A project report on Internship at Human Factors & Mission Engineering

Division, Human Space Flight Centre-ISRO

by ANUJ KUNAL KANSARA and ANGHA SHANTARAM BHADE

Submitted to

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY, Mohali

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of B.E,

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

Internship carried out titled:

“Mathematical modelling and Numerical methods for

computing spacecraft trajectories: De-boost and
Atmospheric Re-entry phase”
at the Human Space Flight Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation

Under the guidance of

Jayanta Dhaoya
CG Vignesh
Division Head, HEMAP, HSFC Scientist/Engr-SD,
HEMAP, HSFC

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that ANUJ KUNAL KANSARA, bearing UID: 21BAS1283,

student of 3rd year Aerospace Engineering, Chandigarh University,
Punjab has successfully completed an internship Titled “Mathematical
modelling and Numerical methods for computing spacecraft
trajectories: De-boost and Atmospheric Re-entry phase” at the
HFME division of Human Space Flight Centre, ISRO. This internship has
been carried out during the period between 27-May-2024 to 10-July-
2024, in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree.

Date:

Jayanta Dhaoya
CG Vignesh
Division Head, HEMAP, HSFC Scientist/Engr-SD,
HEMAP, HSFC
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that ANGHA SHANTARAM BHADE, bearing UID:

21BAS1279, student of 3rd year Aerospace Engineering, Chandigarh
University, Punjab has successfully completed an internship Titled
“Mathematical modelling and Numerical methods for computing
spacecraft trajectories: De-boost and Atmospheric Re-entry
phase” at the HFME division of Human Space Flight Centre, ISRO. This
internship has been carried out during the period between 27-May-2024
to 10-July-2024, in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of
degree.

Date:
Jayanta Dhaoya
CG Vignesh
Division Head, HEMAP, HSFC Scientist/Engr-SD,
HEMAP, HSFC

DECLARATION

I, Anuj Kunal Kansara, hereby declare that the work presented in this
report titled “Mathematical modelling and Numerical methods for
computing spacecraft trajectories: De-boost and Atmospheric Re-entry
phase” is the result of my own research and efforts. To the best of my
knowledge, this report contains no material previously published or
written by another person, except where due acknowledgment has been
made.

I confirm that I have adhered to the ethical guidelines and principles of

academic integrity in conducting this research and in preparing this
report. Any assistance received from others, as well as sources of
information, have been appropriately acknowledged.

Furthermore, I declare that this report has not been submitted in whole or
in part for the award of any other degree or diploma in any other
institution.

Anuj Kunal Kansara

Date:
 DECLARATION

I, Angha Shantaram Bhade, hereby declare that the work presented in this
report titled “Mathematical modelling and Numerical methods for
computing spacecraft trajectories: De-boost and Atmospheric Re-entry
phase” is the result of my own research and efforts. To the best of my
knowledge, this report contains no material previously published or
written by another person, except where due acknowledgment has been
made.

I confirm that I have adhered to the ethical guidelines and principles of

academic integrity in conducting this research and in preparing this
report. Any assistance received from others, as well as sources of
information, have been appropriately acknowledged.

Furthermore, I declare that this report has not been submitted in whole or
in part for the award of any other degree or diploma in any other
institution.
Angha Shantaram Bhade
Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Jayanta Dhaoya, my

supervisor, for their invaluable guidance, support, and encouragement
throughout the duration of this project. Their expertise and insights were
crucial to the development and completion of this report.

I am also grateful to HSFC-ISRO for providing the necessary resources and

facilities to conduct my internship. Special thanks to Mr. CG Vignesh for
their assistance and cooperation throughout the internship.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions of employees Mr. Ravi

Shankar SS and Mr. Kota Pavan Sai Teja at HSFC-ISRO for their
constructive feedback and for fostering a collaborative environment.
Finally, I would like to thank anyone else who has contributed to this
report in any capacity, directly or indirectly. Your support has been
invaluable.

ANUJ KUNAL KANSARA

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Jayanta Dhaoya, my

supervisor, for their invaluable guidance, support, and encouragement
throughout the duration of this project. Their expertise and insights were
crucial to the development and completion of this report.

I am also grateful to HSFC-ISRO for providing the necessary resources and

facilities to conduct my internship. Special thanks to Mr. CG Vignesh for
their assistance and cooperation throughout the internship.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions of employees Mr. Ravi

Shankar SS and Mr. Kota Pavan Sai Teja at HSFC-ISRO for their
constructive feedback and for fostering a collaborative environment.
Finally, I would like to thank anyone else who has contributed to this
report in any capacity, directly or indirectly. Your support has been
invaluable.

ANGHA SHANTARAM BHADE

Date:

ABSTRACT

A typical spaceflight mission generally comprises of a launch phase-where a

satellite is launched into orbit using a launch vehicle (typically with multiple
stages), which imparts sufficiently large kinetic energy to the spacecraft, so that
it orbits around Earth at orbital velocities. However, in case of missions where
the spacecraft is to be brought back to Earth-say, in case of human spaceflight
missions where the Crew is to be brought back safely to a fixed location on Earth,
or in case of sample recovery missions such as from Moon or asteroids, the final
phase of the spacecraft’s orbital duration is quite different. A well-planned de-
boost phase is executed wherein the spacecraft’s orbital velocity is often reduced
carefully using thrusters on-board the spacecraft. By using the spacecraft’s
propulsion system to impart a ΔV opposite to the spacecraft’s velocity it is
transferred to a lower orbit. Further, the ΔV to be imparted is carefully computed
so that the spacecraft is made to intersect the Earth’s atmosphere at a precise
flight path angle. As the spacecraft further descends, the Earth’s atmospheric
layers start to impede the motion of the vehicle through atmospheric
deceleration forces thereby increasing the loads faced by the vehicle. The
atmospheric re-entry phase is also characterised in Literature by large heating of
the spacecraft.
To study the orbital motion, as well as de-boost phase and the final atmospheric
re-entry of a typical re-entry vehicle from an initial Low Earth Orbit (LEO), a 3-
DOF trajectory simulator is coded and built in MATLAB. This trajectory simulator
accounts for the atmospheric forces (required during atmospheric re-entry
phase) and gravitational forces of Earth. In the first part of the study, an on-orbit
propagation tool is built which effectively accounts for the Earth’s gravitational
forces to model the motion of a spacecraft which is initially in orbit. A typical
spacecraft in a circular Low-Earth Orbit of ~400 km altitude is considered for the
study.

When it is time for the spacecraft to head back home, the ‘deboost phase’ and
the associated thrust forces from the spacecraft’s propulsion system is to be
modelled. A de-boost simulator is built in MATLAB which incorporates the above
modelling and sensitivity studies are carried to understand the sensitivity of the
ΔV imparted on the subsequent de-boosted orbit achieved and the final re-entry
parameters (which is assumed to be) at 120 km altitude.

Finally, Literature survey on the types and classification of Re-entry vehicles as

well as the generic re-entry trajectories and entry environment and its associated
problems: such as large deceleration loads, larger entry heating etc. is
familiarized. To understand the effects of various re-entry and vehicle
parameters, a 3-DOF atmospheric re-entry trajectory simulator is built in
MATLAB-which incorporates the following major features: a) gravitational
variation of Earth-which is modelled as an oblate spheroid (not spherical) b)
atmospheric properties of Earth and their variation with altitude, c) aerodynamic
coefficients of a typical re-entry vehicle and modelling of the aerodynamic forces.

The report is classified in the following manner:

Chapter 1 gives an introduction on the concept of trajectory modelling and an

overview of a 3-DOF trajectory simulator as well as its assumptions. The
fundamental equations of motion involved therein is described.

Chapter 2 gives an overview of the literature survey of re-entry environment and

the classification of re-entry vehicles. We also dwell on the mathematical pre-
requisites for modelling a trajectory simulator such as: co-ordinate frames used
and their transformation from one frame to another, numerical integration
methods and a sample demonstration of using numerical integration scheme to
model and solve the trajectory of a typical projectile motion.

Chapter 3 discusses on the on-orbit trajectory propagator built in MATLAB and

showcases sample results of a spacecraft orbiting initially in a Low Earth Orbit of
~400 km altitude. The modelling of gravitational acceleration and the planet
model viz. representation of Earth’s shape as an oblate spheroid (rather than a
simpler spherical shape) for better results is discussed.

Chapter 4 discussed on the basics of de-boosting a spacecraft from an initial Low

Earth Orbit to make it intersect the Earth’s atmosphere. The modelling of the
thrust force generated by the spacecraft’s propulsion system as well as the
basics of propulsion such as: rocket equation, specific impulse etc. is discussed.
The de-boost simulator is represented as a flowchart for ready understanding by
the reader and sensitivity studies are carried out to assess the trajectory and the
final re-entry parameters (at 120 km) of a spacecraft which is de-boosted from
an initial orbit using different ΔV.

Chapter 5 proceeds to solve the final portion of a spacecraft’s descent to Earth’s

surface, after it is de-boosted from orbit: viz. atmospheric re-entry. The chapter
discusses on the following major aspects: a) atmospheric properties of Earth and
their variation with altitude, b) aerodynamic coefficients of a typical re-entry
vehicle, c) modelling of the forces governing the trajectory of a typical entry
vehicle. The re-entry trajectory simulator is discussed in a flowchart for
reference, and validated with reference trajectory files.

Finally, exhaustive sensitivity studies are carried using the validated simulator
and the physics of the re-entry problem is understood in detail by analysing the
effects of various parameters such as: entry flight path angle, lift and drag
coefficients of the entry vehicle, mass of the entry vehicle etc. on the key
trajectory parameters such as: altitude variation, total flight time, dynamic
pressure-which is an indication of the structural loads faced by the vehicle, heat
flux etc.

To conclude, the overall trajectory of a spacecraft which is initially assumed to be

in a Low-Earth-Orbit, is modelled during the following phases: a) on-orbit phase-
prior to de-boosting, b) de-boost phase-until atmospheric re-entry interface-at
120 km, and c) atmospheric re-entry of the re-entry vehicle until it reaches a low
altitude of ~7 km is shown. In generic entry vehicles, at low altitudes of ~10 km
or below, parachutes are deployed to slow down the vehicle to prepare it for a
safe, slow landing on Earth.

The trajectory simulators built were instrumental in gaining confidence in

modelling real-life problems through numerical integration techniques as well as
to understand the sensitivity of several key trajectory parameters which dictate
the motion of a spacecraft/re-entry vehicle in space.

TABLE OF CONTENT
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Re-entry trajectory phases.........................................................................................2

Figure 2 Classification of re-entry vehicles............................................................................2
Figure 3 Skipping re-entry trajectories....................................................................................2
Figure 4 Earth Centred Inertial Frame......................................................................................2
Figure 5 ECI and ECF coordinate frames.................................................................................2
Figure 6 Geocentric Coordinate System.................................................................................2
Figure 7 Body Frame......................................................................................................................2
Figure 8 Aerodynamic angles in Body frame.........................................................................2
Figure 9 Representation of flight path angle and azimuth in ARVS frame..................2
Figure 10 Relationship between the coordinate frames....................................................2
Figure 11 Earth centred Inertial Frame and Geocentric Frame.......................................2
Figure 12 Illustration of the Euler method..............................................................................2
Figure 13 Projectile motion of a ball.........................................................................................2
Figure 14 Projectile motion for different timestep values.....................................................................2
Figure 15 Projectile motion at timestep 1.0...........................................................................2
Figure 16 Geocentric and Geodetic Latitude.........................................................................2
Figure 17 Representation of Latitude, Longitude and Altitude.......................................2
Figure 18 On-orbit propagator-flowchart................................................................................2
Figure 19 Ground track of typical orbit....................................................................................2
Figure 20 Variation of latitude and Longitude.......................................................................2
Figure 21 Deboost Modelling Flowchart..................................................................................2
Figure 22 Altitude variation due to different delta-v value..............................................2
Figure 23 Velocity variation due to different delta-v values............................................2
Figure 24 Flight path angle variation due to different delta-v values..........................2
Figure 25 Delta-v values for various periapsis altitude of de-boosted orbit..........................................2
Figure 26 Flight path angles at various perigee altitude........................................2
Figure 27 Comparison between steeper and shallow re-entry trajectories............2
Figure 28 Atmospheric density variation with respect to altitude..........................2
Figure 29 Temperature variation with respect to altitude......................................2
Figure 30 Pressure variation with respect to altitude.............................................2
Figure 31 Coordinate transformation to convert from body frame to ECI..............2
Figure 32 Atmospheric re-entry simulator-flowchart..............................................2
Figure 33 Bank angle of re-entry module...............................................................................2
Figure 34 Sensitivity of Bank angle with height...................................................................2
Figure 35 Sensitivity of mass of Crew module with height..............................................2
Figure 36 Sensitivity of Flight path angle with height........................................................2
Figure 37 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with height.............................................................2
Figure 38 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with height..........................................................2
Figure 39 Sensitivity of Bank angle with velocity...............................................................2
Figure 40 Sensitivity of Mass of Crew module with velocity............................................2
Figure 41 Sensitivity of Flight path angle with velocity.....................................................2
Figure 42 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with velocity..........................................................2
Figure 43 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with velocity.......................................................2
Figure 44 Sensitivity of Bank angle with flight path angle..............................................2
Figure 45 Sensitivity of mass of Crew module with flight path angle..........................2
Figure 46 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with flight path angle.........................................2
Figure 47 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with flight path angle......................................2
Figure 48 Sensitivity of Bank Angle with Dynamic Pressure............................................2
Figure 49 Sensitivity of Mass with Dynamic Pressure........................................................2
Figure 50 sensitivity of Flight path angle with Dynamic Pressure.................................2
Figure 51 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with Dynamic Pressure......................................2
Figure 52 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with Dynamic Pressure...................................2
Figure 53 Sensitivity of bank angle with Drag load............................................................2
Figure 54 Sensitivity of mass with Drag load........................................................................2
Figure 55 Sensitivity of flight path angle with Drag load..................................................2
Figure 56 Sensitivity of Lift Coefficient with Drag Load.....................................................2
Figure 57 Sensitivity of Drag Coefficient with Drag Load.................................................2
Figure 58 Sensitivity of Bank Angle with Heat Flux Indicator..........................................2
Figure 59 Sensitivity of Mass with Heat Flux Indicator......................................................2
Figure 60 Sensitivity of FPA with Heat Flux Indicator.........................................................2
Figure 61 Sensitivity of Lift Coefficient with Heat Flux Indicator....................................2
Figure 62 Sensitivity of Drag Coefficient with Heat Flux Indicator................................2
Figure 63 Altitude variation throughout trajectory: deboost until atmospheric
interface (red) and atmospheric re-entry (blue)....................................................2
Figure 64 Velocity variation throughout trajectory: deboost until atmospheric
interface (red) and atmospheric re-entry (blue)....................................................2

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Delta-v and flight path angle value for various De-boost orbits.....................2
Table 2 Typical values of Cl, Cd, and angle of attack.........................................................2
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we explore the development and application of a trajectory
simulator designed to predict the trajectory of re-entry module. At its core, the
simulator uses mathematical modelling to describe motion under various forces
using differential equations. This allows us to analyse and predict trajectories by
understanding the fundamental principles governing an object's motion. 3DOF
trajectory simulator accounts for motion in three-dimensional space. The 3DOF
simulator incorporates the basics of dynamic forces, which are essential to
accurately model the movement of objects. These forces include gravitational
pull, aerodynamic drag, and thrust, each of which plays a significant role in
shaping an object's trajectory. Gravitational pull affects the object continuously,
pulling it towards the centre of the Earth or another celestial body. Aerodynamic
drag, depending on the object's shape and speed, resists its motion through the
air, slowing it down over time. Thrust, when applicable, provides the necessary
force to propel the object forward or alter its course.

A crucial aspect of the simulator is its ability to solve the deboost problem, which
involves reducing an object's velocity to alter its orbit or bring it to a halt. This is
particularly relevant in space missions, where precise control of a spacecraft's
speed and trajectory is necessary for successful mission completion. For
instance, a spacecraft might need to slow down to enter a stable orbit around a
planet or to prepare for landing.

1.1 Overview of Mathematical modelling: to predict

trajectories
It involves using differential equations to represent the physical laws governing
an object's motion. By inputting initial conditions such as position, velocity, and
the forces acting on the object—like gravity, aerodynamic drag, and thrust—the
model can calculate the object's future positions and velocities over time. This
process involves solving these equations numerically, especially when dealing
with complex forces or three-dimensional motion. The simulator continuously
updates the object's state, providing a precise prediction of its trajectory.

3 DOF trajectory simulation for crew module reentry considers the spacecraft's
velocity in three dimensions: forward/backward, up/down, and side-to-side. It
accounts for several factors acting on the module, including Gravitational Forces
and Aerodynamic Forces which include drag and lift, which are determined by the
module's speed, angle of attack, bank angle and atmospheric density. Also,
Atmospheric Models are created so that simulation considers the varying
atmospheric density, pressure, and temperature profiles at different altitudes,
which affect the module's aerodynamics. The simulation relies heavily on the
initial reentry conditions, including the flight path angle and speed. These
parameters determine whether the module will successfully reenter or leave the
environment.
 1.2 Overview of a 3-DOF trajectory simulator and
assumptions
A 3-DOF (Three Degrees of Freedom) trajectory simulator is a used to predict the
motion of objects in three-dimensional space. This simulator models the
movement of an object by considering its position and velocity along three axes:
x, y, and z. Unlike simpler models that might only account for two-dimensional
motion, the 3-DOF simulator provides a more comprehensive and realistic
representation of an object's trajectory. The 3-DOF simulator considers various
dynamic forces that affect the object's path. These forces include gravitational
pull, which acts downward towards the center of the Earth or another celestial
body; aerodynamic drag, which opposes the object's motion through the air and
depends on factors such as speed, shape, and air density; and thrust.

To predict the trajectory, the simulator uses mathematical modeling. Differential

equations representing the forces acting on the object are solved to determine
its position and velocity at each point in time. This often involves numerical
methods, especially when dealing with complex forces or non-linear motion.

During 3 DOF trajectory simulation for a crew module re-entry, assumptions are
often used to simplify complex calculations:

 The object is treated as a point mass, ignoring its size and shape focusing
on its center of mass but not accounting for rotational dynamics.

 The mass of crew module is assumed to remain constant during reentry.

 Only primary forces such as gravity and aerodynamic drag are considered.

 Earth is rotating at constant angular velocity hence no seasons are

accounted.

 Earth’s oblateness is considered.

 All atmospheric properties are function of altitude i.e. they vary with
altitude alone.

 No external forces such as solar radiation pressure considered.

1.3 Equations of motion

Equations of motion can be determined by differentiating position coordinates x,

y and z with respect to time, with which we can get re-entry vehicles’ velocity
and acceleration,
 R I = √ x 2+ y 2+ z 2
⃗

Here, ⃗
R I = Position vector magnitude

The velocity in x, y, and z direction can be obtained by differentiating the

position coordinates with respect to time,

dx dy dz
u= ,v= ,w=
dt dt dt

⃗ d⃗RI
VI =
dt

Here, ⃗
V I = Velocity vector magnitude

The acceleration in x, y and z can be obtained by differentiating the velocity

coordinates with respect to time,

du dv dw
ax = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt

d⃗
VI
a⃗ I =
dt
Here, ⃗
a I = Acceleration due to gravity vector magnitude

For the purposes of this simulator the reentry vehicle is treated as a point mass.
The total force ( ⃗
F ) acting on the point mass can then be defined as the
summation of the forces from gravity (m ⃗a I ¿ and the other external forces, as the
case maybe ( ⃗
F ¿ ¿ I )¿.
⃗
F =⃗
F I +m ⃗a I

From another definition the total force comes from Newton’s Second Law where
it is assumed the mass is constant and the reference frame is inertial,

⃗
dV
⃗
F =m
dt
Therefore, by combining these two equations we obtain our equation of motion.

⃗
FI dV⃗I
aI +
⃗ =
m dt
 1.4 The ‘Deboost’ problem
In the context of a re-entry crew module, a "deboost problem" refers to the
challenge of precisely reducing the spacecraft's velocity as it prepares to re-enter
the Earth's atmosphere from orbit(400km). This maneuver is critical for safely
transitioning from orbital speed to atmospheric entry conditions, where
aerodynamic forces gradually slow down the spacecraft. The deboost maneuver
must be efficiently planned and executed to ensure that the spacecraft enters
the atmosphere at the correct angle and velocity to avoid excessive heating or
structural stress, which is important for crew safety and mission success. Factors
such as the spacecraft's trajectory, orbital altitude, and atmospheric conditions
must be carefully considered to determine the optimal timing and magnitude of
the deboost burn.

With regard to the equation of motion, since the spacecraft is well above the
Earth’s dense atmospheric layers, the external force (apart from gravity) acting
on the spacecraft, is the Thrust force from the spacecrafts propulsion system
which is used to reduce the velocity of the spacecraft.

1.5 The ‘Atmospheric re-entry’ problem

The atmospheric re-entry problem for a crew module involves safely returning
the crew module from orbit back to Earth's surface through the atmosphere. This
process is highly complex due to the extreme conditions encountered during re-
entry, including high speeds (often several kilometers per second), intense
heating from atmospheric friction, and significant aerodynamic forces. The
primary goal is to manage these conditions to ensure the crew's safety and
protect the integrity of the spacecraft. Key challenges include designing a heat
shield capable of withstanding temperatures exceeding thousands of degrees
Celsius, precisely controlling the spacecraft's trajectory to ensure it enters the
atmosphere at the correct angle, and managing the thermal loads and
aerodynamic forces to prevent structural damage or loss of control.

With regard to the equation of motion, since the spacecraft is

travelling/descending within the Earth’s dense atmospheric layers, the external
force (apart from gravity) acting on the spacecraft, is primarily the aerodynamic
forces viz. lift and drag forces acting on the body due to the Earth’s atmosphere.
These forces are a function of the planet’s (in this case, Earth’s) atmospheric
properties as well as the shape and orientation of the re-entry capsule as it
descends through the atmosphere, and the velocity of the spacecraft.
Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY AND MATHEMATICAL PRE-
REQUISITES

2.1 Atmospheric Re-entry environment

The entry environment refers to the conditions faced by an object, such as a

spacecraft or re-entry module, as it descends from space into the Earth's
atmosphere. This environment is characterized by a transition from the vacuum
of space to the denser layers of the atmosphere, which subjects the object to
various physical forces and phenomena. The most important input for the design
of re-entry vehicle is aero thermodynamic environment which defines the
aerodynamic forces, moments and thermal loads on the vehicle during its
hypersonic flight regime.

As an object enters the atmosphere, it encounters increasing air resistance and

atmospheric pressure, leading to significant aerodynamic heating and
deceleration. The entry environment involves rapid changes in temperature,
pressure, and velocity, which can affect the structural integrity and thermal
protection systems of the object. Understanding the entry environment is crucial
for designing systems that ensure the safe and controlled descent of spacecraft
and re-entry modules, whether they are returning from orbit, interplanetary
travel, or suborbital missions.
 2.2 Literature review on Re-entry mission and Re-entry
Vehicles
To bring the vehicle from a Low Earth Orbit to Earth, initially a retro-velocity
(typically, of the order of 100 m/s) is added to the vehicle. This reverse velocity
reduces the orbital velocity of the vehicle, thus making the vehicle trajectory to
become suborbital and the vehicle to travel towards Earth in an elliptic trajectory.
The re-entry mission from orbit to Earth consists of two major flight phases as
shown in Fig. 1. The first one is a Keplerian trajectory from orbit to re-entry
interface. The re-entry interface is the atmospheric boundary, at which the drag
force and deceleration are significant (typically 0.01–0.1 g). This boundary
depends on the re-entry vehicle and types of initial orbits. However, for all
practical purposes, an altitude of about 120 km can be considered as the re-
entry interface. For a typical re-entry from a 300-400 km LEO, the vehicle
velocity at entry interface is about 8 km/s. The second phase is the atmospheric
re-entry phase, which extends from the re-entry interface to the surface of Earth.
This phase is the most crucial part of the mission and during the energy
dissipation process, the vehicle encounters high deceleration and thermal loads.

From the atmospheric density variations with respect to altitude, it is seen that
atmospheric density is sufficiently large below the altitude of about 40 km.
Therefore, if the vehicle with higher velocity penetrates deeper into the
atmosphere below 40 km, it causes the deceleration and heat flux to be higher.
Therefore, the re-entry trajectory and vehicle configurations have to be designed
such that maximum velocity is dissipated during the higher altitude itself. Of
particular importance is the ability of a re-entry vehicle to generate aerodynamic
lift force (by virtue of the aerodynamic shape of the vehicle)-often parametrized
by a non-dimensional number called the Lift-to-drag ratio of the vehicle i.e. L/D.
Drag force is straight-away a result of the vehicle’s forward motion with respect
to the atmosphere which in turn generates a resistive force to impede/slow down
the vehicle. However, the lift force is typically because of flow distributions and
pressure differences across the vehicle’s shape-resulting in an aerodynamic force
which acts perpendicular to the velocity of the vehicle.
 Figure 1 Re-entry trajectory phases

Figure 2 Classification of re-entry vehicles

Based on the comparative magnitudes of lift and drag, re-entry vehicles are
classified as ballistic (L/D =0; i.e., zero lift), semi ballistic and lifting as shown
above in Fig. 2. Even a small lift can reduce the velocity at lower altitudes
considerably. Literature indicates that for re-entry of module with an L/D ratio of
just 0.2, at around 40km altitude the velocity is nearly half of that of a ballistic
case which results in a reduction of the peak deceleration experienced by the
crew to around 3g from 9g for a ballistic entry.

2.3 Re-entry Heating

The heating problem during re-entry is one of the most significant challenges
faced by spacecraft and re-entry modules. As an object descends from space into
the Earth's atmosphere, it encounters air molecules at extremely high speeds,
typically ranging from 7 to 8 kilometres per second. This high-speed interaction
creates intense friction, leading to the formation of a shock wave in front of the
object. Here, kinetic energy is dissipated in form of heat. The shock wave
compresses and heats the air to extremely high temperatures, often reaching
several thousand degrees Celsius. The intense heat generated through
compression, friction, and radiative heating poses significant risks to the
structural integrity of the spacecraft.

To ensure the safety of the vehicle during re-entry mission, the vehicle structure
should be robust to withstand the aerothermal loads till it achieves the mission
objectives. Generally, vehicle structural system is designed for the inertial,
pressure and skin friction force distribution integrated loads due to the flow
fields, whereas the thermal protection systems (TPS) are designed for protecting
the primary load carrying structures. Protecting the re-entry vehicle against
aerothermal environment is a major task for the re-entry system design. The
aerothermal environment restricts the vehicle operating envelope and affects the
TPS design which in turn affects the mass. Three strategies viz. heat sink,
ablative TPS and radiative TPS are being utilized for protecting the structures
against harsh re-entry aerothermal environment.

TPS are designed to absorb, deflect, and dissipate the intense thermal energy
generated as the spacecraft encounters air molecules at high velocities. Ablative
heat shields are a common form of TPS, where the material gradually erodes
away, carrying heat with the ablated material and protecting the underlying
structure. Another approach involves insulating tiles, such as those used on the
Space Shuttle, which can endure high temperatures without significant heat
transfer to the interior. Additionally, heat-resistant coatings are employed to
reflect heat and provide an extra layer of protection. The choice of materials for
TPS is critical, focusing on those that can withstand high temperatures while
maintaining low thermal conductivity. By managing heat distribution and
maintaining structural integrity, TPS play a vital role in ensuring the safe descent
of spacecraft through the harsh re-entry environment.

In the re-entry simulator developed, it was felt that an indication of heat flux
profile as the spacecraft re-enters Earth is essential to be provided for
understanding the sensitivity of different entry parameters. Based on Literature,
it was found that the instantaneous heat flux at any given altitude is typically
proportional to the local density of the atmosphere. Further, heat flux is
proportional to the third power of the relative velocity of the spacecraft with
respect to the atmosphere. Although, it also depends on the shape
(bluntness/sharpness) of the entry vehicle, these factors will form a part of the
proportionality constants and hence, a heat flux indicator viz. (k = ρ V 3) is
monitored during the re-entry simulation.
 2.4 Skipping Re-entry trajectories
Although the equilibrium glide re-entry trajectories are the flattest trajectory with
the lowest deceleration load and heat rate, such glide trajectories are not
possible always. If the flight path angle at re-entry interface is less than a
specified value and the vehicle has sufficient lift, after reaching certain level of
dense atmosphere, the lift force will be more than the combination of gravity and
centrifugal forces. In such cases, the flight path angle is above local horizontal
and the vehicle altitude starts increasing. In this process, the vehicle skips out of
atmosphere with reduced velocity. Once the altitude increases and the lift
reduces, then the trajectory starts dipping. This process continues till the velocity
reduces below certain value and then positive re-entry takes place. This is called
skipping re-entry trajectories as shown in Fig. 3.

In certain cases, after initial pull out, there may be velocity gain which is
sufficient to make the vehicle skip out of the re-entry process. For some missions
such as re-entry missions from lunar orbits, kinetic energy to be dissipated is
twice that of re-entry from LEO missions, which poses a major task of thermal
management of the re-entry vehicle. Instead, the flight path angle is designed
such that, with higher velocity along with sufficient lift, the vehicle skips out of
atmosphere with reduced velocity. In the second phase, vehicle re-enters the
atmosphere with reduced velocity and encounters the re-entry mission till
reaching the surface of Earth. Since the velocity at re-entry during the second
phase is less, the kinetic energy to be dissipated in the atmospheric flight is less
and therefore, thermal control of the vehicle is easily manageable. Skipping re-
entry trajectory is also useful to land at a faraway location than the capability of
the vehicle in the single re-entry mode.

Figure 3 Skipping re-entry trajectories

2.5 Mathematical pre-requisite: Coordinate Systems

Typically, several coordinate systems are employed to describe the forces/motion
of a spacecraft in an intuitive manner. For example, the aerodynamic forces
acting on the body of a vehicle are better represented in a frame which is fixed
to the body of the vehicle (viz. body axis). Therefore, transformations from one
system to another are essential to be developed. These are discussed below in
detail.

Earth Centered Inertial Frame (ECI) shown in Fig. 4, is a coordinate system

with origin at the center of the Earth, Z1 axis passing through the North Pole, X 1
axis along the intersection of the Greenwich meridian at inertial reference time
and the equatorial plane and Y 1 axis completes the right-handed triad.

Earth Centred Rotating Frame (ECR) is another system which is commonly

used. This system is like the ECI frame except that it rotates along with the earth
so that X axis is always coincident with the Greenwich meridian. At time t=0,
both ECI and ECR frames coincide. The representation of the corresponding is in
Fig. 5. All computations with respect to rotating earth are carried out in this
frame.

Figure 4 Earth Centred Inertial Frame

Figure 5 ECI and ECF coordinate frames

A geographic coordinate system shown in Fig. 6, is a spherical or geodetic
coordinate system used for measuring positions directly on Earth such as latitude
and longitude. Origin is at the surface of the earth at the vehicle’s current
geocentric latitude and longitude. X 1 axis points towards north (N), Y 1 axis points
east (E) along the horizontal plane through the origin and Z1 axis completes the
right-handed triad and also points downward along the ellipsoid normal (geodetic
latitude).

Latitude = Elevation in degrees with respect to the Equator

Longitude = Azimuth in degrees to the Prime Meridian (Greenwich)

Altitude = Height in meters to the reference ellipsoid.

Figure 6 Geocentric Coordinate System

Another frame being used is Body frame, which is fixed in both origin and
orientation to the moving craft. Its origin is at the vehicle’s centre of gravity, X B
axis is directed forwards along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, Y B axis points
right and Z B axis completes the right-handed triad. Body frame for a vehicle is
shown in in Fig. 7.
 Figure 7 Body Frame

Aerodynamic Angles:

The attitude of a vehicle, or, in mathematical terms, the orientation of the body-
fixed reference frame with respect to the trajectory reference frame, is expressed
by the so-called aerodynamic angles. In other words, the aerodynamic angles
dictate the direction of the body with respect to the atmospheric relative velocity
vector of the vehicle as shown in Fig. 8. Therefore, it is understood that these
angles determine the aerodynamic forces acting on the body frame-because by
changing the orientation of the vehicle with respect to the velocity, the
aerodynamic forces also change.

Bank Angle – Positive σ is the positive rotation about the atmospheric relative
velocity vector.

Side Slip Angle – Positive β is the nose left (negative) rotation when flying the
vehicle upright.

Angle of Attack – Positive α is a nose up (positive) rotation when flying the

vehicle upright.

Figure 8 Aerodynamic angles in Body frame

Lastly, the frame considered is Atmospheric relative velocity system

(ARVS), its origin is fixed in the rigid craft. The coordinate system orientation is
defined relative to the craft velocity V. The X A axis points in the direction of V, Y A
axis points to the right of the X A axis (facing in the direction of V), perpendicular
to the X A axis and Z A axis points perpendicular to the x-y plane in whatever way
needed to satisfy the RH rule with respect to the X A and X A axes.

The Flight path angle γ , is defined as angle between the velocity vector ⃗
V , and
the local horizontal plane. γ is conventionally defined to be positive when ⃗
V is
above the local horizontal plane.

The Azimuth angle A Z, is defined as the angle made by X-axis (pointing

towards north) and projection of ⃗
V on the local horizontal plane. A Z is positive in
the right-handed direction about X axis depicted in Fig. 9.

Figure 9 Representation of flight path angle and azimuth in ARVS frame

2.6 Mathematical pre-requisite: Coordinate

transformations
Coordinate transformations are essential in trajectory simulators because they
allow us to accurately predict how objects move in three-dimensional space.
These transformations help us switch between different coordinate systems, like
those that track how Earth rotates or where a spacecraft is heading. By using
these transformations, simulators can calculate forces like gravity and
aerodynamic forces and predict trajectories accurately. The coordinate
transformations that are used in the simulator are discussed below in Fig. 10. Fig.
11, gives representation of coordinate systems.
 Figure 10 Relationship between the coordinate frames

Figure 11 Earth centred Inertial Frame and Geocentric Frame

 2.6.1 From Earth Centered Inertial Frame to Geographic Frame

Positive rotation about Z I by current inertial longitude ( X I , Y I , Z I ).

Negative rotation about Y I by current geocentric latitude ( X 2 , Y 2, Z 2).

Positive rotation about Y I by 90° ( X G , Y G , ZG ).

[ ] [ ][ ][ ][ ]
XG 0 0 1 cosτ 0 sinτ cosλ sinλ 0 X I
YG = 0 1 0 0 1 0 −sinλ cosλ 0 Y I
ZG −1 0 0 −sinτ 0 cosτ 0 0 1 ZI

[][ ][ ]
XG −sinτcosλ −sinτsinλ cosτ X I
Y G = −sinλ cosλ 0 YI
ZG −cosτcosλ −cosτsinλ −sinτ ZI

[] []
XG XI
Y G = [ IG ] Y I
ZG ZI

2.6.2 From Geographic Frame to Atmospheric relative velocity

system (ARVS)

The [GA] Matrix depends on the atmospheric relative flight azimuth and flight
path angles.

Positive rotation about ZG by atmospheric relative velocity azimuth (az ¿ angle ( X I

, Y I , Z I ).

Positive rotation about Y I by atmospheric relative velocity flight path ( γ ¿ angle (

X A , Y A , Z A ).

[][ ][ ][ ]
XA cos γ 0 −sin γ cos ⁡( az) sin ⁡(az ) 0 X G
YA = 0 1 0 −sin ⁡(az ) cos ⁡( az) 0 Y G
ZA sin γ 0 cos γ 0 0 1 ZG

[][ ][ ]
XA cos γ cos ⁡(az ) cos γ sin ⁡(az) −sin γ X G
Y A = −sin ⁡(az ) cos ⁡( az) 0 YG
ZA sin γ cos ⁡( az) sin γ sin ⁡(az) cos γ Z G
 [] []
XA XG
YA = [ GA ] YG
ZA ZG

2.6.3 From Atmospheric relative velocity system (ARVS) to Body

Frame

Positive rotation about X A by bank angle ( X I , Y I , Z I ).

Negative rotation about Z I by side slip angle ( X 2 , Y 2, Z 2).

Positive rotation about Y 2 by angle of attack.

[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ]
XB cos α 0 −sin α cos β −sin β 0 1 0 0 XA
YB = 0 1 0 sin β cos β 0 0 cos σ sin σ Y A
ZB sin α 0 cos α 0 0 1 0 −sin σ cos σ Z A

[ ][ ][ ]
XB cos α cos β −cos α sin β cos σ +sin α sin σ −cos α sin β sin σ −sin α cosσ X A
YB = sin β cos β cos σ cos β sin σ YA
ZB sin α cos β −sin α sin β cos σ−cos α sin σ −sin α sin β sin σ +cos α cos σ ZA

[] []
XB XA
Y B = [ AB ] Y A
ZB ZA

2.7 Mathematical pre-requisite: Euler numerical

integration method
Numerical integration is a powerful tool used in engineering to handle complex
mathematical problems without simple solutions. In many engineering
applications, the functions involved are often complex and do not have simple
closed-form solutions.

Example: Integrate f (x) = x 3 between x=1 and x=2

2 4
x
Solution: ∫ x dx=
3
4
¿ 1 ¿ 2¿
1

= (16-1)/4 = 3.75

Use 4 subdivisions for the numerical integration: del_x = (2-1)/4 = 0.25

x* = (1.125 ,1.375, 1.625, 1.875)
f(x*) = (1.42, 2.60, 4.29, 6.59)

del_x [ f(1.125) +f(1.1375) + f(1.625) + f(1.875) ] = 0.25(14.9) = 3.725

The Euler numerical integration method is one of the numerical integration

methods which is crucial for simulating reentry trajectories due to its simplicity
and flexibility in handling complex dynamic systems. Its straightforward
algorithm makes it easy to implement, allowing us to quickly set up initial models
and understand the behavior of reentering objects. The method can numerically
integrate the equations of motion that account for various forces encountered
during reentry, such as gravity and aerodynamic drag, providing step-by-step
approximations of the spacecraft’s path. This flexibility is essential for accurately
modeling different phases of reentry, from initial atmospheric entry to final
descent. This method approximates the solutions of ODEs by incrementally
advancing the solution over small time steps.

Method simple but not very accurate unless the step size ℎ is very small.
Improved Euler (Heun's) Method is more accurate than Euler's method,
particularly for larger step sizes. Runge-Kutta Method, RK2 is a good balance
between complexity and accuracy, while RK4 is highly accurate and widely used
despite its computational cost.

Most of the differential equation do not have a standard form and cannot be
solved with analytic methods, which means we cannot find a general solution
y(x). In this case, we need to use numerical methods to be able to determine the
solution of the differential equation. With numerical methods:

1. We get an approximation of the solution, not the exact solution

2. The solution is calculated incrementally, step by step

Figure 12 Illustration of the Euler method

The basic idea of the Euler method, is to use the slope of the ODE at a given
point to estimate the value of the function at the next point. The method
involves the following steps:

dy
1. Consider an ODE of the form =f (t , y) with an initial condition y ( t 0 )= y 0
dx
 2. Choose a time step size h, which determines the increments in the
independent variable t.
3. Start at the initial point (t 0 , y 0 ).
4. Compute the next value of y using the formula:
i. y n +1= y n +h . f (t n , y n)
5. Update the value of t: t n+1=t n +h
6. Repeat the process for a specified number of steps or until a certain
condition is met.

2.8 Sample demonstration of numerical integration for a

projectile motion
When simulating projectile motion using numerical methods like the Euler
integration method, the choice of time step size (∆t ) significantly affects the
accuracy and stability of the simulation. The choice of time step size in projectile
motion simulations using the Euler method significantly impacts the accuracy,
stability, and computational efficiency of the results. Small time steps enhance
accuracy and stability but require more computational resources, while large
time steps reduce computational cost but can compromise accuracy and
stability.

To numerically determine a good choice of time-step, the well-known projectile

motion of a ball thrown with an initial velocity was numerically modelled and the
trajectory of the ball was computed by propagating the equations of motion of
the ball using Euler’s integration scheme (for different time steps). The modelling
and results (along with comparison with the analytical solution) is discussed
below.

Equation of motion for projectile motion:

Components of velocity at time t, u x =u cosθ , u y =u sinθ−¿

1 2
Position at time t, x=( u cosθ ) t , y=( u sinθ ) t− g t
2
1 2 2
Equation of path of projectile motion, y= ( tanθ ) x− g x /(u cosθ)
2
Time of maximum height, t max=u sinθ/ g
 Figure 13 Projectile motion of a ball

Consider a ball of mass 1kg is thrown from a height of 10 meters from ground.
The ball is thrown with initial velocity of 50m/s at angle of 45 0. Fig. 13, shows the
projectile motion of a ball.

Euler integration
Considering the 2D motion of the ball and taking x,y as position co-ordinates and
vx, vy as velocity of the ball along x and y direction, Euler scheme can be used to
numerically integrate equations of motion as given below:

x(i+1) = x(i) + vx(i)*dt;

vx(i+1) = vx(i) + gx*dt;
vy(i+1) = vy(i) + gy*dt;
y(i+1) = y(i) + vy(i)*dt;
t(i+1) = t(i) + dt;
 Figure 14 Projectile motion for different timestep values

From Fig. 14, it can be seen that when time-step is taken some very small value
say 0.001, the projectile motion curve turns out to be smoother and accurate ,
accurately representing the projectile's actual ascent and descent. But for large
timesteps say dt = 1, the trajectory curve may appear jagged or stepped rather
than smooth. This is due to the large intervals between computed points, which
fail to capture the gradual changes in the vehicle's path. Instead of a smooth
curve, the trajectory might have sharp angles at each timestep, reflecting abrupt
changes.

Analytical calculation
Initial velocity, u = 50
Angle of projection, θ=45 °
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81
Height, h = 10

Force in the x-direction in N, F X = 2

Force in the y-direction in N, F Y = -3

Mass of the projectile in kg, m = 1
FX
Acceleration in x-direction, a X = = 2 m/ s2
m
Fy
Acceleration in y-direction, a y = = -3 m/ s2
m
Timestep, dt = 1 sec
Initial horizontal velocity, v x =u cos θ=35.46 m/s

Initial vertical velocity, v y =u sin θ=35.46 m/ s

Horizontal acceleration due to applied force, g x =a x =2 m/s 2

Vertical acceleration due to gravity and applied force, g y =−g +a y =−12.81 m/ s2

2
Maximum Height: H =
v = 64.08 m
2g

Figure 15 Projectile motion at timestep 1.0

From Fig. 15, we can see the path of projectile having maximum height of 58.41
m whereas when solved analytically it is 64.08 m.

64.08−58.41
Percentage error = = 8.84%
64.08

Hence, we can conclude that larger timesteps results in less smooth curve.
Which means he overall shape of the trajectory can deviate significantly from the
expected path and can even show errors.
So, for our re-entry study we select a small timestep dt = 0.01. As, small
timesteps improve the accuracy of numerical integration methods used to solve
differential equations. With smaller timesteps, the approximation of the solution
closely follows the true path, reducing the cumulative numerical error.
Small timesteps allow the simulation to capture rapid changes in variables such
as velocity, acceleration, and aerodynamic forces more precisely. This is
particularly important in dynamic environments where conditions can change
quickly.
Chapter 3
ON-ORBIT PROPAGATOR

Orbit propagation is a critical process in astrodynamics that predicts the future

positions and velocities of objects in space, such as satellites and spacecraft. It
begins with the initial state vector, which includes the current position and
velocity of the object. Numerical integration methods, like Euler's or Runge-
Kutta, are then used to solve the equations of motion over time, accounting for
various forces acting on the object. These forces can also include gravitational
influences from celestial bodies, atmospheric drag for objects in low Earth orbit,
and solar radiation pressure. But in our case, we only account for atmospheric
drag. This is because our case crew module is present in low earth orbit, where
forces like gravitational influences from celestial bodies and solar radiation
pressure are almost negligible. Only aerodynamic forces are prominent. Accurate
propagation also requires the use of appropriate reference frames, such as
geocentric or inertial coordinates. By incorporating all these factors, orbit
propagation enables precise tracking and forecasting of orbital paths. This is
essential for mission planning, collision avoidance, and effective satellite
operations.

The significance of orbit propagation lies in its essential role in ensuring the
success and safety of space missions. By accurately predicting the future
positions and velocities of satellites, spacecraft, and other objects in space, orbit
propagation enables precise mission planning and execution. This includes
ensuring satellites maintain their desired orbits, planning and performing orbital
manoeuvres, and avoiding potential collisions with other space objects or debris.
 3.1 Representation of latitude/longitude/altitude
These geographic coordinates provide a precise location on the Earth’s surface
and above it, which is essential for mission planning, tracking, and execution.

Latitude is the measure of how far north or south a point is from the Equator. It
is expressed in degrees, ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles (90°N
for the North Pole and 90°S for the South Pole). Positive values indicate the
northern hemisphere, while negative values indicate the southern hemisphere.
Latitude lines are parallel to the Equator and run east-west.

There are two types of latitude due to Earth’s non-spherical shape as shown in
Fig. 16:

The geocentric latitude λ on the Earth surface is defined by the angle

subtended by the radius vector from the Earth center to the surface point with
the equatorial plane.

The geodetic latitude µ on the Earth surface is defined by the angle subtended
by the surface normal vector n and the equatorial plane.

Figure 16 Geocentric and Geodetic Latitude

Longitude measures the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, which is
defined as 0° longitude and runs through Greenwich, England. It is also
expressed in degrees, ranging from 0° to 180° east (positive values) and 0° to
180° west (negative values). Longitude lines, known as meridians, converge at
the poles and are widest at the Equator.

Altitude represents the height of an object above a reference point, usually the
mean sea level (MSL) for Earth-based measurements. It is typically expressed in
meters or kilometers. In the context of space missions, altitude is a critical
parameter for understanding the spacecraft's position relative to the Earth’s
surface.
When combined as shown in Fig. 17, latitude, longitude, and altitude provide a
three-dimensional coordinate system that locates a point on or above the Earth's
surface. This representation is essential for trajectory simulations as it allows for
accurate plotting of the spacecraft's path.

Figure 17 Representation of Latitude, Longitude and Altitude

3.2 Planet model for predicting gravitational acceleration

In a trajectory simulator, defining the planet model with latitude, longitude,
altitude, and the Earth's oblateness provides a precise framework for simulating
spacecraft paths. Latitude and longitude give the two-dimensional coordinates
on the Earth's surface, where latitude measures the distance north or south from
the Equator, and longitude measures the distance east or west from the Prime
Meridian. Altitude represents the height above mean sea level and is crucial for
determining atmospheric density and gravitational force variations. The Earth's
oblateness, characterized by its equatorial and polar radii, and the flattening
factor, accounts for the planet’s slightly flattened shape at the poles and bulging
shape at the Equator. This oblateness affects the gravitational field, leading to
variations in gravitational force with latitude. By incorporating these elements,
the trajectory simulator can accurately model the spacecraft's position and the
effects of gravitational and atmospheric forces.

Some of the standard values considered for modelling the shape of Earth are
given below:
Radius of earth at equator, Re = 6378137 m

Radius of earth at poles, R p = 6356752 m

( )
2
Re
Measure of the flatness of Earth, k = ,
Rp

Computation of position parameters:

Geocentric latitude, τ =sin

−1
( ) zi
Ri

Geodetic latitude, τ d=tan−1 (k tan τ )

Re
Radius of earth at geocentric latitude, Rτ =
√1+(k −1)sin2 τ

(√ ) ( )
−1 yi −1 yi
Longitude, λ=sin =tan
2
x i + yi
2 xi

Height, h=Ri−R τ

Using these formulas, we first compute, geocentric latitude using initial position
vector coordinates ( x i , y i , zi ¿ and position vector magnitude Ri at every time step,
which then used to calculate geodetic latitude at any instant. Geodetic latitude is
considered due to non-spherical shape of earth. It is a function of geocentric
latitude as it varies with it. To find altitude of re-entry at any instant radius of
earth at geocentric latitude, Rτ is subtracted from Ri . Height of module at any
point is a function of latitude and position vectors.

3.3 J2 Model of Earth

The J2 model is a refined representation of the Earth's gravitational field,

accounting for its oblateness. This model improves the accuracy of trajectory
simulations by incorporating the perturbations caused by the Earth's equatorial
bulge. The J2 term, or the second zonal harmonic coefficient, captures the
primary deviation of the Earth's gravitational field from a perfect sphere.

The fact that earth rotates around its own axis makes it fat around the equator
due to centrifugal force acting on it. The earth’s equatorial radius is ~21 km
larger than the polar radius. This flattening at the poles is called oblateness
given as,
 Equatorial radius−Polar radius
Oblateness=
Equatorial radius

Gravitational Model:

The gravity term is not a constant but varies as a function of the radius where
the force of gravity and the radius of the Earth at the equator are the constants.
As we go towards the poles variation in radius is observed. This variation results
in different value of acceleration due to gravity in x, y and z direction.

The satellite, when it is near to the equator will experience more force than when
it is near the poles. The force will be constant for any value of longitude as the
variation is only in latitude. Once we get the acceleration due to gravity, we can
get the velocity by integrating once and the position by integrating again.

Constant terms:

Standard Gravitational parameter, μ=398600 Km 3 /s 2

Harmonic constant, J 2=1.0826368 ×10−3

Now, the acceleration due to gravity G xi ,G yi and G zi in x, y and z direction

respectively is computed using following formulas,

( )[ ( ) ( ( ) )]
2 2
xi Re zi
G xi=−μ 3 1+1.5 J 2 1−5
Ri Ri Ri

( )[ ( ) ( ( ) )]
2 2
yi Re zi
G yi =−μ 3
1+1.5 J 2 1−5
Ri Ri Ri

( )[ ( ) ( ( ) )]
2 2
zi R zi
G zi =−μ 3
1+ 1.5 J 2 e 3−5
Ri Ri Ri

3.4 EOM of a vehicle On-orbit

For the on-orbit propagation the reentry vehicle is again treated as a point mass.
The total force ( ⃗
F ) acting on the point mass can then be defined as the force
from gravity (m ⃗a I ¿ alone. No aerodynamic forces are considered as orbit
propagation takes place at much higher altitudes where the atmospheric density
is nearly negligible, hence atmospheric drag and lift is not present.

⃗
F =m ⃗a I
From another definition the total force comes from Newton’s Second Law where
it is assumed the mass is constant and the reference frame is inertial,

⃗
dV
⃗
F =m
dt
Therefore, by combining these two equations we obtain our equation of motion.

dV⃗I
⃗
aI=
dt

Figure 18 On-orbit propagator-flowchart

3.5 Typical results from on-orbit propagator

The initial position and velocity of a spacecraft orbiting in a Low Earth Orbit of
~400 km altitude above the Earth’s surface is considered for studies.
 90

60

30
Latitude (deg)

-30

-60

-90
-200 -140 -80 -20 40 100 160 220

Longitude (deg)

Figure 19 Ground track of typical orbit

Fig. 19 shows the ground track of a typical orbit (400km). It shows the 3D motion
of a reentry module around the Earth in 2D plane.
5
4.05x10

5
4.00x10

5
3.95x10
Altitude (m)

5
3.90x10

5
3.85x10

5
3.80x10
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Time (s)

Figure 20 Variation of latitude and Longitude

From Fig. 20, we can see that the variation in altitude at different values of
latitude and longitude is due to the oblate spheroid shape of the Earth and it
follows the same periodic trend as the spacecraft is in orbit phase (so after every
rotation around Earth, the same trend is expected).

Chapter 4
DE-BOOSTING A SPACECRAFT

Deboost refers to the deliberate reduction of a spacecraft’s velocity to alter its

orbit, usually to lower it from a higher orbit to a lower one or to deorbit it
completely, leading to final reentry into the Earth's atmosphere. It allows for end-
of-mission disposal, where defunct satellites are moved to lower orbits to
eventually burn up upon reentry, thereby reducing space debris and collision
risks. In controlled reentry scenarios such as human spaceflight missions or
sample recovery missions, deboost ensures the spacecraft reenters the
atmosphere at a predetermined location, minimizing risks to populated areas.
Deboost for reentry involves deliberately reducing a spacecraft's velocity to
initiate its descent from orbit back into the Earth's atmosphere. This maneuver is
a critical part of many space missions, particularly for returning spacecraft and
satellite. During a deboost maneuver, the spacecraft's thrusters are fired in the
opposite direction of its travel to decrease its orbital velocity i.e. negative delta-
v. This controlled reduction in speed lowers the spacecraft's altitude, leading it to
intersect with the Earth's atmosphere at a specific point after which it falls onto
earth’s surface under the influence of earth’s gravity.

4.1 Thrust force

Thrust force is the force exerted by a spacecraft's propulsion system to change
its velocity and direction in space. It is generated by expelling mass (usually in
the form of gas or ions) at high speed from the spacecraft's engines, according to
Newton's third law of motion.

Delta-v is the change in velocity required to alter the spacecraft’s orbit. In the
context of de-boosting, it is the amount of velocity reduction needed to move
from the current orbit to a lower orbit or to re-enter the atmosphere. During the
deboost maneuver, the spacecraft’s thrusters are fired in the opposite direction
of its travel, applying the required thrust force to achieve the calculated delta-v.
This controlled reduction in velocity lowers the spacecraft’s orbit, leading it to
reenter the atmosphere. Thrust force to be given is measured by using following
equation,

T =ṁ g 0 I sp

Where, g0 is the standard acceleration due to gravity at sea level (approx. 9.81
m/s²).

I sp is the specific impulse in seconds

ṁ is the mass flow rate

4.2 Specific impulse

Specific impulse is a measure of the efficiency of the rocket engine and is
defined as the thrust per unit weight flow of the propellant. It is related to the
effective exhaust velocity ( v e) by:

ve
I sp=
g0

Where, g0 is the standard acceleration due to gravity at sea level (approximately

9.81 m/s²).
 4.3 Rocket equation
The classical rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation is a mathematical
equation that describes the motion of vehicles that follow the basic principle of a
rocket: a device that can apply acceleration to itself using thrust by expelling
part of its mass with high velocity and can thereby move due to the conservation
of momentum.

The maximum change of velocity of the vehicle Δ v , (with no external forces

acting) is given by,

m0
Δ v=v e ln
mf

m0
Δ v=I sp g 0 ln
mf

mf =mi−ṁ . dt

Where, ∆ v is the change in velocity in m/s

m0 is the initial mass of the spacecraft (including fuel) in Kg

mf is the final mass of the spacecraft (after burning the fuel) in Kg

I sp is the specific impulse in seconds

4.4 Deboost modelling- flowchart

The overall methodology and flowchart of the deboost trajectory simulator built
in MATLAB is shown here.
 Figure 21 Deboost Modelling Flowchart

4.5 Sensitivity study of De-boosted trajectories of a

spacecraft
For a spacecraft in an initial orbit of ~400 km altitude (~circular orbit), the
deboost trajectory simulator is used to study the sensitivity of the initial
imparted DV on the final de-boosted trajectory achieved by the spacecraft. In the
simulator, the spacecraft is de-boosted using thrust force opposite to the velocity
of the spacecraft. 2 cases are studied: a) when DV imparted is 100 m/s and b)
when the DV imparted is 200 m/s.

Altitude variation during and after de-boost

5
5x10
Deboosted: DV 100 m/s
Deboosted: DV 200 m/s
Initial orbit

5
4x10
Altitude (m)

5
3x10

5
2x10

5
1x10
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Time (s)

Figure 22 Altitude variation due to different delta-v value

Fig. 22, shows initial orbit propagation in blue. At some time, t, delta-v is
imparted. The graph shows variation in altitude caused by two different delta-v
values. The red curve shows that deboost with ∆ V 200m/s reduces its altitude
faster with steeper angle and blue curve i.e. ∆ V 100m/s slowly reduces its
altitude. Hence, we can conclude that deboost with more ∆ V tends to reduce
altitude faster.

Velocity variation during and after de-boost

 7900
Deboosted DV: 100 m/s
Deboosted DV: 200 m/s
Initial orbit

7800

Velocity (m/s)
7700

7600

7500

7400
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Time (s)

Figure 23 Velocity variation due to different delta-v values

From Fig. 23, we can say that when deboost is carried out with more delta-v
value, initially there is significant decrease in velocity. The red curve shows
deboost at delta-v 200m/s, we can notice that velocity decreases much faster
than at delta-v 100m/s. The sudden rise in graph is due to gravitational
acceleration acting on the body, which accelerates the spacecraft closer to Earth
after the spacecraft is de-boosted from orbit.

Flight path angle variation during and after de-boost

1

0
Flight path angle (deg)

-1

-2

-3
Deboosted DV: 100 m/s
Deboosted DV: 200 m/s
Initial orbit

-4
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Time (s)

Figure 24 Flight path angle variation due to different delta-v values

From Fig. 24, we can say that when deboost is carried out with more delta-v
value, altitude is reduced faster with steeper flight path angle. The red curve
shows deboost at delta-v 200m/s with steeper flight path angle and black curve
show deboost at 100m/s delta-v with shallow flight path angle. Hence, more the
delta-v, steeper the flight path and more the velocity it has.
Analytical computations of de-boosted orbit using simple Hohmann
transfer scheme
To get a comprehensive idea of the effect of deboost parameters on the final
orbit achieved by the spacecraft, Hohmann transfer scheme is used to impart a
DV. The results of computing the DV required to be imparted to transfer the
spacecraft into an intended de-boosted orbit is given below.
DV (m/s) required from 400x400 km circular orbit
750

700

650

600
Delta V (m/s)

550

500

450

400

350

300

250
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Perigee altitude (km) of deboosted orbit

Figure 25 Delta-v values for various periapsis altitude of de-boosted orbit

Entry Flight Path Angle (at 120 km)

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3

-3.5
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Perigee altitude (km) of deboosted orbit

Figure 26 Flight path angles at various perigee altitude

Table 1 Delta-v and flight path angle value for various De-boost orbits

DEBOOSTED ORBIT DELTA-V (m/s) FLIGHT PATH ANGLE (degrees)

(km)
400 x 100 275 -0.618
400 x 0 356 -1.591
400 x -100 450 -2.173
400 x -200 547 -2.647
400 x -300 641 -3.052
400 x -400 750 -3.425
From the above Table 1 we can see that as the periapsis distance is decreased
from initial orbit of 400x400, the required delta-v value increase and the Flight
Path Angle increase which results in steeper trajectory of re-entry module. This
can be clearly seen in Fig. 25 and 26. To reach in lower orbits more delta-v must
be imparted but in negative direction. As, more delta-v is imparted the crew
module re-enters the orbit at steeper angles as shown in Fig. 27.

Figure 27 Comparison between steeper and shallow re-entry trajectories

If delta-v imparted is more, the resulting flight path angle will be larger and the
reentry will be steeper as compared to the smaller delta-v which will have
smaller Fight path angle and shallower re-entry.

Chapter 5
ATMOSPHERIC RE-ENTRY OF A RE-ENTRY VEHICLE

An atmospheric re-entry propagator is used to simulate the trajectory of a

spacecraft as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere. After re-entry module crosses
120Km the atmospheric effect becomes more prominent. Hence, to understand
the variation of temperature, pressure and atmospheric density becomes crucial.
Variations in temperature, pressure and atmospheric density are directly
associated with properties such as heat flux, drag loads and dynamic pressure,
which are necessary to be studied to understand the re-entry environment that a
module will go through. Atmospheric properties also play a crucial role in
determining the aerodynamic forces acting on a crew module during re-entry.
Density directly influences drag and lift forces, pressure affects dynamic pressure
and shock wave behaviour, and temperature impacts the speed of sound and
Mach number.

Higher atmospheric density increases the drag force, leading to greater

deceleration of the spacecraft causing heating. As the spacecraft descends, the
atmospheric density increases, resulting in a rapid increase in drag force.
Increased density enhances the lift force, which can be used to control the
descent and manoeuvres the re-entry module. Dynamic pressure affects both lift
and drag forces. Higher atmospheric pressure, combined with increased density,
leads to higher dynamic pressure, intensifying the aerodynamic forces on the re-
entry module. At high velocities, particularly during re-entry, the re-entry module
compresses the air in front of it, creating shock waves. The atmospheric pressure
affects the strength and position of these shock waves. Higher pressure can lead
to stronger shock waves and increased aerodynamic heating, which must be
managed to protect the crew module. Changes in atmospheric temperature
affect the Mach number, altering the aerodynamic characteristics such as drag
and lift coefficients, which vary with Mach number.
 5.1 Computation of Earth’s atmospheric properties using
table
To accurately simulate a spacecraft’s trajectory, especially during atmospheric
re-entry, it is crucial to model the variations in atmospheric properties such as
temperature, pressure, and density with altitude. These properties are typically
represented in standard atmospheric models like the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) or the U.S. Standard Atmosphere (1976). The following is an
overview of how these atmospheric properties are computed using tables and
their typical variations with altitude.

5.1.1 Atmospheric density variation with respect to altitude

Atmospheric density decreases with increasing altitude due to the decrease in

atmospheric pressure and the thinning of the air as one moves further from the
Earth's surface. The Earth's atmosphere is composed of gases held close to the
planet by gravitational force. At sea level, the weight of the air above
compresses the atmosphere, resulting in higher density. As altitude increases,
the pressure decreases because there is less air above to exert pressure, leading
to a corresponding decrease in density.

Figure 28 Atmospheric density variation with respect to altitude

Fig. 28 shows the atmospheric density variation up till 120Km. This is because
we consider atmospheric effects on crew module from 120Km. From 120 up to 40
km there is no significant variation in density observed. But as the crew module
crosses 40Km sensible density variations are easily seen. It is rapidly increasing
near the sea level (at low altitude) and is slowly varying at higher altitudes.

5.1.2 Temperature variation with respect to altitude

Temperature is usually dependent on air pressure. The higher the pressure, the
higher the temperature. Since atmospheric pressure is greatest at sea level, the
highest temperatures are generally observed at sea level under comparable
weather conditions. The higher one climbs, the further the temperature sinks,
due to the decreasing air pressure.

Figure 29 Temperature variation with respect to altitude

Fig. 29, shows the variation in temperature with altitude. Initially, from mean sea
level to around 11Km, a decrease in temperature is seen. The Troposphere (0 to
11 km) is primarily heated from below by the Earth's surface, which absorbs
solar radiation and re-radiates it as infrared radiation. As altitude increases, the
distance from this heat source increases, leading to a decrease in temperature.
As warm air rises, it expands due to lower pressure at higher altitudes. This
expansion causes the air to cool adiabatically (without heat exchange with the
surroundings). This results in a temperature decrease with height at an average
rate of about 6.5°C per km.

From around 15km to 50km there is rise drastic increase in temperature, this
layer is stratosphere (11 to 50 km). The stratosphere contains the ozone layer,
which absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. This absorption of UV
radiation increases the temperature with altitude, creating a temperature
inversion where temperatures rise with increasing height.
Again, decrease in temperature is observed in mesosphere (50 to 85 km). Above
the stratosphere, the amount of ozone decreases, and less UV radiation is
absorbed. As a result, temperatures decrease with altitude. The mesosphere
loses heat by radiative cooling, where the thin air radiates energy into space.
This cooling effect is more pronounced because there is minimal absorption of
solar radiation in this layer, leading to the lowest temperatures in the Earth's
atmosphere.

At thermosphere (85 km and above) temperature increases drastically. This is

because thermosphere absorbs high-energy solar radiation, including X-rays and
UV radiation, by the sparse air molecules present. This absorption significantly
increases the kinetic energy of the molecules, resulting in very high
temperatures. Despite the high temperatures, the low density of the
thermosphere means that the total heat content is low. The concept of
temperature here differs from that at the surface because it is based on the
kinetic energy of individual air molecules.

5.1.3 Pressure variation with respect to altitude

Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on

the atmospheric gases above the surface and is a function of the mass of the
planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount and composition of the gases
and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere.

Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of the air above a given
point. At sea level, the atmosphere is dense and the weight of the air column
above compresses the air, creating high pressure. As one ascends, the mass of
air above decreases, reducing the weight pressing down and thus lowering the
pressure.

Figure 30 Pressure variation with respect to altitude

From Fig. 30 it is seen that, in the troposphere the decrease in pressure with
altitude is rapid. This is because the air is denser and the gravitational pull is
more effective in compressing the atmosphere. At sea level, the pressure is
about 101300 Pa, but it decreases quickly as you go higher. Above the
troposphere, the rate of pressure decrease slows down. Atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude due to the reduction in the weight of the overlying air.
The atmosphere is a column of air held to the Earth by gravity, and at higher
altitudes, there is less air above, resulting in lower pressure.

5.2 Aerodynamic model for predicting aerodynamic forces

An aero model in a trajectory simulator is a mathematical representation that

defines how aerodynamic forces act on a vehicle as it moves through the
atmosphere. These forces and moments depend on various factors, including the
vehicle's shape, speed, altitude, and atmospheric conditions.

Aerodynamic Coefficients of vehicle:

Drag Coefficient (C D ): The drag coefficient quantifies the drag or resistance of

an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water. It is a dimensionless
number that is used to compare the drag of different objects.

D
C D=
1
ρ SV2
2

Lift Coefficient (C L): The lift coefficient measures the lift generated by a body
in a fluid flow relative to the fluid density, the velocity of the fluid, and a
reference area.

L
C L=
1
ρSV2
2

Normal Force Coefficient (C N ): The normal force coefficient quantifies the

force perpendicular to the axis of the body.

N
CN=
1
ρ SV2
2

Axial Force Coefficient (C A): The axial force coefficient quantifies the force
parallel to the axis of the body.
 A
C A=
1
ρSV 2
2

Where, ρ = Air density, S = Reference area, V = Velocity

Some of the standard values considered for modelling the aero model are given
below:

Adiabatic constant = 1.4

Specific Gas constant, R = 287 J/kg−K
Side slip angle, β=0 °

Table 2 Typical values of Cl, Cd, and angle of attack

Mach No Trim Angle of Lift coefficient Drag coefficient

attack (deg)
0 -15 0.25 1.25
30 -15 0.25 1.25

Table 2 is an illustration of the aerodynamic coefficients of the re-entry vehicle

considered for our studies. Here, the coefficients are represented as a function of
the Mach no. It is assumed throughout re-entry; the re-entry vehicle is oriented
and remains stable at a trim Angle-of-attack as given in the 2 nd column of above
table. In actual practice, this may be accomplished using active control or using
the aerodynamic characteristics of the vehicle. Using Table 2, values for angle of
attack, lift coefficient, drag coefficient are interpolated for different Mach
numbers.

Computation of aerodynamic forces:

Speed of sound, a=√ γ . R . T

Velocity(relative)
Mach Number, M =
Speed of sound

Normal force coefficient, C N =C L cosα +C D sinα

Axial force coefficient, C A=C D cosα+C L sinα

1 2
Dynamic pressure, q= ρ v
2

Normal Force, N=−(C N . q . S)

Axial Force, A=−(C A . q . S )

Here, the normal and axial forces obtained are forces in body frame. Coordinate
transformation matrix is used to convert these forces from body frame to earth
centred inertial frame. Fig. 31, shows typical transformation of body frame to
ECI.

Following is the transformation matrix used to convert from body frame to earth
centred inertial frame.

[] []
XI XB
Y I = [ BA ][ AG ][ GI ] Y B
ZI ZB

Figure 31 Coordinate transformation to convert from body frame to ECI

After transformation Aerodynamic forces are obtained in ECI frame i.e., a x , a y , az .

These, aerodynamic forces are then added to the acceleration due to gravity
G xi ,G yi and G zi in x, y, and z direction respectively (computed in planet model) to
get total force acting on entry vehicle.

ax acc =G xi +a x

ay acc =G yi +a y

az acc =G zi + a z

5.3 Flow-chart for computation of aerodynamic forces

 Figure 32 Atmospheric re-entry simulator-flowchart

5.4 Sensitivity studies of Re-entry trajectory parameters

Re-entry propagator sensitivity studies are critical in understanding how various
parameters influence the trajectory and behavior of a spacecraft during its re-
entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Sensitivity studies aim to identify how small
changes in input parameters affect the outcome of the re-entry propagator. To
understand how variations in the initial re-entry altitude and velocity significantly
impact the trajectory and heating rates experienced by the spacecraft and how
small deviations in the initial flight path angle can lead to significant differences
in the re-entry path, affecting the landing zone and peak heating rates. The
accuracy of Lift and Drag coefficients, which depend on the shape and
orientation of the spacecraft, is crucial for predicting the trajectory and heat
load. By identifying the most sensitive parameters, engineers can define
appropriate safety margins and contingencies to account for uncertainties,
enhancing mission reliability.

For our re-entry trajectory simulator, we considered few factors such as heat flux,
dynamic pressure, drag load, height, velocity, and flight path angle for the
sensitivity study. Each of the factor was plotted against time of flight (t) and the
variation due to re-entry input parameters such as mass, bank angle, lift and
drag coefficients, and flight path angle is seen. From the graphs obtained we can
study the effect of variation of input parameters on the heat flux, dynamic
pressure, drag load etc.

5.5 Effect of re-entry parameters on Altitude variation

Effect of Bank Angle

The descent rate of a vehicle during re-entry is influenced by the bank angle
because it affects the balance between lift and drag forces. From Fig. 27, it is
seen that crew module with 45° bank angle will generally result in a faster
descent and thus a quicker touchdown compared to a 0 ° bank angle.

Figure 33 Bank angle of re-entry module

Consider, acceleration due to gravity in y direction, mg is gravity force

component in downwards direction, Lcosσ is the vertical component upwards.
Hence, mg−Lcosσ is the resultant downward force as shown in Fig. 33.

mg−Lcosσ
a y=
m
Lcosσ
a y =g−
m
From the eq, we can infer that when the bank angle σ increases the lift
Lcosσ
component ( ) reduces, the gravity (g) term dominates. So, at a steeper
m
bank angle, a larger portion of the lift force is directed sideways rather than
upwards. This decreases the lift opposing gravity and increases the vehicle's
descent rate. Consequently, the vehicle loses altitude more quickly, resulting in a
faster approach to the surface.

Lcosσ
And as the bank angle σ decreases the lift component ( ) increases, hence
m
the gravity (g) term is reduced. So, with a shallower bank angle, more lift is
directed upwards, effectively opposing gravity, and reducing the descent rate.
The vehicle maintains altitude longer and descends more slowly.
 Figure 34 Sensitivity of Bank angle with height

From Fig. 34, we can conclude that up till 40-50 km no variation occurs due to
lower density. As, a sensible layer of density approaches crew module
experiences drag and lift force. At steeper bank angle i.e., 45 ° , gravity forces
dominate lift forces hence spends less time in flight and reaches ground earlier.
At shallow bank angle i.e., 15° and 0° lift forces are experienced so it tries to
spend more time in flight hence reaches ground late.

Effect of Mass of Crew module

 Figure 35 Sensitivity of mass of Crew module with height

To understand the sensitivity of mass, three cases of re-entry vehicle mass was
considered. Initial mass was assumed to be 5000kg and a dispersion of 500kg in
mass was considered for the sensitivity study. From the graph in Fig. 35, we can
observe that up till 50km, not much variation occurs due to thin air density, but
after a prominent density layer is reached, slight difference in trajectory is seen.
The vehicle with more mass i.e., 5500kg reaches ground faster due to lower drag
deceleration as it is inversely proportional to mass and lower mass of 4500kg
reaches ground slower due to higher drag deceleration.

Drag Force
Drag Deceleration=
m

Effect of Re-entry Initial Flight path angle

Figure 36 Sensitivity of Flight path angle with height

From the Fig. 36, we can see that the higher the Flight Path angle the steeper will
be the curve and will reach faster on the ground. This is due to the component of
velocity;

ḣ=Vsinγ
This is because ḣ is rate of change of altitude and can see that as we increase
the flight path angle the rate of decrease in altitude will also increase.

V cosγ

V sinγ

Effect of Lift coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 37 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with height

From the Fig. 37, we can clearly see that CM with more Lift coefficient (C l) value
spends more time in flight. As, more C l means more lift force generated which
means the vertical component of lift opposes the gravity force (mg) more
effectively and tries to spend more time in flight at higher altitudes, ultimately
taking longer time to touchdown. CM with less C l generates lesser lift forces,
under gravity force tries to reach ground earlier and spend less time in flight.
Effect of Drag coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 38 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with height

From the Fig. 38, we can clearly see that CM with more Drag coefficient ( C d)
value spends less time in flight. As, higher C d means more drag force generated.
The variation is explained below by observing the plot of flight path angle of CM
trajectories for different drag coefficients. CM with less C d generates lesser drag
forces, but also has a steeper flight path angle than other cases which results in
larger rate of decrease in altitude, thereby making it reach ground faster.

5.6 Effect of re-entry parameter on Velocity during re-entry

Effect of Bank Angle

As discussed in earlier section, in case of sensitivity of bank angle due to height,
Lcosσ
we can say that when the bank angle σ increases the lift component ( )
m
reduces, the gravity (g) term dominates. So, at a steeper bank angle, a larger
portion of the lift force is directed sideways rather than upwards. This decreases
the lift component opposing gravity and increases the vehicle's descent rate.
Consequently, the vehicle loses altitude more quickly, resulting in a faster
approach to the surface.

Lcosσ
And as the bank angle σ decreases the lift component ( ) increases, the
m
effect of gravity (g) term is therefore reduced due to larger vertical lift
component. So, with a shallower bank angle, more lift is directed upwards,
effectively opposing gravity, and reducing the descent rate. The vehicle
maintains altitude longer and descends more slowly.

Figure 39 Sensitivity of Bank angle with velocity

From Fig. 39, we can clearly conclude, at steeper bank angle i.e. 45 ° gravity
forces dominate lift forces hence spends less time in flight and reaches ground
earlier, which means higher velocity is achieved. At shallow bank angle i.e. 15 °
and 0° lift forces are experienced so it tries to spend more time in flight hence
reaches ground late which means less velocity is experienced by the CM.

Effect of Mass of Crew module

Figure 40 Sensitivity of Mass of Crew module with velocity

From Fig. 40, we can see that the vehicle with more mass i.e., 5500kg reaches
ground faster due to lower drag deceleration as it is inversely proportional to
mass and lower mass of 4500kg reaches ground slower due to higher drag
deceleration.

Drag Force
Drag Deceleration=
m

Effect of Re-entry initial Flight path angle

Figure 41 Sensitivity of Flight path angle with velocity

From the Fig. 41, we can see that the higher the Flight Path angle the steeper will
be the curve and will reach faster on the ground. This is due to the component of
velocity;

ḣ=Vsinγ
This is because ḣ is rate of change of altitude and we can see that as we will
increase the gamma i.e., FPA it will also increase.

Effect of Lift coefficient of entry vehicle

 Figure 42 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with velocity

From the graph in Fig. 42, we can clearly see that CM with more Lift coefficient (
C l) value spends more time in flight. As, more C l means more lift force generated
which means more it opposes the gravity force (mg) and tries to spend more
time in flight, ultimately reaches with less velocity and taking longer time to
touchdown. CM with less C l generates lesser lift forces, under gravity force tries
to reach ground earlier with higher velocity and spends less time in flight.

Effect of Drag coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 43 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with velocity

From the graph in Fig. 43, we can infer that CM with more Drag coefficient (C D )
reaches the ground faster with lower velocity. Instead drag should reduce the
speed and it should spend more time to reach the ground. This is because the
body with higher drag coefficient will have higher Flight Path Angle will have
steeper reentry and will reach faster than low drag value. Also, since drag force
is more, at any instant of time, the velocity will be lower.

5.7 Effect of re-entry parameter on Flight path angle during

re-entry
Effect of Bank Angle

Figure 44 Sensitivity of Bank angle with flight path angle

From Fig. 44, we can see that more bank angle σ results in more steeper flight
path angle. This is due to more acceleration due to gravity component acting
downwards. Whereas, for lesser value of bank angle σ the flight path angle
becomes shallower. Also, for steeper flight path angles more heat loads acts on it
due high drag resistance on it.

Effect of Mass of Crew module

 Figure 45 Sensitivity of mass of Crew module with flight path angle

The vehicle with more mass i.e., 5500kg reaches ground faster due to lower drag
deceleration as it is inversely proportional to mass and lower mass of 4500kg
reaches ground slower due to higher drag deceleration as shown in Fig. 45.

Drag Force
Drag Deceleration=
m
Effect of Lift coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 46 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with flight path angle

From the Fig. 46, From the Figure 40, we can clearly see that CM with more Lift
coefficient (C l) value spends more time in flight. As, more C l means more lift
force generated which means more it opposes the gravity force (mg) and creates
shallower flight path angle, as it remains at larger altitudes for a longer time.
Effect of Drag coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 47 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with flight path angle

From the Fig. 47, we can infer that CM with more Drag coefficient (C D ) reaches
the ground faster with steeper flight path angle. This is due to fact that, a body
with higher drag coefficients generates more drag force, which results in lesser
velocity. Due to faster gravitational rotation of the flight path angle/velocity
vector, the flight path angle always is steeper than for lower C D cases.

5.8 Effect of re-entry parameter on Dynamic pressure

Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy per unit volume of a fluid.

1 2
q= ρ v
2
Effect of Bank Angle
 Figure 48 Sensitivity of Bank Angle with Dynamic Pressure

From the Fig. 48, we can see that for a bank angle of 45° , gravity forces (mg)
dominate lift forces, due to which it moves with more velocity. As dynamic
pressure is directly proportional to density and square of velocity. At any point,
density remains same for all bank angles but velocity changes with square. At
bank angle 15° and 0° more lift forces are experienced and moves with less
velocity. So, CM with more bank angle will have more dynamic pressure.

Effect of Mass of Crew module

 Figure 49 Sensitivity of Mass with Dynamic Pressure

From the Fig. 49, we can see that if mass of CM is more it will experience less
drag deceleration and hence, it moves with more velocity. As dynamic pressure is
directly proportional to density and square of velocity. So, CM with more mass
have more dynamic pressure.

Effect of Re-entry initial Flight path angle

Figure 50 sensitivity of Flight path angle with Dynamic Pressure

From the Fig. 50, we can see that the higher the Flight Path angle the steeper will
be the curve and will reach faster on the ground with more velocity. This is due to
the component of velocity,

ḣ=Vsinγ
This is because ḣ is rate of change of altitude, if velocity increases, rate of
descent increases and at a given altitude, we can comment that the vehicle has
larger velocity. So, CM with more flight path angle will have more dynamic
pressure (proportional to square of velocity at a given altitude/density).

Effect of Lift coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 51 Sensitivity of Lift coefficient with Dynamic Pressure

From Fig. 51, we can observe that CM with more Cl will have more lift generation
and due to this the velocity will be less as it tries to spend more time in flight at
higher altitudes, where the velocity is reduced effectively due to drag forces. Due
to this, the CM has lesser velocity when it reaches dense atmospheric layers, and
1 2
it will have less dynamic pressure (q= ρ v ) as compare to CM with less Cl value.
2
Effect of Drag coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 52 Sensitivity of Drag coefficient with Dynamic Pressure

From Fig. 52, we can observe that CM with more Cd will have less dynamic
pressure. This is due to more drag deceleration. Hence, there will be less velocity
at a given altitude/density and due to this it will have lesser dynamic pressure
1 2
(q= ρ v ) than the CM with less Cd.
2

5.9 Effect of re-entry parameter on Drag load

Drag load refers to the aerodynamic force exerted on an aircraft or any object
moving through a fluid (such as air) that opposes its motion.

1 2
ρV S Cd
2
Dload =
m
Effect of Bank Angle
 Figure 53 Sensitivity of bank angle with Drag load

From Fig. 53, we can say CM with more bank angle has more drag load. This is
because the gravity forces (mg) dominate lift forces, due to which it moves with
more velocity. As drag load is directly proportional to density and square of
velocity. At any point, density remains same for all bank angles but velocity
changes with square. At bank angle 15 ° and 0° more lift forces are experienced
and moves with less velocity. So, CM with more bank angle will have more drag
load.

Effect of Mass of Crew module

Figure 54 Sensitivity of mass with Drag load

From the Fig. 54, the vehicle with more mass i.e., 5500kg reaches ground faster
due to lower drag deceleration as it is inversely proportional to mass so, less
drag load (
1 2
ρV S Cd
2 and lower mass of 4500kg reaches ground slower
Dload = ¿
m
due to higher drag deceleration which means more drag load.

Drag Force
Drag Deceleration=
m
However, the difference in peak drag loads is not significant for the variation in
masses.

Effect of Re-entry Initial Flight path angle

Figure 55 Sensitivity of flight path angle with Drag load

From the Fig. 55, we can see that higher the Flight Path angle, steeper will be the
curve and reach faster on the ground with more velocity. So, CM with more flight

path angle will have more drag load (

1 2
ρV S Cd
2 since velocity at a given
Dload = ¿
m
altitude/density is more for a steeper entry case.

Effect of Lift coefficient of entry vehicle

 Figure 56 Sensitivity of Lift Coefficient with Drag Load

From Fig. 56, we can observe that CM with more Cl will have more lift generation
and due to this the velocity will be less as it tries to spend more time in flight
which results in drag deceleration acting at higher altitudes for a longer time,
which would effectively reduce the velocity. Due to this less velocity, it will have

less drag load (

1 2
ρV S Cd
2 as compare to CM with less Cl value.
Dload = ¿
m

Effect of Drag coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 57 Sensitivity of Drag Coefficient with Drag Load

From Fig. 57, we can observe that CM with more Cd will have more drag load, as
is expected, because drag coefficient is a measure of the drag load in a non-
dimensional manner.
 5.10 Effect of re-entry parameter on Heat flux indicator
Heat flux refers to the rate of heat transfer per unit area. It quantifies the
amount of heat energy that passes through a surface per unit time. (k= constant
value)
3
H flux =kρ V

Effect of Bank Angle

Figure 58 Sensitivity of Bank Angle with Heat Flux Indicator

From Fig. 58, we can say CM with more bank angle has more heat flux. This is
because the gravity forces (mg) dominate lift forces, due to which it moves with
more velocity. As heat flux is directly proportional to density and cube of velocity
3
(H flux =kρ V ) . At any point, density remains same for all bank angles but velocity
changes with cube. At bank angle 15 ° and 0° more lift forces are experienced
and moves with less velocity. So, CM with more bank angle will have more heat
flux.

Effect of Mass of Crew module

 Figure 59 Sensitivity of Mass with Heat Flux Indicator

From the Fig. 59, the vehicle with more mass i.e., 5500kg reaches ground faster
due to lower drag deceleration as it is inversely proportional to mass and has
lesser drag deceleration which results in more velocity at a given altitude. Since
velocity at a given altitude is higher, it experiences more heat flux (H flux =kρ V 3) .

Drag Force
Drag Deceleration=
m

Effect of Re- entry initial Flight path angle

 Figure 60 Sensitivity of FPA with Heat Flux Indicator

From the Fig. 60, we can see that higher the Flight Path angle, steeper will be the
curve and descends faster with more velocity. This is due to the component of
velocity, (ḣ=Vsinγ ). Here, ḣ is rate of change of altitude. If velocity increases, ḣ
increases, and CM reaches dense atmospheric layers below at larger velocities.
Heat flux is a function of velocity. So, CM with more flight path angle will have
more more heat flux (H flux =kρ V 3).

Effect of Lift coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 61 Sensitivity of Lift Coefficient with Heat Flux Indicator

From Fig. 61, we can observe that CM with more Cl will have more lift generation
and due to this the velocity will be less as it tries to spend more time in flight at
higher altitudes (where the drag forces will reduce the velocity effectively). Due
to this less velocity at dense atmospheric region, it will have less heat flux
3
(H flux =kρ V ) as compare to CM with less Cl value.

Effect of Drag coefficient of entry vehicle

Figure 62 Sensitivity of Drag Coefficient with Heat Flux Indicator

From Fig. 62, we can observe that CM with more Cd will have less heat flux. This
is due to more drag deceleration, which effectively reduces the velocity at higher
altitudes. Hence, there will be less velocity and it will spend more time in flight
trying to decelerate. Due to this it will have lesser heat flux (H flux =kρ V 3) than the
CM with less Cd, as heat flux is a function of velocity. Lesser the velocity, lesser is
the heat flux.
 5.10 Conclusions
Effect of re-entry conditions as well as re-entry vehicle parameters on the major
trajectory parameters was well understood based on the modelling carried out.
The summary of the sensitivity studies is given below here as a table:

Parameter Rate of Peak drag Peak dynamic Peak heat flux

descent load pressure
(altitude
reduction)
Mass of entry Increases No major Increases Increases
vehicle change
Re-entry Increases Increases Increases Increases
initial flight
path angle
Drag Increases Increases Decreases Decreases
coefficient of
vehicle
Lift coefficient Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
of vehicle
Bank angle Increases Increases Increases Increases
during entry

The above table is an indication of how different re-entry parameters as well as

re-entry vehicle characteristics govern some of the important re-entry
parameters which are crucial to ensure a safe re-entry through Earth’s
atmosphere.
Chapter 6
MISSION PROFILE

6.1 End-to-end mission profile of a spacecraft returning to

Earth

The mission to deboost a spacecraft from a typical 400 km low Earth orbit (LEO)
to re-entry and touchdown involves a series of precisely controlled maneuvers
and phases. Initially, the spacecraft orbits at an altitude of 400 km, and mission
control conducts a thorough system check to ensure all systems are operational
and there is sufficient fuel for the deboost maneuver. The required change in
velocity, or delta-v, is calculated to be approximately 200 m/s. To achieve this,
the spacecraft's thrusters are fired in the retrograde direction, opposite to its
current orbital motion, reducing its speed and thus lowering its perigee to
intersect the Earth’s atmosphere at an appropriate negative flight path angle (at
120 km). This delta-v adjustment is critical, as it sets the stage for atmospheric
re-entry. The spacecraft's onboard navigation systems continuously monitor the
trajectory to confirm that the new orbit will intersect the atmosphere at the
desired altitude.

As the spacecraft descends toward 120 km, it begins to encounter the denser
layers of the Earth's atmosphere, where atmospheric drag and gravitational
forces significantly slow it down. At this point, the spacecraft's Thermal
Protection System (TPS) activates to shield it from the intense heat generated by
atmospheric friction. The most severe heating and deceleration occurs at ~60
km altitude. The TPS plays a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity
and temperature control of the spacecraft during this phase. As the spacecraft
slows to subsonic speeds, stabilization parachutes are deployed to further reduce
the descent rate. At a lower altitude, typically between 7 km and 10 km, the
main parachutes are deployed, ensuring a controlled and gradual descent
towards the Earth's surface.

6.2 Overall trajectory: deboost and re-entry to touchdown

Based on the trajectory simulators built, a spacecraft initially orbiting in an

approximately circular orbit of 400 km altitude was taken. Modelling of the thrust
force was appropriately taken and a DV of ~165 m/s was imparted to make the
spacecraft de-orbit and intersect the Earth’s atmosphere at a negative flight
angle which is neither too steep (so that drag loads and heat flux are not large)
nor too shallow (which might result in skip entries). This is shown in the below
plots in red curve. Further, the atmospheric phase of descent of the re-entry
vehicle is simulated and shown in the blue curve. The simulators developed are
expected to be extremely useful for ready understanding of sensitivity of key
parameters on the trajectory of the spacecraft during this final phase of its
mission.

5
5x10

5
4x10

5
3x10
Altitude (m)

5
2x10

5
1x10

0
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500

Time (s)

Figure 63 Altitude variation throughout trajectory: deboost until atmospheric interface (red) and
atmospheric re-entry (blue)
 8000

7000

6000
Inertial velocity (m/s)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500

Time (s)

Figure 64 Velocity variation throughout trajectory: deboost until atmospheric interface (red) and
atmospheric re-entry (blue)
 REFERENCES

1. Jameson, Robert E. Jr., "Development and Validation of Reentry Simulation

Using MATLAB" (2006). Theses and Dissertations. 3530.
2. Suresh, B. N., & Sivan, K. (2015). Integrated design for space transportation
system, 142-143. New Delhi: Springer India.
3. Article on ‘Returning from Space: Re-entry’, 4.1.7.
4. Bilbey, Charles A. Jr., "Investigation of the Performance Characteristics of Re-
Entry Vehicles" (2005). Theses and Dissertations. 3713.
5. Sarah D’Souza et al. “Survey of planetary entry guidance algorithms”,
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 68 (2014) 64-74.