamers, e.g. developing grouped and supported within class, size and type of school, the catchment area,
strategies to motivate disaffected pupils and support those with specific learning parent-teacher-governor organisations, school council and pupil voice, school
needs. rules, policies and procedures, school leadership and management, curriculum
Curriculum knowledge requires an understanding of the full range of programmes development, processes for monitoring, assessing and reporting, staff appraisal,
designed for teaching particular subjects and topics at a given level, the variety of priorities and expectations, and the overall ethos and vision of the school.
 76 Dimensions of reflective practice Dimension 3 77

Pe d a gogical rea soning a nd a ction

Re(Tective task Knowledge base for t eaching Teachers must draw on their knowledge base fot· teaching to provide sound reasons for
Using Shulman's knowledge base for teachl11g, co nsider which categories: the decisions they make and actions they take. Sound reasoning involves the ~roccss
of thinking about what you are doing and requires an adequate base of expenences,
you are confldent about and have a firm grounding in and those which need fucts and principles from which to reason. In response to Shulman's (1986: 4 )
further development; aphorism 'those who can, do - those who understand, teach', Petrie (1986) .argues
2 Interrelate when teaching a topic in a particular curriculum or subJect area. that such understanding must necessarily also incorporate judgement and acnon, as
comprehension alone is insufficient. .
Identify three SMART targets to enhance your knowledge base for teaching and Shulman's (1987) discourse on pedagogical reasoning and action places an e~phasts
monitor your on-going progress in these areas. on teaching that incorporates: comprehension and reasonjng - transformatton and
reflection. He begins from the premise that most teaching is initiated by some form
of text, e.g. a syllabus, textbook or piece of material that the teacher wants to m~e
comprehensible. The challenge presented to the teacher is in ?ow to pre~are some~ng 'I
she already understands for effective instruction. PedagogJcal reaso~ng. and ac~on
Reflective task Content knowledge involve a cycle through the processes of comprehension, transformatton, mstrucoon,
evaluation, reflection and new comprehension, as summarised below.
Analyse the syllabus in you r school to Ide ntify the subject matter Included within
a particular curriculum or subject area.
Research the Range and Content proposed by the National Curriculum In this Comprehension
curriculum or subject area across two Key Stages. Shulman asserts that to teach is first to understand: teachers must understand what they
Audit your personal subject knowledge in relation to these sources and seek ways teach and, where possible, understand it in several ways. They must also. com~rehend
to enhance your knowledge in areas that need developing. how a given idea relates to other ideas within the same subject area and .'deas m. other
subjects. An understanding of purpose is also important as we en gag~ m teach~ng to
achieve educational purposes and accomplish ends that have to do With such atms as
Banks, Leach and Moon (1999) suggest every teacher develops a personal mbject developing pupil literacy, independence, responsib~ty, respe~t and ~ ?eveloping. the
construct which is a set of educational and philosophical views about the nature of a skills understandings and values needed to funcoon effecttvely Within a globalised
subject, how to teach it and what they hope to achieve through teaching it. Shulman's socie~. We also strive to balance the goals of nurturing individ~al poten~ and
categories of knowledge are thus brought together in the personal subject construct excellence with those involving equality of opportunjty among pupils from different
you develop about a particular subject area, which in turn reflects your own particular backgrounds and cultures. Thus, although m~t teaching begins with some ~rt of
view about the value of that subject. text, and learning that text can be a worthy end ttself, the text can also be a vehtcle for
achieving other educational purposes.

Re(Tective task Pedagogical content knowledge Tr ans formation

Select a topic you plan on teaching to a particular group of pupils and identify: Shulman argues that the key to distinguishing the knowledge base for teaching lies at
- the conceptions, preconceptions and misconceptions pupils might bring to the intersection of content and pedagogy, e.g. the capacity to transform the content
learning this topic; knowledge a teacher possesses into forms that are pedagogica.lly powerful and adaptive
- ways of representing and formulating the topic so that pupils can learn about to variations in the ability and background presented by puptls. To reason through an
and understand the topic. act of teaching, from the subject matter as understood by the. tea:her into the mi~ds
Consider how you might apply your knowledge of these compo ne nts to and motivations for learners, requires some ordering or combmaoon of the followmg
develop pupils' personal, learning and thinking skills and help them become more processes:
independent learners.
Try your ideas out in practice and reflect on the outcomes In relation to your 1 Preparation (of the given text materials) including the pr~cess of critical
development of pedagogical content knowledge. interpretation, which involves examining and critically ~terpretJng tl:e matemls
Critically evaluate whether your personal subject construct has been transformed. to be taught in relation to th e teacher's own undcrstand0g of tl1e subject mat~er.
This usually includes: detecting and correcting errors in the text and segmentmg
 Dimension 3 79
78 Dimensions of reflective practice

.tnd strucrlll'ing the material into lbrms .1dapted to the te.1c her's underst.mdinj; .md Reflection
suitable t(>r te.tching. Educ.uion.1l j;O.tls or purposes ;Ire also scrutinised. ReOection is wh:~t .1 te.tchcr docs when she looks b.~..:k .It the re.tdting :md learnillg
2 Rc.:pn:sent.mon of ideas in the form of new analogies, cxcllll)l,trs, im.tgcs .tml rh.lt h.ts occurred, .md reCOilStructs, rc ·ell.Kt~ •.md/ or rec.tpturcs the e\·cms, emoriolls
mct.tphors, "hich in\'OI\'es thinking through key ide.ts in the tel>t or lesson .tnd .~~.:complishments . It incorpor.ues pr<k:esses through \duch .1 te;Kher lc.uns from
•utd idenril)•ing altenl.ltive or multiple ,,.,,ys of n:presemmg them to pup1ls, expc:rii.:1Kc .md uses p.utkul.tr kinds of .m.tlytic.tl kn<~wlcdgc to re~ect m.' her work .
~.: .g. thinking about "lut p.trrkular .ul.llogies, dcmonstr.ltlons, cx.tmple~ .tnd Centr,11 w this pro.:ess should be .1 n.:' 1e\\ of the te.tdullg 111 comp.mson With the ends
sunul.uions e.tn hcl1> ru bridge the tc.teher's comprehension .md that desired lt1r thJt were soughr.
the pupils .
3 Selection ofr.:.tdung strategies dr.1" n fi·om :1 n:pertoirc uf.tppro;tehes .111d modds of
t~o:;~~.:hing, '' hich .:.111 r.mge fi·om conwnrion.tl demonstr.ttions, lecture~. moddling New comprehension
or se.ltwork to .tcth·e le.\l'lting, gui~·h:d disco,·ery, settings outside of the cl.tssroom, Through .Kts of te.tdting. which .m: both re.tsoned .md rc.IS<m.thlc, the te.tch.cr .Khie,·es
project b.tscd work, rec1proc.tl tc.Khing .md Socr.nic di.tlogm:. ne'' comprehension of the purposes .tnll subj~cts to be t.mght, the pup1ls .md the
4 Ad.tptation of represent.uions to rho.: gener.tl ch:tr.tcteristics of pupils to be t.wghr, processes of ped.tg.O!,'Y· >-:e\\' comprehension docs not. occur .turon~.m.:.tl!y howe~·~r,
.tnd tJ1Ioring .lll.tpt.nions to specific pupils in the d.tssroom, e.g. wll.lt .tspects of e\·en .lftcr entlu.nion .llld rene~o:tion . SpeCifiC ~tr.neg.leS ,\l'e rcqturcd tor .mahsiS,
pupil .tbilit\', culwrc, gender, moti,·.~rion or prior knowledge .tnd skills might .tllcct discussion .tml dm:ument.llion.
the ir responses ro diftcrent lorms of presentation .md represent.nion? \Vh.u pupil The processes embedded wnhin S.:hul m.ln·~ model of pcd.tg.ogical re.tsoning .tnd
concepti<>m. dillkultics, expect.nions, misconceptions, moth·es m str.negies might .tction do nor rcpr..:senr ,, set of fixed ph.tses, Sl.tges or steps. M.m~· processes .:.tn occur
inOuence w.tys in whidt the)' .tpproach, interpret, understand or misu nderst.md the in a tlitli: renr order, or m.ty nor oc.:ur .It .111 d urin g. some .tcts of rea.: hing ••tnd others
m.ueri.tl? T:tiloring te.lChing no t cml )' ent•tils fitting represenr.ttions to particul.ll' ma1· be dabor.ned or truncated.
pup1ls, bur ;tlso to .1 group with .1 parrictll.tr disposition, inrerperson.tl rd~Hionship~ Shulman also rcco~nises th.lt pupils c.m initi.ne the proc~:ss of ped.tgog.k:tl re.1sonillg
.md group dyn.tm ics. receptivity :tnd size. .md ,1ction whe n th;,. disc<l\'CI', im·..:nt m eng..tge in e nquir v to pr..:p.tre their own
represenr.uions :tnt! tl:.mstiu·m.Hiom. He .trg.uc~ rh.ll the Ocxibility w respond, judg~.
Thcs~o: processes result in .1 pl.m of .~~.:tion or set of str.ucgics designed w present llllrturc and promote su.:h .tcts of Cl'c.uivity \\'ithin pupils depends upon the tc.l..:her s
,, spe.:ifi..: lesson, unit of work or course. Rc.lSlming docs not end when the te.tching .:.1p.tdty tor symp.uhetk tr.msli>nn.mon .111d imerprcr.nion.
begins, .IS comprehension, tr.tmlimn.ttion, c\·,tlu.uion ~111d reOection .tlso o..:..:ur dunng
.lctii'C te.ldting. Te.tdting 1~ rherclill'c .1 stimulus l(lr thoughtti1lness .1~ \\ell .ts .tction.

Reflective task Pedagogical reasoning an~ action

Instruct ion
Using Shulman's model of pedagogical reasoning and action. crttically analyse the
Instruction mempor.ucs the obsen-.thlc p.:rtorm.m.:e of ,,,ried tc.tehing .tcts, "hi..:h development of your knowledge base for teaching in relation to a particular topic
mdudes ~uch .tspects of pcd.tgog.y as: org..tnising .md m.m.tging. the d.tssmom: you have recently taught to a particular group of pup1ls.
presenting dc.u· e\pl.tn.ltlon~ .md vi\ id des..:riptions: .tssigning .utd nl()niwring work, What processes within this model do you perceive as:
imer.t~tutg. "1rl1 pup1ls thrnugh question .utd .ulSwer, construcll\c cmi..:ism, spccllic - personal strengths?
tO..: used lc~db.Kk .md pr.u~c It rhus includes di~cussion, expl.tn.uion, m.uugcmcm, .tnd - areas in need of development?
.til the obsen .tblc ti:.uures of organis.nion .tlong with hcuristil: instruction th.lt 1\ \\'ell Set yourself three SMART targets to improve aspects of your knowledge bas~ f~r
docum~:nrcd 111 the l'ese.trdt literarurc oil etlccri,·e re.tdung. teaching and review your progress in relation to the processes embedded Wlthm
the model of pedagogical reasonang and action.
E.valuatlon
E,·,tlu.uioll itll'oh·cs re gul.trh· checking I(H· ulldcrstandillg .md mi~ulldcrsr:utding
,, te.tdter must cmplo)' \\'bile te.~~.:hing inter.l<:ti,·dy, ill .tdditi on w more lorm.tl S umm ary of key points
.tss..:ssmcnt .utd e\'.tlu.nion rh.H te.tchers do to pr<>,·idc tcedb.tck and !.(l'.tdes. To
com1ll'ehcnd wh.ll .1 pupil underst.utds requ ires :1 de..:p gr.tsp of t he m.ncri.tl to
b..: t.lllght .md tho.: processes embedded within learni n~ct- This ulldo.: rst.mding must The Aristotelian con..:epts of episteme .1nd phroncsis h.we been introduced a1~d tile
be spedli..: to p.trtil:ul.tr ~ehoo l subjects .md indiddu.tl topks within the subject. rcl.uio nship bct\\'ccn te.tdter cognition .md te.tcher b..:h.\\'iour disc ussed in n.:l.uaon to
b·.tlu.uioll is .tlso direcr..:d tm\".trd the en.~~.:tment of tc.lchillg .1~ \1 ell .ts t he lessons Kortlugcn and Kes~cls' model or Gest.tlt t(mn.uion.
and m.ueri.tls used ill thme .tcti,·iries.