2

3
4
5
Contour: An imaginary line on the ground
surface joining the points of equal elevation is
known as contour.
In other words, contour is a line in which
the ground surface is intersected by a level
surface obtained by joining points of equal
elevation. This line on the map represents a
contour and is called contour line.
Contouring
The process of tracing contour lines on the
surface of the earth is called Contouring.
Contour Map
A map showing contour lines is known as
Contour map.
A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes
of the surface features as well as their relative
positions in plan serves the purpose of both, a
plan and a section.
• Contour Interval : It is the difference in elevation
between two successive contour lines.
To observe the general appearance of the ground
by a contour map, the contour interval should be
constant throughout the map.
Factors affecting contour interval :
i. The nature of the ground: Flat ground – C.I. small,
Highly undulated ground – C.I. large.
ii. The scale of the map : scale small – C.I. large,
scale large – C.I. small.
iii. Time and expense of field and office work :
More time, more expenses - C.I. small,
Less time, less expenses - C.I. large.
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -
INTERVAL DEPENDS
The contour interval depends upon the following
factors:-
i) The Nature of the Ground: In flat and
uniformly sloping country, the contour interval
is small , but in broken and mountainous
region the contour interval should be large
otherwise the contours will come too close to
each other.
Continued...

ii) The Purpose and extent of the survey:

Contour interval is small if the area to be
surveyed is small and the maps are required to
be used for the design work or for determining
the quantities of earth work etc. while wider
interval shall have to be kept for large areas and
comparatively less important works.
Continued...

iii) The Scale of the Map: The contour interval

should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of the
map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the
contour interval.

iv) Time and Expense of Field and Office work:

The smaller the interval, the greater is the
amount of field-work and plotting work.
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -
INTERVAL
The following are the common values of the contour
interval adopted for various purposes:-
i) For large scale maps of flat country, for
building sites, for detailed design work and for
calculation of quantities of earth work;
0.2 to 0.5 m.
Continued...

ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes;

0.5 to 2m.

iii) For location surveys. 2 to 3m.

iv) For small scale maps of broken country and

general topographic work; 3m,5m,10m,or 25m.
• Horizontal Equivalent :
The Horizontal distance between two points on
two consecutive contours is termed as horizontal
equivalent. It is not a constant value and varies from
point to point depending upon the steepness of the
ground. Steeper the ground, lesser is the “Horizontal
Equivalent”.
• Contour Gradient :
A constant inclination, which a line lying on
the ground maintain to the horizontal is known as
“Contour Gradient ”.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

i) All points in a contour line have the same

elevation.
ii) Flat ground is indicated where the contours
are widely separated and steep-slope where
they run close together.
iii) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour
lines are uniformly spaced and
iv) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel
and equally spaced.
Continued...

v) A series of 80
closed contour 75
lines on the map 70
represent a hill , 65
HILL
if the higher 60
60
values are inside 65
70
75
80

A HILL
Continued...
80

75
vi) A series of
DEPRESSION
closed contour 70

lines on the 65

map indicate a 60
depression if
the higher
values are 70
60
outside 65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION
Continued...

vii) Contour line cross ridge line at right angles.

100
If the higher
90
values are inside
80 the bend or loop
70
in the contour, it
60
50
indicates a Ridge.

RIDGE LINE
Continued...

vii) Contour line cross valley line at right angles.

If the higher values

100
are outside the bend,
90
it represents a
80 Valley
70

60

50

VALLEY LINE
Continued...

viii) Contours cannot end anywhere but close on

themselves either within or outside the limits of
the map.
Continued...

ix) Contour lines

cannot cross one
40
another on map
30
except in the case of
an overhanging cliff. 20

10

40 30 20 10

OVERHANGING CLIFF
Continued...

VERTICAL
CLIFF
50
x) Contour lines never
40
run into one another
30
except in the case of a
vertical cliff In this 20

case ,several contours 10

coincide and the

horizontal equivalent
10 20 30 40 5050
becomes zero.

OVERHANGING CLIFF
Continued...

X) Depressions
between summits is
called a saddle. It is
represented by four 70 SADDLE 70
sets of contours as 80 80
90 90
shown. It represents 90
a dip in a ridge or 110
100

the junction of two

ridges. And in the
Line passing through the
case of a mountain saddles and summits gives
range ,it takes the water shed line.
form of a pass .
METHODS OF CONTOURING
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-
(1)Direct Method and (2) Indirect Method.

(1)Direct Method:
In this method, the contours 50
B.M
to be located are directly traced 48
out in the field by locating and 46
marking a number of points on
each contour. These points are
then surveyed and plotted on DIRECT METHOD OF
plan and the contours drawn CONTOURING

through them.
Continued...

•This method is most accurate but very slow and

tedious as a lot of time is wasted in searching
points of the same elevation for a contour.
•This is suitable for small area and where great
accuracy is required
Continued...

Procedure: To start with, a temporary B.M is

established near the area to be surveyed with
reference to a permanent B.M by fly leveling. The
level is then set up in such a position so that the
maximum number of points can be commanded
from the instrument station. The height of
instrument is determined by taking a back sight on
the B.M. and adding it to the R.L. of bench mark.
The staff reading required to fix points on the
various contours is determined by subtracting the
R.L. of each of the contours from the height of
instrument.
Continued...
Example: If the height of instrument is 82.48m., then
the staff readings required to locate 82, 81 and 80m
contours are 0.48, 1.48 and 2.48m respectively. The
staff is held on an approximate position of point and
then moved up and down the slope until the desired
reading is obtained. The point is marked with a peg.
Similarly various other points are marked on each
contour. The line joining all these points give the
required contour. It may be noted that one contour is
located at a time. Having fixed the contours within
the range of the instrument, the level is shifted and
set up in a new position.
Continued...

The new height of instrument and the

required staff readings are then calculated in a
similar manner and the process repeated till all the
contours are located. The positions of the contour
points are located suitably either simultaneous with
levelling or afterwards. A theodolite , a compass or
a plane table traversing is usually adopted for
locating these points. The points are then plotted on
the plan and the contours drawn by joining the
corresponding points by dotted curved lines.
Direct Method By Radial Lines Lines:

This method is suitable

for small areas, where a
single point in the centre
can command the whole
area. Radial lines are 70
65

laid out from the 60

55
common centre by
Fig. RADIAL LINES
theodolite or compass METHOD OF CONTOURING
and their positions are
fixed up by horizontal
angles and bearings.
CONTOURING 28
Direct Method By Radial Lines Lines (contd.):
Temporary bench marks are first
established at the centre and near the ends of
the radial lines .The contour points are then
located and marked on these lines and their
positions are determined by measuring their
distances along the radial lines. They are then
plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by
joining all the corresponding points with the
help of a plane table instrument.

CONTOURING 29
(2) Indirect Method:
In this method the points located and surveyed
are not necessarily on the contour lines but the spot
levels are taken along the series of lines laid out
over the area. The spot levels of the several
representative points representing hills, depressions,
ridge and valley lines and the changes in the slope
all over the area to be contoured are also observed.
Their positions are then plotted on the plan and
the contours drawn by interpolation. This method of
contouring is also known as contouring by spot
levels.
Continued...

This method is commonly employed in all

kinds of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker and
less tedious as compared to direct method. There
are mainly three method of contouring in indirect
method:
(i) By Squares: In this method, the whole area is
divided into number of squares, the side of
which may vary from 5m to 30m depending
upon the nature of the ground and the contour
interval. The square need not be of the same
size throughout.
Continued...

The corners of the squares are pegged out and

the reduced levels of these points are determined
with a level.
100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

13 14 15 16
98.00 98.00
98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40
9 10 11 12

98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

5 6 7 8 98.0
99.0 99.0

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

1 2 3 4
SQURES LAID ON GROUND CONTOURS INTERPOLATED
Continued...
The important
points within the
squares may be
taken when
required and 100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

located by 98.00 98.00

measurements 98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40

from the corners.

The squares are 98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

plotted and the 99.0

98.0
99.0
reduced levels of 100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

the corners are SQUARE METHOD

written on the plan.

SQUARE METHOD
2. Indirect Method:
By Cross- Sections: This method is most suitable for
the survey of long narrow strips such as a road,
railway or canal etc.
70
69 69
RD 580 70.6 70 69.1 68.8 69.1 70.8

RD 560 70.8 70.2 69.1 70.4 70.5

71

RD 540
71.2 70.8 66.3 70.6 70.8
67 71
68
69

70
RD 520 71.6 71.2 70.6 72.4 71.7
71 71
Fig. X-Section Method
CONTOURING 34
2. Indirect Method:
By Cross- Sections: This method is most suitable
for the surveys of long narrow strips such as a
road, railway or canal etc. Cross sections are
run transverse to the centre line of the work and
representative points are marked along the lines
of cross-section. The cross-section lines need not
necessarily be at right angles to the centre line of
the work. This may be inclined at any angle to
the centre line if necessary. The spacing of the
cross-sections depends upon the topography of
the country and the nature of the survey.

CONTOURING 35
2. Indirect Method:

By Cross- Sections:

The common value is 20 to 30 m in

hilly country and 100m in flat country. The
levels of the points along the section lines are
plotted on the plan and the contours are then
interpolated as usual as shown in the fig.

CONTOURING 36
2. Indirect Method:

Fig. Stadia Wires at Diaphragm

(iii) By Tacheometric method:
A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a
diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, one above
and other below the central wire. The horizontal
distance between the instrument and staff station
may be determined by multiplying the difference of
the staff readings of the upper and lower stadia wires
with the stadia constant of the instrument, which is
usually 100.Thus the techeometer is used for both the
vertical as well as horizontal measurements.
CONTOURING 37
2. Indirect Method:
iii) By Tacheometric method (contd…):

This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the

number of stations which can be commanded by a
techeometer is far more than those by a level and thus
the number of instrument settings are considerably
reduced. A number of radial lines are laid out at a
known angular interval and representative points are
marked by pegs along these radial lines. Their
elevations and distances are then calculated and plotted
on the plan and the contour lines are then interpolated.

CONTOURING 38
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
(i) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features
of the ground , whether it is flat, undulating or
mountainous.
(ii) From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any
direction
(iii) Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map
can be ascertained
(iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most
economical or suitable site for an engineering project such
as a road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
(v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
(vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be
determined from the contour map.
(vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of
earth work.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

The process of spacing the contours

proportionally between the plotted ground – points is
termed as interpolation of contours .
This becomes necessary in the case of
indirect contouring as only the spot levels are taken
in this method.
While interpolation of contours the ground
between any two points is assumed to be uniformly
sloping.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
There are three main methods of interpolation:
i) By Estimation: The position of the contour
points between ground - points are estimated
roughly and the contours are then drawn
through these points. This is a rough method
and is suitable for small scale maps.
ii) By arithmetical calculation: This is very
tedious but accurate method and is used for
small areas where accurate results are
necessary. The contours are interpolated as
under:
CONTOURING 40
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

ii) By arithmetical calculation:

Suppose A and B are two points at a distance
of 30 m and the reduced level of A and B are 25.45m and
27.54m respectively .Taking the contour interval as 1m,
26 and 27 m contours may be interpolated in between A
and B. The difference of level between A and B is
2.09m.the difference of level between A and 26m,and A
and 27m is 0.55mand 1.55 m respectively.
Therefore the horizontal distance between A and 26 m
contour =0.55/2.09 x 30m and
Between A and 27 m contour =1.55/2.09 x 30m.
These distances are then plotted to scale on the map.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
Graphical method of (iii) By Graphical method:
interpolation is 65
simpler as compared B
62.5m
to arithmetical
method and also the 60 2
60m

results obtained are

accurate. Out of
several graphical 55 1
55m
methods, the most
common is as given
below: 50
A 51.5m
Graphical method:

As shown in the fig. suppose the contour

interval is 5m, then on a piece of tracing cloth, a
number of parallel lines spaced at 0.5 m (usually
1/10th of the contour interval) are drawn. Every
tenth line being made thick.
Suppose it is required to interpolate contours
between two points A and B of elevation 51.5m
and 62.5m respectively.
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
(iii) By Graphical method:
If the bottom line represents an
elevation of 50m. Then the successive thick lines
will represent 55m, 60m and 65m, etc. Place the
tracing cloth so that the point A is on the third line
from the bottom, now move the tracing cloth until
B is on the fifth line above the 60m thick line. The
intersection of the thick lines 1 and 2 representing
elevations of 55m and 60 m and the line AB give
the position of the points on the 55m and 60m
contours respectively and are pricked through on
the plan with a pin.
DRAWING THE CONTOUR LINES
Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free
hand curved lines. Sometimes they are represented by
broken lines .They are inked in either in black or brown
colour. A drawing pen gives a better line than a writing
pen and French curves should be used as much as
possible .Every fifth contour is made thicker than the
rest.
The elevation of contours must be written in a
uniform manner, either on the higher side or in a gap left
in the line .When the contour lines are very long, their
elevations are written at two or three places along the
contour .In the case of small scale maps, it is sufficient to
figure every fifth contour.
PURPOSE OF CONTOURING

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of

any engineering project such as a road, a
railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.
i) For preparing contour maps in order to select
the most economical or suitable site.
ii) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it
should follow a ridge line.
iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways
so that the quantity of earthwork both in
cutting and filling should be minimum.
CONTOURING 45
 PURPOSE OF CONTOURING (contd.)
iv) For getting information about the ground
whether it is flat, undulating or
mountainous.
v) To find the capacity of a reservoir and
volume of earthwork especially in a
mountainous region.
vi) To trace out the given grade of a particular
route.
vii)To locate the physical features of the ground
such as a pond depression, hill, steep or
small slopes.
CONTOURING 6
CONTOUR INTERVAL
The constant vertical distance between two
consecutive contours is called the contour
interval.
HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT
The horizontal distance between any two
adjacent contours is called as horizontal
equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between
the consecutive contours while the horizontal
equivalent is variable and depends upon the
slope of the ground.
CONTOURING 7
HOME ASSIGNMENT
Q.No.1. (a) Define contour.
(b) What is a contour interval and on what factors does it depend?.
Q.No.2.(a) What is difference between a contour interval and horizontal
…………….equivalent?.
(b) Suggest contour intervals for following :-
(i) A hill Survey (ii) A city Survey (iii) survey of a dam site.
Q.No.3. Describe with neat sketches the characteristics of contours.
Q.No.4. Show contours to represent the following :-
(i) A Hill (ii) A Depression (iii) A valley (iv) A vertical cliff (v) A saddle.
Q.No.5. Describe various methods of interpolation of contours.