UNIT 4 Food Processing and Value Addition
UNIT 4 Food Processing and Value Addition
UNIT 4 Food Processing and Value Addition
120
(i) Replacing the O2 by CO2 carbonation
(ii) Evacuating the sealed container (fruit juice)
(iii) Use of oils from top of the food (pickles)
4. Exposing at high temperature: Fruits can be exposed by high temperature such as:
(i) Canning: Food is exposing to a high temperature (> 1000C) which prevents spoilage and
inactivate the enzyme present in the food.
(ii) Irradiation: In case of irradiation, the food is exposed to the radiations to kill the micro
organism by ionizing and non-ionizing radiation like α, β and gamma rays. Her, food is
exposed to electromagnetic or ionizing radiation or various frequencies ranging from low
frequency electromagnetic to high frequency i.e., gamma rays which destroy the micro-
organism present in the food.
Blanching
1. It is primary treatments which have to soften the tissues to facilitate packaging.
2. To preserve the original colour and flavour
3. To destroy the certain enzyme which are undersirable
4. Elimination of the air
5. Mostly for vegetables
6. Remove micro-organisms
7. Remove astringent taste and toxins
Anti-oxidant
Anti-oxidant are substances which are used to protect the food gamma deterioration
caused by exposure to the air.
1. BHA – Butylactic Hydroxy Anisole Vegetable oils
BHT – Butylactic Hydroxy Toluene
2. Gellales: Animal fat, Vegetalbe oil
3. Tocopherols: Animal fat
4. Ascorbic acid: Fruit juices, Citrus oil, Wine, Bears etc.
5. Lactic acid: Processed fruits and vegetables, canned fruits,
6. Phosphoric acid: Vegetable oils, Animal fat and cola drinks
a. Bacteriostatic Methods
1. Drying of foods
121
2. Use of chemical preservatives
3. Use of food additive
4. Use of low temperature
b. Bactericidal Methods
1. Pasteurization
2. Cooking
3. Canning
4. Irradiation
a. Bacteriostatic Methods
In this method, the environmental conditions are change to prevent the growth of
micro organisms, such conditions are called
bacteriostic. These are:
1. Drying of Foods
Drying is just removal of moisture from the food to a certain level at which micro
organisms cannot grow is called drying, it can be done by two methods:
(i) Application of heat
(a) Sun drying (b) Mechanical drying
(c) Vacuum drying (d) Freeze drying
(ii) Binding the moisture in the food
(a) Use of Sugar (b) Use of Salt
a) Sun Drying: Sun drying is the method in which food is directly exposed to sunlight. It is
generally done in the places where plenty sunshine is available for long period e.g.,
Rajasthan. The dried product in this method is inferior in quality.
b) Mechanical drying: This is a method of drying where application of heat is applied by a
mechanical dryer under the controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and air flow.
c) Vacuum drying: The temperature of the food and the rate of water removal are controlled
by regulating the degree of vacuum and intensity of heat input.
d) Freeze drying: In this method, the food is dried by sublimation process, i.e., just
converting the food into ice without passing through the liquid form of water by means of
vacuum plus heat applied in the drying chamber. In this method, product first frozen then
water is removed by vacuum and application of heat which occurs simultaneously in same
chamber.
122
in the food by reducing the moisture. It interferes with the action of proteolytic enzyme. The
effeteness of NaC1 is varied with the concentration of salt and temperature.
123
absorbs most of the available water, so little water available for the growth of micro
organisms.
(ii) Salt: the concentration of salt 15-20% is used for the preparation such as pickles. Salt
inhibits enzymatic browning and discolouration and also acts as an anti-oxidant.
It exerts its preservative action by:
1. Causing high osmotic pressure resulting in the plasmolysis of microbial cells.
2. Dehydrating food and micro organisms by tying up the moisture.
3. Ionizing to yield the chloride ion which is harmful to micro organisms, and
4. Reducing the solubility of oxygen in water, sensitizing the cells against CO2.
(iii) Acids:
1. Many processed foods and beverages need the addition of acids to impart their
characteristic flavour and taste in the final product because an acid provides desired
flavour and taste.
2. They adjust the sugar and acid ratio in the food.
3. Proper balance flavour of the food.
4. They are also playing the role for controlling the pectin-gel formation.
124
1. Cellar Storage: These are the underground room where surplus food can be stored for
some time; only root crops such as potato, onion can be stored for a limited period.
2. Refrigeration: Fruits and vegetables can be stored for 2-7 days. Semi-perishable crops,
such as potatoes, apples etc. can be stored, in the commercial cold storage with proper
ventilation, automatic controlled temperature for one year.
3. Freezing: It tie up the moisture and increase the concentration of dissolved substances in
the food. But, sometimes enzymes are active even below the 00C.
In this case before freezing, ‗Blanching‘ is necessary for vegetable freezing.
B. Bactericidal Method
In this method, food material is exposed to higher temperature and high temperature
helps to killing of the micro organisms due to coagulation of protein. It helps in inactivation
of enzyme. Here moist heat is more effective than dry heat. At low pH high temperature is
required than the high pH. High temperature can be employed by following methods:
(i) Pasteurization: Below 1000C
(ii) Boiling/ Cooking: at 1000C
(iii) Canning: Above 1000C
(i) Pasteurization
There are three methods of pasteurization
a) Bottle or holding pasteurization
This method is commonly used for the preservation of fruit juices at home. The
extracted juice is strained and filled in bottles, leaving sufficient head space for the expansion
of the juice during heating. The bottles are then sealed air-tight and pasteurized.
b) Overflow method
Juice is heated to temperature of about 2.50C higher than the pasteurization
temperature and then filled in hot sterilized bottles up to the brim, during filling and sealing
the temperature of juice should not fall below the pasteurization temperature.
c) Flash pasteurization
The juice is heated rapidly to a temperature of about 5.50C higher than the
pasteurization temperature and kept at this temperature for about a minute. This method
commonly used for canning of natural orange juice, grape and apple juices. It is a mild heat
treatment; by pasteurization milk is pasteurized by HTST at 720C for 15 sec. Fruit juices are
pasteurized at such temperature and for such periods as would render them sterile, without
impairing their flavour. Usually, the juices are pasteurized at about 850C for 25-30 min.,
according to the nature of the juice and the size of container. Acid fruit juices require lower
temperature and less time for pasteurization than the less acid ones.
Juices can be pasteurized in two ways
(1) By heating the juice at a low temperature for a High time (LTHT) and
(2) By heating the juice at high temperature for a short time (HTST).
(ii) Boiling/Cooking
The primary objective of cooking is to produce a palatable food. Cooking results in:
1. Destruction or reduction of micro organisms and inactivation of undesirable enzymes.
125
2. Destruction of potential hazard in the foods which are present naturally through micro-
organism.
3. Improvement of colour, flavour and texture of the food.
4. It improves the digestibility of food component.
5. Putting the temperature about 1000C. by this method, food can be preserved for 10-24
hours at low temperature.
(iii) Canning
Canning is done at or above 1000C. In case of fruits which are acidic, they are canned
at 1000C, while in case of vegetable those are nonacidic, they are canned at above 1000C.
Here, high temperature can be obtained by using steam pressure; time is varying according to
the type of foods. Due to anaerobic condition any survivable organism will not grow.
On the basis of Acid, foods are divided into four different groups:
1. Low Acid Foods (pH 5.3 and above): Peas, Corn, Lime beans, Meat, fish, Poultry and
Milk.
2. Medium Acid Foods (pH 5.3-4.5): Spinach, Asparagus, Beets and Pumpkin.
3. Acid Foods (pH 4.5-3.7): Tomatoes, Pears and Pineapple, Sauce.
4. High Acid Foods (pH below 3.7): Berries and Sauer kraut, Pickle.
Preservation by filtration
In this method juices are clarified by settling or by using ordinary filters, and then
passed through special filters which are capable of retaining yeasts and bacteria. Various
types of germ-proof filters are used for this purpose.
Preservation by carbonation
Carbonation is the process of dissolving sufficient CO2 in water or beverage so that
the product when served gives off the gas as fine bubbles and has a characteristic taste,
carbonation life of beverage. Fruit juice beverages are generally bottled with CO 2 content
varying from 1-8 g/lit though carbon should be avoided as it destroys the flavour of the juice.
The keeping quality of carbonated fruit beverages is enhanced by adding about 0.005%
sodium benzoate. The level of carbonation is required according to the type of fruit juice and
type of flavour.
Preservation by fermentation
This is one of the oldest methods of preservation. By this method the foods are
preserved by the alcohol or organic acid formed by microbial action. The keeping quality of
alcoholic beverages vinegars and fermented pickles depends on the presence of alcohol acetic
acid and lactic acid respectively. Wines, beers, vinegar, fermented drinks, fermented pickles
are prepared by these processes. Fermentation is carried out by using acetic acid, lactic acid
and alcohol etc.
Preservation by Antibiotics
Certain metabolic products of micro-organisms which are found to have a germicidal
effect those are:
126
Nissin: - is an antibiotic produced by Streptococcus lactis an organism found in milk, curd,
cheese and other fermented milk products. It is non toxic and it is widely used in food
industry especially for preservation of acid foods.
It is commonly used in canning of mushroom tomatoes and milk products. Nisin suppress the
growth of spoilage organisms.
Subtilin: - an antibiotic obtained from Bacillus subtilis is used in preservation of asparagus,
corn and peas.
Pimaricin: - an antifungal antibiotic used for treating fruits and fruit juices.
Preservation by irradiation
It is a process of preservation of food by exposing them to ionizing energy radiation
which kills most of the spoilage causing organism and also inactivates the enzymes
responsible for browning etc. This method prevents the sprouting in storage condition (onion,
potato etc.).
The irradiation of food can be considered to be a method of ―Cold sterilization‖.
Irradiation measured in rads.
Point to Remember
127
Two approaches are possible for solving this problem.
(i) One is the creation/expansion of cold storage facilities in the fruit and vegetable producing
regions, as also in the major urban consumption centres, to ensure supply of fruit and
vegetable throughout year.
(ii) Another approach is to process the fruits and vegetable into various products which could
be preserved for a long time and add value to the product.
With increasing in purchasing power of middle class, there is increasing demand for
factory made jams, gullies, pickles.
In spite of all these, the fruit and vegetable preservation industry of present is able to
utilise less than 2% of the total production for conversion into products like canned fruits,
juices and their beverage squashes etc. as against 40% in developed countries. Thus there is
considerable scope for expansion of the industry, which in turn would give a fillip to
development of horticulture, specially in hilly areas and through export of value-added
products, earn more foreign exchange.
India is one of the cheapest producer of horticultural produce. If the Government
addresses some of the gaps in processing industry, Indian economy will get a boost up.
(i) Most of the varieties grown in India are not suitable for processing.
(ii) Seeds of processble varieties can be imported and multiplied using tissue culture
technique.
(iii) Lowering sales tax on agriculture produce may help the industry to grow.
(v)In New Exim Policy of Union Government, setting of Agriculture Export Zones (AEZ)
to identify each state‘s competitive advantage and to promote the cultivation and
processing of fruit and vegetable accordingly.
128
2. Important Value Added Product of Fruits and Vegetables
Jam, Jelly and Marmalade
Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar to a
reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. It should contain
not less than 68 per cent soluble solids. Jam may be made from a single fruit (apple,
strawberry, banana, pineapple etc.) or from combination of two or more fruits. Jam contains
0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.
Components of Jam
Fruit Pulp:- 45%
TSS:- 68%
Acidity:- 0.5-0.6%
Water:- 33-38%
Processing of Jam
1. Selection of fruit:- Fully ripe fruit should be harvested for Jam making. Jam is best
fruit for Jam making. Pineapple, carrot, strawberry, banana, peach, pear also used for
jam making.
2. Washing/Cleaning of fruit:- Fruit shoul be cleaned by clean water.
3. Preparation of Fruit:- Fruit should be peeled and remove of core material for Jam
making.
4. Blanching:- Blanching is the heating of fruit or vegetables for a short time with either
steam or water, and is an essential step before canning, drying or freezing of food.
This heating process is not meant to cook the food but to inactivate substances
that would otherwise adversely affect the nutrient content, colour, flavour or texture
during subsequent processing and storage.
5. Cooking with Sugar:- Fruit pulp start cooking with 1/3 quantity with sugar. After
some time add remaining sugar.
6. Adding of Citric Acid:- For enhancement of test citric acid should be added at 103oC
temperature.
7. Judging of End-Point:-
a. Sheet or Flake test:-A small portion of jam is taken out during boiling, in a
spoon or wooden ladle and cooled slightly, it is then allowed to drop. If the
product falls off in the form of a sheet or flakes instead of flowing and a
continuous stream or syrup, it means that the end-point has been reached and
product is ready, boiling is continued till the sheet is positive.
b. Temperature:- 1050C.
c. TSS:- 68-70%
d. Weight Test:- If total weight of jam is 1.5 time is more than sugar weight,
jam is prepared.
8. Packing:- Jam should be fill in glass jar.
9. Storage:- Jam should be stored at dry and cool place.
129
Important Point:-
The jam should be containing 30-50% invert sugar.
Crystallization of jam occurs due to the less than 30% invert sugar, it can be
prevent by adding of corn syrup or glucose along with cane sugar.
Sticky and gummy jam is due to high percentage of total soluble solid (more
sugar). This problem can be solved by addition of pectin or citric acid or both.
Premature setting is due to low total soluble solid and high pectin content in
the jam and it can be prevent by adding more sugar.
Surface graining and shrinkage is caused by evaporation of moisture during
storage of jam, it can be avoid by storing in a cooling place.
Jam should be stored at 80% humidity for avoid the mould growth.
Jelly
Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear, strained solution of pectin
containing fruit extract with sufficient quantity of sugar and measured quantity of acid.
Character of Ideal Jelly:-
A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and should have the
original flavour of the fruit.
It should be firm enough to retain a sharp edge but should be tender enough to resist
the applied pressure.
It should not be gummy, sticky or syrupy or have crystallized sugar.
Guava is most suitable fruit for jelly making.
Fruits rich in pectin and acid: Sure apple, grape, lemon, orange, jamun, goose
berry, cranberry, etc.
Fruits rich in pectin low acid: Apple, unripe banana, guava, sour cherry, fig, pear,
loquat, etc.
Fruits low in pectin rich acid: Sweet cherry, pineapple, rhubarb, etc.
Fruits low in pectin and acid: Apricot, peach, pomegranate, raspberry, strawberry,
overripe fruits, etc.
Tartaric acid is best for jelly preparation.
Pectin is most important constitute of jelly, it is present in fruits form of calcium
pectate are responsible for the firmness of fruits.
Components of Jelly
Fruit Juice:- 45%
TSS:- 65%
Pectin:- 0.5-1.0%
Acid:- 0.75%
Water:- 33-38%
pH:- 3.2.
Preparation of Jelly:-
130
1. Selection of fruit:- Fruit should be harvested at half-ripe stage for jelly making
because maximum pectin content in fruit at half ripe stage. If fruits are ripe when
pectin change in pectic acid.
Guava, sour apple, plum, karonda, wood apple, loquat, papaya and goose-
berry are generally used for preparation of jelly. Apricot, pineapple, strawberry,
raspberry, etc. can be used but only after addition of pectin powder, because these
fruits have low pectin content.
2. Washing/Cleaning of fruit:- Fruit shoul be cleaned by clean water.
3. Blanching:- Blanching is the heating of fruit or vegetables for a short time with either
steam or water, and is an essential step before canning, drying or freezing of food.
This heating process is not meant to cook the food but to inactivate substances
that would otherwise adversely affect the nutrient content, colour, flavour or texture
during subsequent processing and storage.
4. Extraction of fruit juice:- For jelly making juice is excreted after blanching.
5. Pectin Test:-
a. Jelmeter test:- A jelmeter is a graduated glass tube with an opening at each end.
It is used to determine the amount of pectin in fruit juice. The rate of flow of the
juice through this tube is used as a measure of the jellying power of the juice.
Therefore, it is an index to the amount of sugar to be used. Jelmeters were once
commonly available, but are not easy to find today, most likely because the
alcohol test is more reliable.
b. Alcohol Test:- his is a proven standard test for pectin content and luckily it‘s hard
to go wrong with.
Take one teaspoon of clear boiling fruit juice and drop into a cold glass or cup,
allow it to cool for a minute and then add three teaspoons of methylated spirit
and swirl it around or gently shake.
If a large clot forms from the juice, adequate pectin for a good set has been
extracted and the sugar may be added to the fruit and juice
If 2-3 clot formed means pectin content in juice is medium.
If 3-4 clot formed means pectin content in juice is low.
If there is only a very low amount of pectin, several small clots will form. It is
probably going to be worth adding some additional pectin to ensure a good set.
6. Cooking juice with sugar:- Start heating with 1/3 quantity with sugar. After some
time add remaining sugar.
7. Adding of Citric Acid:- For enhancement of test citric acid should be added at 103oC
temperature.
8. Judging of End-Point:-
131
Drop test:- A drop of the concentrated mass is poured into a glass containing
water. Settling down of the drop without disintegration denotes the end-point
Temperature:- 105.50C.
TSS:- 65%
Weight Test:- If total weight of jam is 1.5 time is more than sugar weight,
jam is prepared.
9. Packing:- Jam should be fill in glass jar.
10. Storage:- Jam should be stored at dry and cool place.
Marmalade
Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which slices of the citrus fruit or its peels are suspended.
Marmalades are generally made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded
peels are suspended.
Browning during storage of marmalade is very common which can be prevented by
addition of 0.09g of KMS per kg of marmalade and not using tin container.
132
Flow-Sheet for Processing of Fruits Jam
Washing
Peeling
Pulping
(Remove seed and core)
Addition of Sugar
(Add water if necessary)
Boiling
(With continuous starring)
Cooling
Waxing
Capping
Storage
(At ambient temperature)
133
Flow-Sheet for Processing of Fruits Jelly
Fruits
(Firm, not over-ripe)
Washing
Straining of extract
Pectin test
(for addition of sugar)
Addition of sugar
Boiling
Judging of end-point
(sheet/drop/temperature test)
Waxing
(paraffin wax)
Capping
134
Flow-Sheet for Processing of Marmalade
Ripe Fruits
Washing
Boiling
(In 2-3 times weight of water for 40 to 60 minutes)
Adding of sugar
(as required)
Cooking to 103-1050C
(continuous stirring)
Cooking
0
(to 82-88 C with continues stirring)
Flavoring
(orange oil)
135
Filling in sterilized bottles
Sealing
Candied fruits
Fruits/vegetables impregnated with cane sugar or glucose syrup, and subsequently
drained free of syrup and dried, is known as candied fruit/vegetable.
Most suitable fruits for candied making are Aonla, karonda, pineapple, cherry,
papaya, apple, peach and peel of lemon, grapefruit and citron, ginger etc.
The difference between candied and preserves is that the fruit impregnated with syrup
having a higher percentage of sugar or glucose.
For best candied total sugar content of the impregnated fruit is kept at about 75 per
cent to prevent fermentation.
Crystallized fruits/vegetables
Candied fruit/ vegetable when covered or coated with crystals of sugar, either by
rolling in finely powdered sugar or by allowing sugar crystals to deposit on them from dense
syrup are called crystallized fruits.
Glazed fruits/vegetables
Covering of candied fruits/vegetables with a thin transparent coating of sugar, which
impart them a glossy appearance, is known as glazing.
2. Floating of fruit in jar: It is mainly due to filling the preserve without cooling and can be
avoided by cooling the preserve prior to filling.
136
3. Toughening of fruit skin or peel: It may be due to inadequate blanching or cooking of
fruit hence blanching till tender is necessary.
4. Fruit shrinkage: Cooking of fruit in heavy syrup greatly reduces absorption of sugar and
causes shrinkage. Therefore, fruit should be blanched first or cooked in low-sugar syrup.
5. Stickiness: It may develop after drying or during storage due to insufficient consistency of
the syrup, poor quality packing and damp storage conditions.
Mature Fruit
Washing
Removal of fruit
Steeping of fruit
(for a day)
Steeping in 70% TSS for a week Steeping in 75% TSS for a week
Preserve Draining
137
Storage
Sealing
(airtight)
Storage
Pickle
The preservation of food in common salt or in vinegar is known as pickling. It is one
of the most ancient methods of preserving fruits and vegetables. Pickles are good appetizers
and add to the palatability of a meal. They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus help in
digestion. They are prepared with salt, vinegar, oil or with a mixture of salt, oil, spices and
vinegar.
Method of pickle preparation
1. Preservation with salt: Salt improves the taste and flavour and hardness the
tissues of vegetables and controls fermentation. Salt content of 15 per cent or above prevents
microbial spoilage. This method of preservation is generally used only for vegetables and
some fruits like lime, mango etc. which contain very little sugar and hence sufficient lactic
acid cannot be formed by fermentation to act as preservation.
2. Preservation with vinegar: The fruits and vegetables preserved in vinegar whose
final concentration, in terms of acetic acid in the finished pickle should not be less than 2 per
cent.
3. Preservation with oil: The fruits and vegetables should be completely immersed in
the edible oil. Cauliflower, lime mango and turnip pickles are the most important oil pickles.
4. Preservation with mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar: The fruits and
vegetables can preserve in mixture of salt, oil, spices and vinegar. Cauliflower, carrot, turnip,
red chilli, jackfruit and tomato most important pickle those are prepared by this method.
Problems in pickle making
1. Bitter taste: Use of strong vinegar or excess spice or prolonged cooking of spices imparts
a taste to the pickle.
2. Blackening: It is due to the iron in the brine or in the process equipment reacting with the
ingredient used in pickling. Certain microorganisms also cause blackening.
3. Cloudiness: Cloudiness caused by the use of inferior quality vinegar or chemical reaction
between vinegar and minerals.
4. Dull and faded product: This is due to use of inferior quality materials or insufficient
curing.
5. Shrivelling: It occurs when vegetables are placed directly in a very strong solution of salt
or sugar or vinegar.
138
6. Scum formation: When vegetables are cured in brine, a white scum always from on the
surface due to the growth of wild yeast. This delays the formation of lactic acid and also
helps the growth of putrefactive bacteria which cause softness and slipperiness. Addition of 1
per cent acetic acid helps to prevent the growth of wild yeast in brine, without affecting lactic
acid formation.
7. Softness and slipperiness: This very common problem is due to inadequate covering with
brine or the use of weak brine. The problem can be solved by using a brine of proper strength
and keeping the pickles well below the surface of the brine.
Mango (peeled and sliced) -1 kg, salt - 200 g, red chilli powder 10 g, asafetida -5 g,
fenugreek, black pepper, cardamom (large), cumin and cinnamon (powdered) each 10 g,
clove (headless) 6 numbers.
Mangoes
(Mature, green)
Washing
Peeling
Slicing
Sprinkling salt
Mixing spices
139
FLOW-CHART FOR LIME PICKLE
Washing
Cut into four pieces or alternatively cut into smaller, uniform-sized pieces
Mix spices
(To local preference)
Packaging
Storage
(In a cool place, away from sunlight)
Cucumber 1 kg, salt 200 g, red chilli powder 15 g, cardamom (large), cumin, black pepper
(powdered) each 10 g, clove (headless) 6 numbers, vinegar 750 ml.
Cucumber
Washing
Peeling
Filling in jar
Storage
(In a cool place, away from sunlight)
Green chillies – 1 kg, salt – 150 gm, mustard (ground) – 100 gm lime juice – 200 ml (or)
amchur – 200 gm, fenugreek cardamom (large), turmeric, cumin (powdered) each – 15 gm,
mustard oil – 400 ml.
Green chillies
Washing
Drying
Making incision
Storage
(In a cool place, away from sunlight)
Sauce
Sauce is a product similar to ketchup, prepared from pulps of tomato or other
fruit/vegetable, having TSS not less than 15% and cooked to a suitable consistency with
141
added sugar, salt, spices and vinegar. Sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid all act as partial
preservatives. According to FPO specification fruit sauce should have minimum of 15% TSS
and 1.2% acidity. Preservatives and colours may also be added for increasing of appearance
and storability.
Tomato Ketchup
Ketchup is a product made by concentrating tomato juice or pulp without seeds and
skin, with added spices, salt, vinegar, onion, garlic etc. so that it content not less than 12%
tomato solids and generally 28% or more total solid (not less than 25% TSS as per FPO
specificartion).
Sauce and ketchup are similar products but ketchup is only prepared from tomato
while sauce may be made by another fruit and vegetable pulp.
Difference between Ketchup and Sauce
Ketchup Sauce
1. Prepared from tomato only. 1. Prepared from tomato as well as other
fruits and vegetables such as
pumpkin, chilli, etc.
2. Minimum TSS is 25%. 2. Minimum TSS is 15%.
3. Minimum acidity is 1.0%. 3. Minimum acidity is 1.2%.
4. Thicker in consistency. 4. Thinner in consistency.
5. Costly 5. Cheep as compared to ketchup.
6. Only red in colour. 6. May have red, green or other colours.
Pulping
142
(After squeezing in pulp)
Judging of end-point
(Tomato solids)
Pasteurization
Crown crocking
143
3 Packaging, Quality Slandered and Their Marketing
Including Export
Packaging is an important consideration in vegetable and fruit market. The use of
properly designed containers for transporting and marketing of vegetables is significantly
reduce losses and maintain their freshness succulence and quality for longer period.
Packaging also provides protection from mechanical damage and undesirable physiological
changes and pathological deterioration during storage, transportation and marketing.
Many vegetables are transported in gunny bags and bamboo baskets. Packaging
material such as polythene films, paper boars, and boxes lived with polythene and other
materials can effectively prolong the shelf life of vegetables. By using plastic films
vegetables can be protected from dry air. Polythene packaging provides modified atmosphere
and consequently reduces decay, softening, and loss of solids. The thickness and permeability
to CO2, O2 and water vapour of films needs to be standardized for each vegetable.
Characteristics of packaging
The characteristics of packaging are to contain, to protect, to communicate and to
market the product.
A. To contain produce
As an efficient handling unit, easy to be handled by one person.
As a marketable unit. e.g. units with the same content and weight.
C. To communicate
Identification: a label with country of origin, volume, type or variety of product,
manufacturing and expiry date, etc. printed on it.
Marketing, advertising: recognizable trade name and trademark.
144
D. To market the product
Proper packaging will lead to reduced injuries of fruits and vegetables and
subsequently to improvement of appearance.
Standard units (weight, count) of a certain produce will increase speed and efficiency
of marketing.
With reduced costs of transport and handling, stacking and combining of packages
into layer units like pallets is possible. A more efficient use of space and reduced
losses will lower the marketing costs.
Labels and slots facilitate inspection.
Type of packaging
1) Plastic film bags: – Widely used for consumer size packs in fruit and vegetables
marketing.
2) Plastic boxes: – They are rigid containers most suited for packaging soft and delicate
commodities.
3) Net / mesh bags: – Widely used for packing fruits like apple, citrus, guava, sapota etc.
145
4) Sleeve packs: – Immobilization of packed fruits, superior visibility that gives a good sales
appeal.
5) Cling film: – Ideal packaging for low water vapour transmission rate, high gas
permeability.
6) Shrink film or stretch film: – Among the specialised plastic packaging systems, shrink
packaging or commonly known as shrink wrapping and stretch wrapping are very common
and widely used. ey are considered to be totally different in terms of material and operation.
In the case of shrink wrapping, shrink film is used as the basic material and heat
forms an important part of the operation, whereas, in the case of stretch wrapping, stretch
146
film is used as the basic material and no heat is applied during the operation. Shrink
Wrapping is done in 3 or 4 stages, namely:
• Wrapping (sleeve wrapping or over-wrapping)
• Sealing (necessary only for over-wrapping)
• Shrinking (with application of hot air), and
• Cooling
Stretch wrapping is done only in two stages, namely, wrapping and sealing (most of the time
even without a sealer).
7) Antimicrobial packaging: – Incorporating antimicrobial agents into polymer surface
coating sand surface attachments.
8) Wooden packaging: – used for packing fruits and vegetable.
147
9) Modified atmosphere packaging
It is the packaging of perishable products. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) of
fresh fruits and vegetables is based on modifying the levels of O2 and CO2 in the atmosphere
produced inside a package sealed with some type of polymer film. It is desirable that the
natural interaction that occurs between the respiration of the product and the packaging
generates an atmosphere with low levels of O2 and / or a high concentration of CO2. The
growth of organisms that cause decay is thereby reduced and the life of the product is
extended. Additionally, the desired atmosphere can reduce the respiration rate, and ethylene
production, physiological changes. For example, it can inhibit chemical, enzymatic and
microbiological mechanisms associated with the decay of fresh products, thus avoiding the
use of other chemical or thermal process such as freezing, dehydration, and sterilization.
Modified atmosphere packaging is two types:-
Passive Modified atmosphere packaging
Modified atmospheres can be obtained passively between plant material and sealed
package or intentionally using determined concentrations of gases. Modified atmosphere is
formed as a result of vegetable respiration, which consumes CO2 and releases O2 in sealed
package. In passive modification, the respiring product is placed in a polymeric package and
sealed hermetically. Only the respiration of the product and the gas permeability of the film
influence the change in gaseous composition of the environment surrounding the product. If
the product‘s respiration characteristics are properly matched to the film permeability values,
then a beneficial modified atmosphere can be passively created within a package. The
polymer itself variably restricts gas exchange between the internal and external environments
due to its selective permeability to O2 and CO2. After a period of time, the Modified
Atmosphere Packaging for Perishable Plant Products system reaches an equilibrium
atmosphere containing of lower concentrations of O2 and higher concentrations of CO2 than
in atmospheric air.
The concept of active packaging has been developed to adjust the deficiencies in
passive packaging such as when a film is a good barrier to moisture, but not to oxygen, the
film can still be used along with an oxygen scavenger to exclude oxygen from the pack. An
intentionally or actively obtained modified atmosphere occurs when the desired gas mixture
is introduced into the container before sealing. In this way, atmospheric balance inside the
package is reached faster or almost immediately. Sometimes, certain additives are
incorporated into the polymeric packaging film or within packaging containers to modify the
headspace atmosphere and to extend shelf-life. Another process is the acceleration of
atmospheric balance under partial vacuum packaging is the process of removing the air
before sealing, reducing the free space. Although the active modification of the atmosphere
within the package incurs additional costs, the advantage is that the desired atmosphere is
securely achieved in considerably less time.
10) Vacuum packaging: – Where as MAP and CAP mostly operate in ambient pressure (101
kpa), storage at reduced atmosphere has been experimented and is known as vaccum
packaging. Packaging the products in film of low oxygen permeability and sealing it after
evacuating the air. Apple can be stored well in below pressure of 10 kpa.
148
12) Bamboo mat holed boxes: -Suitable for transportation of apple.
13) Polypropelene boxes: - Highly suitable for long markets it can be reused.
14) Corrugated fibre board: -Suitable for fruit and vegetable and most economical.
15) Tetra-packaging:- Tetra Pak aseptic cartons are made of three basic materials that
together result in every efficient, safe and light-weight package. Each material provides a
specific function:
149
Polyethylene (15%): to make packages liquid tight and to provide a barrier to micro -
organisms
Aluminium foils (5%): to keep out air, light, and off-flavours-all the things that can cause
food to deteriorate.
Combining each of these three materials has enabled Tetra Pak to produce a
packaging material with optimal properties and excellent performance characteristics.
Higher degree of safety, hygiene and nutrient retention in food
Preserving taste and freshness
Can be kept for months with no need for refrigeration or preservatives
Efficient (a filled package weight is 97% product and only 3% packaging material), using
a minimum quantity of materials necessary to achieve a given function
A good example of resource efficiency is its light-weight (among the lightest packages
available)
Type of packaging materials
1. Sacks: flexible, made of plastic or jute.
i. Bags: small size sack
ii. Nets: sacks made of open mesh
2. Wooden crates.
3. Carton or fiber-board boxes.
4. Plastic crates.
5. Pallet boxes and shipping containers.
6. Baskets: made of woven strips of leaves, bamboo, plastic, etc.
150
5 CONCEPT OF SAFE FOOD AND QUALITY STANDARD
Quality Control and Quality Assurance are the two steps for ensuring quality. Quality
Control is the evaluation of a final product prior to its marketing i.e., it is based on quality
checks at the end of production. Quality Assurance is similar to quality control, but has more
to do with the process than the product. It is the implementation of quality checks and
procedures to immediately correct any failure and mistake that is able to reduce the quality of
the interim products at every production step.
The desired high quality of the final product is planned and obtained by conducting
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) that guarantee the desired quality of the interim
products at every production step meeting the demands for Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMPs). The management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction is
based on the participation of all members of an organization in improving processes,
products, services and the working culture and is known as Total Quality Management
(TQM). These are the systems that can demonstrate that the organization can meet the
specifications and requirements of the customers. They also allow the management of the
organization to know that the customer‘s requirements are being met. Food quality profile for
any product is depicted under:
151
Over All Food Quality
Quality Attributes
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are guidelines to assure that food for human
consumption is safe and has been prepared, packed and held under sanitary conditions. These
guidelines deal with personnel involved in food processing, building, premises as well as
construction and design.
Quality Systems
Food Laws: There are a number of food laws being implemented by various
Ministries/Departments. These are primarily meant for two purposes namely, (1) Regulation
of Specifications of Food and (2) Regulation of Hygienic Condition of
Processing/Manufacturing. Some of these food laws are mandatory and some are voluntary.
Food laws are set up and established by authorities as a rule for the measure of quantity,
weight, value or quality. Food laws are essential to provide uniform units for weights and
measures. The purpose/ benefits of food laws are helpful for farmers and other people
engaged in harvesting and food production, those who are engaged in processing and
marketing of food, for consumers and government agencies.
Legislations Governing Food Industry in India: With trade liberalization and globalization
in the food industry after WTO we have to amend / make changes in our legislations to meet
international requirements. In our country, standardization systems fall into two categories.
Compulsory legislations are formulated by various Ministries whereas voluntary standards
are framed by the organizations with the motto of serving the country. The details of
152
Acts/Orders, their mode of operation, regulations with special features are described in Table
3. Different voluntary legislations are made for the purpose to guarantee stated quality and
sales promotion. A number of control orders have been formulated under the provisions of
the Essential Commodities Act, which operate on the main objectives of regulating the
manufacture, commerce and distribution of essential commodities. There are various
commodity boards such as Spices Board, Tea Board, Coffee Board, National Horticulture
Board operating in India which undertake research and development work for their respective
fields.
International Organizations Governing Food Safety
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) (Under FAO/ WHO)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians (IAMFES)
International Commission for Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF)
National Advisory Committee for Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF)
International Dairy Federation (IDF)
Her Majesty‘s Stationary Office (HMSO)
153
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) was created in 1963 by FAO and WHO
to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The main purpose of this programme is
protecting health of the consumers, ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade and
promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international government
and non-government organizations.
1) Analyze hazards – Potential hazards associated with a food and the measures
required to control those hazards are identified that include biological, chemical
and physical contaminants.
2) Identify critical control points (CCP). These are points in a food‘s production at
which potential hazards can be controlled or eliminated.
3) Establish preventative measures with critical limits for each control point. These
are minimum standards required for the safe preparation of food.
4) Establish procedures to monitor the critical control points. Such procedures
include determining how and by whom processing standards are to be monitored.
5) Establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring has shown that a critical
limit has not been met. Therefore, either reprocess or dispose off foods if
minimum processing standards have not been met.
6) Establish procedures to verify that the system is working properly for testing and
calibrating equipment to ensure their proper functioning which is one typical
requirement.
7) Establish effective record keeping in order to document the HACCP system. This
would include records of hazards and their control methods, monitoring of safety
requirements and corrective actions taken to either prevent problems or how non-
conformances are to be prevented from reoccurring.
154
status, demonstrating conformance to international standards, transforming commodities into
branded products and facilitating international acceptance.
155
Standardization systems for quality control of foods
156
Products and Consumer distribution of all the edible Oil Products (Control)
(Regulation) Affairs oils. Specifications of the Order, 1947 and
Order, 1998 products provided. Vegetable Oil Products
(Standards of Quality)
Order, 1975.
BIS Certification for the
tin plates used for
―Vanaspati” packing is
deleted.
6. Sugar (Control) Ministry of Regulates the manufacture,
Order, 1966 Agriculture and quality and sale of sugar.
Irrigation
Department of
Sugar
7. Export (Quality Ministry of Regulates compulsory, pre- AGMARK has been
Control & Commerce shipment inspection. recognized as an agent for
Inspection) inspection and quality
Act, 1963 Export Inspection Exportable commodities list control of certain items.
Council has been notified for pre-
5 Regional Export shipment inspection. Voluntary inspection at
Inspection the request of foreign
Agencies Quality control of various buyers and advice of
Network of 50 export products is monitored. Export Inspection
Offices Council is also carried
out.
8. Standards on Ministry of Food Prescribed the conditions for Providing relief to the
Weights and and Civil Supplies packed products with respect weaker sections of society
Measures Act, Directorate of to quantity declaration, and protecting the
1976 Weights and manufacturing date and sale consumer in general by
Measures price. guaranteeing the quantity
for the amount paid.
9. The Consumer Ministry of Food Provision made for the Protection of the interest
Protection Act, and Civil Supplies establishment of consumer of Consumers.
1986 councils and other authorities
for the settlement of consumer
disputes.
10. Environ-ment Ministry of Regulates the manufacture, Compulsory for every
Protection Act, Environment and use and storage of hazardous food plant discharging
1986 Forestry microorganisms waste into mainstream to
/substances/cells used as obtain a No Objection
foodstuff. Certificate (NOC) from
respective State Pollution
Board.
157
11. The Insecticide Directorate of Plant Describes the safe use of
Act, 1968 Protection, insecticides to ensure that
Quarantine and residual level doesn‘t pose any
Storage, Ministry health hazard.
of Agriculture
II. Voluntary Standards
1. Agricultural Directorate of Grade Standards are Activity is based on
Produce Marketing and prescribed for Agricultural marketing and grading at
(Grading & Inspection and Allied Commodities producers‘ level.
Marketing) Grading, sorting as per quality Non-following of rules
Act, 1937 attributes and inspection are leads to fine and
included. imprisonment.
AGMARK Certificate
System available.
2. Bureau of Indian Standards Prescribing of grade standards, General cover on
Indian Institution formulation of standards, and hygienic conditions of
Standards specification for foods, manufacture, raw material
(BIS) prescribing standards for quality and safety are
limits of toxic compounds as given.
applicable. Implementation of Quality and Safety
regulation by promotion oriented standards.
through its voluntary and third Enforces certification
party certification system, system.
specifying of packaging and
labeling requirements.
3. Certification Bureau of Indian Regulates the certification Ensure the quality to the
Marks Scheme, Standards scheme for various processed consumer by certification.
BIS Act, 1986 food products, ingredients and
(Rules and packaging containers.
Regulations)
158