EVOLUTION

1. Introduction
- Biological evolution is the changes that living things have undergone over
long periods of time.
- Biological evolution states that:
 All present-day life forms have descended from and are related to,
those that lived in the past.
 All present-day life forms may look different from those that they
descended from because they became modified from one generation
to another.

2. Difference between a hypothesis and a theory

- A hypothesis is a possible/suggested solution to a problem.
- It can be tested, and thereafter accepted or rejected.
- A theory is an explanation of something that has been observed in nature
which can be supported by facts, generalisations, tested hypotheses, models
and laws.
- The theory of evolution is regarded as a scientific theory since various
hypotheses relating to evolution have been tested and verified over time.

3. Evidence for evolution

3.1. Palaeontology/fossil evidence/fossil record

- Palaeontology is the study of fossils.
- Fossils are the remains of ancient life forms preserved usually in rocks.
- Scientists determine the age of a fossil by using relative dating and
radiometric dating.
- In relative dating, we can only tell whether a particular fossil was formed
before or after another fossil or geological event such as a volcano. It cannot
be used to determine the age of a fossil in number of years.
- Radiometric dating can be used to determine the age of a fossil in number of
years.
- The evidence that shows characteristics that make us similar to, or different
from African apes comes largely from a study of fossils.

3.2. Biogeography

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- Biogeography is the study of past and present distribution of individual
species.
- Such studies have shown that closely related species tend to be found in the
same geographic region.

3.3. Homologous structures/Modification by descent

- Homologous structures have the same basic plan even though they may
look different or perform different functions.
- Scientists interpret the presence of homologous structures to mean that all the
species which show homologous structures have arisen from a common
ancestor which became adapted to live in different environments. This is also
called modification by descent.
- An example of this is the common basic plan of all vertebrate limbs
(consisting of the same set of bones) but which have become modified for
different functions, for example, for flight in birds, for swimming in whales
and for walking in horses.

3.4. Genetic evidence

- Scientists stat that organisms are closely related and are likely to have a
common ancestor if they have:
 Identical DNA structure
 Similar sequence of genes
 Similar portions of DNA with no functions
 Similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA)
- Species that are closely related have a greater similarity to each other than
distant species.

4. Definition of a species and a population

- A species is a group of similar organisms that can interbreed to produce
fertile offspring.
- A population is a group of organisms of the same species that occupy a
given area at a certain time.

5. Variation
- Variation is the small differences that exist between individuals of a species,
for example difference in height, eye colour or blood groups in humans.

5.1. Sources of variation

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Crossing over
- During Prophase 1 of meiosis, there is an exchange of chromatid segments
between homologous chromosomes.
- When meiosis is complete, new combinations of genetic material result in
gametes, making them different from each other.

Random arrangement of chromosomes

- The chromosomes arrange randomly at the equator during metaphase 1 and
metaphase 2.
- As a result, during anaphase 1 or anaphase 2, the chromosomes or
chromatids may move to the poles in different combinations, leading to
gametes that differ from each other.

Mutations
- Mutations change the structure of a gene or chromosome and therefore the
organism’s genotype.
- Since the genotype influences the phenotype, it creates organisms with new,
different characteristics from one generation to the next.

Random fertilisation
- Random fertilisation between different egg cells and different sperm cells
formed by meiosis result in offspring that are different from each other.

Random mating
- Random mating between organisms within a species leads to a different set of
offspring from each mating pair.

5.2. Types of variation

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Continuous variation
- In continuous variation, there is a range of different/intermediate phenotypes
for a particular characteristic.
- Examples of such characteristics in humans are foot length, height and
weight.

Discontinuous variation
- In discontinuous variation, there is no range of different/intermediate
phenotypes for a particular characteristic.
- Examples of such characteristics in humans are gender (male or female),
blood group (A, B, AB or O) and eye colour (blue, brown, green or grey).

6. Origin of ideas about evolution (a historical development)

6.1. Lamarckism (Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck: 1744-1829)

- Lamarck explained evolution using two laws:

The law of use and disuse

- As an organism uses a structure or organ more regularly, it becomes better
developed or enlarged.
- If an organism does not use a structure or organ frequently, it becomes less
developed or reduced in size and may disappear altogether.

The law of the inheritance of acquired characteristics

- Characteristics developed during the life of an individual (acquired
characteristics) can be passed on to their offspring.

Lamarck used the following examples to explain how his theory worked:
 The long neck of the giraffe came about because it wanted to feed on the tree
tops where it would have less competition from other herbivores.
 The legs of the snake disappeared because it did not use them in its gliding
movement; also, its body became thin and long to allow it to crawl through
narrow spaces.

Reasons for Lamarck’s theory being rejected

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  Organisms evolved, not because they wanted to evolve; instead these
changes took place randomly, in response to the environment.
 There is no evidence to show that acquired characteristics are inherited.
 There is no evidence that structures used more frequently become more
developed or vice versa.

6.2. Darwinism (Charles Darwin: 1809-1882)

Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection:

- Organisms produce a large number of offspring.
- There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
- Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
- When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is
competition,
- then organisms with characteristics, which make them more suited, survive
- whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less
suited, die.
- This is called natural selection.
- The organisms that survive, reproduce
- and thus, pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their offspring.
- The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with
the favourable characteristic.

6.3. Punctuated equilibrium (Eldredge & Gould: 1972)

Punctuated equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:
- Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or
change gradually through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
- This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid
changes occur through natural selection
- during which new species may form in a short period of time.
- This is supported by the absence of transitional fossils (usually termed
‘missing links’) indicating the period of rapid change.

7. Differences between Lamarckism and Darwinism

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 Lamarckism Darwinism
Variation in offspring brought about by Offspring showed variation from the
individuals in the population changing moment of their production
Change brought about because Change as a result of environmental
individuals in the population wanted to factors working randomly on the
change population
Change brought about by individuals in Change brought by nature selecting
the population adapting to the those that are best suited to the
environment environment to survive
Individuals in the population change The population as a whole changes
Changes brought about by adaptation to Characteristics are passed on from
the environment are inherited from generation to generation because they
parent to offspring enable the individuals to survive in the
environment

8. Artificial selection
- Artificial selection is the breeding of plants and animals for characteristics
that are considered desirable to humans.
- Since particular desirable characteristics are selected, it is also known as
selective breeding.
- Artificial production can be used to increase food quantity as shown by each
of the following examples:
 By selecting cows which produce large amounts of milk and whose
mothers and grandmothers were also high milk producers, and
allowing them to mate with bulls whose mothers and grandmothers
were also high milk producers, cows which produce more milk than
their ancestors, have been developed.
 By deliberate selection of polyploid plants, bigger plants of
watermelons have been produced.

9. Differences between natural selection and artificial selection

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 Natural selection Artificial selection
The environment or nature is the Humans are the selective force
selective force
Selection is in response to suitability to Selection is in response to satisfying
the environment human needs
Occurs within a species May involve one or more species (as in
cross breeding)
Selected individuals are able to survive Selected individuals may survive only
in the wild since they are adapted to the under controlled conditions since their
environment characteristics were not selected
according to adaptation to the
environment

10. Speciation
- Speciation is the formation of new species.

10.1. The effect of speciation and extinction on biodiversity

- Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth.
- Speciation increases biodiversity since a new species appears on earth.
- Extinction decreases biodiversity since a species permanently disappears on
earth.
- Extinction is the permanent disappearance of a species on earth.

10.2. Speciation through geographic isolation

- If a population of a single species becomes separated by a geographical
barrier (sea, river, mountain, lake)
- then the population splits into two.
- There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
- Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions,
- natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
- such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from
each other
- genotypically and phenotypically
- Even if the two populations were to mix again,
- they will not be able to interbreed.
- The two populations are now different species.

11. Mechanisms of reproductive isolation

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- Reproductive isolation mechanisms are factors that prevent two species from
producing viable, fertile offspring.

11.1. Breeding at different times of the year

- If two species breed during different times (seasons) of the year, their
chances of mating and producing viable, fertile offspring is greatly reduced.

11.2. Species-specific courtship behaviour

- Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that do not attract
individuals of other species, even if they are closely-related species.
- For example, different species of ducks make different head movements
during courtship and other species do not respond to these movements.

11.3. Plant adaptation to different pollinators

- Some closely-related species of plants have different appearances that attract
different pollinators, preventing cross-pollination between the different
species.

11.4. Infertile offspring/hybrid infertility

- Some closely-related species may mate and produce viable offspring.
- However, the hybrid offspring may be infertile.
- For example, when a donkey and a horse reproduce, a mule is produced.
- However, one mule cannot reproduce with another to produce other mules.

11.5. Prevention of fertilisation

- In some closely-related species, fertilisation of the different species is
prevented by the different species having different copulatory organs.
- Since the male organs do not fit into the female organs, the sperm cannot be
transferred to the female.

12. Evolution in present times

- Scientists have used the way in which insects have developed resistance to
insecticides, and the way in which bacteria have developed resistance to
antibiotics, as examples of evolution by natural selection in present times.

12.1. The development of resistance to insecticides in insects

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 The development of a strain of DDT resistant mosquitoes can be explained by
natural selection as follows:
- Mosquitoes produce a large number of offspring.
- There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
- Whilst initially most mosquitoes were not resistant to DDT, a small number
showed resistance to DDT.
- On the application of DDT, most of the mosquitoes died since they were not
resistant to DDT.
- Only the resistant mosquitoes, which were smaller in number, survived.
- This is called natural selection.
- The DDT-resistant mosquitoes which survived were able to reproduce
- and thus passed the characteristic of DDT resistance to the next generation.
- In this way the next generation showed a larger proportion of offspring that
were DDT resistant.
- In this way the mosquitoes over many generations became more and more
resistant to DDT, eventually making DDT totally ineffective in killing
mosquitoes.

13. Evidence of common ancestors for living hominids, including humans

13.1. Our place in the animal kingdom

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: Sapiens
- Our scientific name as humans is Homo Sapiens

13.2. Characteristics that humans share with African apes

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 - Large brain
- Eyes in front/binocular vision/stereoscopic vision
- Eyes with cones/colour vision
- Freely rotating arms
- Long upper arms
- Rotation around elbow joints
- Bare fingertips or nails instead of claws
- Opposable thumb
- Upright posture

13.3. Anatomical differences between humans and African apes

Feature Humans African apes

Cranium Large cranium/brain Small cranium/brain
Brow ridges Brow ridges are not well Brow ridges are well
developed developed
Spine More curved spine/S-shaped Less curved spine/C-shaped
spine spine
Pelvic girdle Short, wide pelvis Long, narrow pelvis
Canines Small canines Large canines
Palate shape Small and semi-circular Long and rectangular
Jaws Small jaws Large jaws
Less protruding/less More protruding/more
prognathous jaws prognathous jaws
Cranial ridge No cranial ridge Cranial ridge across the top of
the cranium
Foramen Foramen magnum in a forward Foramen magnum in a
magnum position backward position

13.4. The development of bipedalism

- The backward position of the foramen magnum on the skull,

- the long and narrow pelvis
- and the less curved/C-shaped spine
- indicates that the ape-like beings were quadrupedal.
- The forward position of the foramen magnum on the skull,
- the short and wide pelvis
- and the more curved/S-shaped spine
- indicates that modern humans are bipedal.

13.5. Advantages of bipedalism

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- Frees the arms so that they could carry offspring/tools/food/manipulate things
- Allows ability to see further to spot danger/food
- Exposes a large surface area for thermoregulation
- Exposes the genitals to attract the opposite sex
- Efficient locomotion allows travelling over longer distances

13.6. Advantages of a larger cranium

- Allows for a bigger brain

- Allows for development of speech/communication
- Allows for higher intelligence
- Allows for complex behaviour
- Allows for quick processing of information
- Processes large amounts of information

13.7. Change in the diet from raw food to cooked food

- The large teeth, especially the canines,

- as well as the large and long jaws
- which makes the skull prognathous,
- as well as cranial/brow ridges associated with large muscles that operate the
jaws
- indicate that the ape-like beings ate raw food that required a great amount of
processing/tearing, biting and chewing.
- The smaller teeth, including the canines,
- as well as the smaller jaw size
- which makes the skull less prognathous,
- as well as the absence of cranial/brow ridges due to the presence of smaller
muscles for chewing
- indicate that modern humans rely on a diet of cooked food that does not
require the same amount of processing/tearing, biting and chewing.

13.8. Evidence of common ancestors for living hominids, including

humans

13.8.1. Cultural evidence: tool-making

- Cultural evidence from studies of tools and weapons, as well as language is

also used to show similarities and differences between humans and other
primates.

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- Early hominids used stones that were found on the ground and the branches
of trees as weapons and tools.
- The first made tools were those made by Homo habilis (handy man) about 2
million years ago.
- Such weapons and tools were used for fishing, farming, hunting and tearing
up food for eating.

13.8.2. Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA

- Scientists state that organisms are closely related and are likely to have a
common recent ancestor if they have:
 Identical DNA structure
 Similar sequence of genes
 Similar portions of DNA with no functions
 Similar mutations on mitochondrial DNA
- Species that are closely related have a greater similarity to each other than
distant species.
- For example, the similarity of the DNA of humans to the chimpanzees is
greater than with the gorilla.
- There is only a 1,4% difference in the DNA nucleotide sequence between
humans and chimpanzees.
- This shows that humans are more closely related to the chimpanzees than the
gorilla.

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 13.9. Major phases in hominid evolution
The table below shows the characteristics of different organisms (as obtained from a
study of their fossils) that are thought to be in the same line that led to the evolution
of modern humans. The fossils are dealt with in the order in which they appeared on
earth (as calculated by the age of the fossil using dating techniques).

Organism When Fossil site Discovered Characteristics

organism by
existed
Ardipithecus 5 – 4 mya North-East Tim White Brain size: 300 – 350 ml
ramidus Ethiopia Forward position of
foramen magnum
Very prognathous (more
protruding jaws)
Heavy brow ridges
Pelvis structure: bipedal
and tree climbing
Australopithecu 4 – 2,7 Ethiopia, Donald Brain size: 375 – 550 ml
s afarensis mya Kenya, Johnson Forward position of
Tanzania foramen magnum
Very prognathous
Heavy brow ridges
Canines large and pointed
Long arms
No cranial ridge
Australopithecu 3 – 2 mya Taung; Raymond Brain size: 428 – 625 ml
s africanus Sterkfontein Dart Forward position of
foramen magnum
Prognathous
Brow ridges
Teeth large, canines not
long
Long arms
No cranial ridge
Australopithecu 1,9 – 1,8 Malapa Cave Lee Burger Brain size: 420 ml
s sediba mya – in the Less prognathous
cradle of Brow ridges
humankind Large teeth, canines not
long
Long arms
No cranial ridge
Homo habilis 2,2 – 1,6 Tanzania Louis and Brain size: 650 ml
mya Mary Less prognathous
Leakey Less pronounced brow
ridges
Human-like teeth – smaller
canines
Long arms
Homo erectus 2 – 0,4 Java in Eugene Brain size: 900 ml
mya Indonesia Dubois Prognathous
and then Cranial ridges

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 Swartkrans Short canines
Longer legs and shorter
arms
Homo sapiens 200 000 Makapansgat Tim White Brain size: 1200 – 1800 ml
years ago in Limpopo; No brow ridges
– present Border Cave Small teeth
in KZN; Short arms
Blombos
Cave in the
Western
Cape

14. Out of Africa hypothesis

- All modern humans originated in Africa and migrated to other parts of the
world.

15. Evidence that supports the Out of Africa hypothesis

15.1. Fossil evidence

- The oldest fossils of Ardipithecus were found only in Africa.

- The oldest fossils of Australopithecus were found only in Africa.
- The oldest fossils of Homo habilis were found only in Africa.
- The oldest fossils of Homo erectus were found only in Africa and the youngest
fossils were found in other parts of the world.
- The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens were found only in Africa.

15.2. Genetic evidence

- Mitochondrial DNA is passed down from mother to child/is inherited only from
the maternal line.
- Analysis of mutations on this mitochondrial DNA were traced to an ancestral
female that existed in Africa and shows that all humans descended from
her/mitochondrial Eve.
- The Y chromosome shows the paternal line.

15.3. Cultural evidence

- The oldest/most primitive artefacts (tools, cutlery, art, etc.) were found only in
Africa.

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