GENETICS FINAL EXAMINATION REVIEWER

Evolution & Evolutionary Genetics Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

- Idea called Law of Use and Disuse
- If a body part were used, it got stronger
- If body part NOT used, it deteriorated

Lamarck’s Mistakes
- Lamarck Did NOT Know how traits were
inherited (Traits are passed through genes)
- Genes Are NOT Changed By Activities In Life
- Change Through Mutation Occurs Before
An Organism Is Born

Discovery (3): Fossils and Strata

At about the same time, geologists like

William Smith were mapping the rocks and
fossils of Britain. He and others showed
that different species existed in the past
compared with today.
*All living things share a common ancestor.
Discovery (4): Darwin’s Voyage
Evolution - is the process by which one
species gives rise to another. From 1831-1836, a young naturalist called
Charles Darwin toured the world in HMS
- is the slow , gradual change in a population
Beagle.
of organisms over time.
He was dazzled by the amazing diversity of
How was evolution discovered?
life and started to wonder how it might have
originated
Discovery (1): Fixed Species
Discovery (5): Survival of the Fittest
From Classical times until long after the
Renaissance, species were considered to be
In his Origin of Species, published in 1859,
special creations, fixed for all time.
Darwin proposed how one species might
give rise to another.
Discovery (2): Transmutation
Where food was limited, competition meant
Around 1800, scientists began to wonder
that only the fittest would survive
whether species could change or transmute.
This would lead to the natural selection of
Lamarck thought that if an animal acquired a
the best adapted individuals and eventually
characteristic during its lifetime, it could pass
the evolution of a new species.
it onto its offspring.
Discovery(6): Genetics
Hence giraffes got their long necks through
generations of straining to reach high From 1856-63, a monk called Gregor Mendel
branches. cultivated 29,000 pea plants to investigate
how evolution worked i.e., how
characteristics were passed down the
generations
- He figured out the basic principles of This showed how genetic information is
genetics. He showed that offspring received transferred from one cell to another almost
characteristics from both parents, but only without error.
the dominant characteristic trait was
expressed. Mendel’s work only came to light
in 1900, long after his death.

Discovery (7): Making Sense

In the early 20th century, scientist started to

make sense of how evolution worked

Building on Mendel’s genetics, studies

showed how characteristics in a population
could be selected by environmental Mechanism (3): Mutation
pressures.
However, occasional mutations or copying
This Modern Synthesis, as Julian Huxley errors can and do occur when DNA is
called it, brought Darwin’s Natural Selection replicated.
back to the centre of evolutionary theory.
Mutations may be caused by radiation,
How does evolution work? viruses, or carcinogens.

Mechanism (1): All in the Genes Mutations are rare and often have damaging
effects. Consequently organisms have
The genetic make-up of an organism is special enzymes whose job it is to repair
known as its genotype. faulty DNA.

An organism’s genotype and the

environment in which it lives determines its
total characteristic traits i.e. its phenotype.

Mechanism (2): DNA

The double-helix structure of DNA was

discovered in 1953
Mechanism (4): Variations All living things also use a molecule called ATP to
carry energy around the organism.
Nevertheless, some mutations will
persist and increase genetic variation
within a population.

Variants of a particular gene are known

as alleles. For example, the one of the
genes for hair colour comprises
brown/blonde alleles

Mechanism (5): Natural Selection

Mutant alleles spread through a

population by sexual reproduction.
Evidence (2): Similar Genes
If an allele exerts a harmful effect, it will
reduce the ability of the individual to
reproduce and the allele will probably
be removed from the population.
*Genetic code of chimps and gorillas is almost
In contrast, mutants with favorable identical to humans
effects are preferentially passed on
If evolution is true then we might also expect
that closely related organisms will be more
similar to one another than more distantly
related organisms.

Comparison of the human genetic code with that

of other organisms show that chimpanzees are
nearly genetically identical (differ by less than
1.2%) whereas the mouse differs by ≈15%.

Evidence (3): Comparative Anatomy

Similar comparisons can be made based on

anatomical evidence.

The skeleton of humans and gorillas are very

What are the evidences of evolution? similar suggesting they shared a recent common
ancestor, but very different from the more
Evidence (1): Biochemistry distantly related woodlouse…

The basic similarity of all living things yet all have a common shared characteristic:
suggests that they evolved from a single bilateral symmetry
common ancestor.

As we have already seen, all living things

pass on information from generation to
generation using the DNA molecule.
Evidence (4): Homology:
Homologous Body Structure

Scientists Noticed Animals With

Backbones (Vertebrates) Had Similar
Bone Structure Evidence (6): Fossil Record

May Differ In Form or Function

Limb Bones Develop In Similar Patterns

- Arms, Wings, Legs, Flippers

The fossil record shows a sequence from simple

bacteria to more complicated organisms through
time and provides the most compelling evidence
Evidence (5): Vestigial Structure for evolution.

As evolution progresses, some Evidence (7): Geography

structures get side-lined as they are not
longer of use. These are known as Geographic spread of organisms also tells of their
vestigial structures. past evolution.

The coccyx is a much reduced version of Marsupials occur in two populations today in the
an ancestral tail, which was formerly Americas and Australia.
adapted to aid balance and climbing.
This shows the group evolved before the
Another vestigial structure in humans is continents drifted apart
the appendix.

Evidence (8): Similarities in early

development

Embryonic Structures Of Different Species

Show Significant Similarities
Embryo – early stages of vertebrate
development

GENETIC EVOLUTION

Phylogeny

Tree of Life - relationships of living things

can be represented by a vast evolutionary
tree

The evolutionary development and history

of a species or higher taxonomic grouping of
organisms

- Genetic variation leads to evolutionary

change

- Basis of speciation and adaptation

- Genetic change through selection

Charles Darwin

- Survival of the fittest

- Natural Selection
- Theory of Evolution
 End result:
The more advantageous trait, brown
coloration, which allows the beetle to have
more offspring, becomes more common in
the population.

If this process continues, eventually, all

individuals in the population will be brown.

Mechanism of Natural Selection

Adaptation - Behavior that allows better

evasion, body temperature, anatomical
feature = access a valuable new resource

- Is a trait with a current functional role in

the life of an organism that is maintained
and evolved by means of natural selection

There is variation in traits.

For example, some beetles are green and
some are brown.

There is differential reproduction.

Since the environment can't support
unlimited population growth, not all
individuals get to reproduce to their full
potential. In this example, green beetles
tend to get eaten by birds and survive to
reproduce less often than brown beetles do.

There is heredity.
Divergent Evolution -  two or more distinct
The surviving brown beetles have brown
species share a common ancestor from
baby beetles because this trait has a genetic
which they diverged.
basis.
Convergent Evolution - occurs when two
organisms that lack a recent common
ancestor end up more and more alike as they
adapt to a similar ecological niche.

- Convergent evolution is the independent

evolution of similar features in species of
different periods or epochs in time.

- Convergent evolution creates analogous

structures that have similar form or function
but were not present in the last common
ancestor of those groups
Generally Modified Organisms

GMOs - are a result of technology that has

altered the DNA of living organisms (animals,
plants or bacteria)

Other Terms:

Transgenic - a gene is moved from one non-

closely related species to another

Cisgenic/intragenic - a gene is moved within

the same species or a closely related species

Subgenic - a gene is edited to amplify,

delete, insert, silence or repress the gene.

Genetic Engineering - is the manipulation of

organisms' genes, where it involves transfer
of genes from the other organisms

Jack Williamson - 1951 he coined the term

GENETIC ENGINEERING

PROCESS OF PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING

STEP 3: GENE DESIGN
 After cloning, designing the gene to work
once inside a different organism.

This is done in a test tube by cutting the

gene apart with enzymes and replacing gene
regions that have been separated.

STEP 1: DNA EXTRACTION

A sample of an organism containing C

the gene of interest is taken through a series
of steps to remove the DNA.

STEP 4: TRANSFORMATION

The new gene is inserted into some of the

cells using various techniques. So me of the
more common methods include the gene
gun, agrobacterium, microfibers, and
electroporation. The main goal of each of
these methods is to transport the new
STEP 2: GENE CLONING gene(s) and deliver them into the nucleus of
a cell without killing it.
Scientists use gene cloning to separate the
single gene of interest from the rest of the
genes extracted and make thousands of
copies of it.
STEP 5: BACKCROSS BREEDING

Transgenic plants are crossed with elite

breeding lines using traditional plant
breeding methods to combine the desired
traits of elite parents and the transgene into
a single line.

The offspring are repeatedly crossed back to

the elite line to obtain a high yielding
transgenic line.

The result will be a plant with a yield

potential close to current hybrids that
expresses the trait encoded by the new
transgene.

Spider Silk

Spider Silk - is 5 times stronger than a thread

of steel of the same thickness 3 times
stronger than Kevlar (carbon fibre)

Spiders are carnivores and cannot be raised

The gene for spider silk protein was isolated

from the golden orb weaver (Nephila
BENEFITS OF GMOs
clavipes)
Featherless chickens (bare-skinned We want there to be a genetic link to
“prototype”) behavior because it would be an easy
explanation for things like homosexuality,
- Feathers are a waste. criminality, and addiction.
- The chickens are using feed to produce
something that has to be dumped and the 1. Criminality
farmers have to waste electricity to 2. Addiction
overcome the fact,” he said. 3. Alcoholism
- Plucking also requires the use of large 4. Obesity
amounts of water, he says. 5. Aggression
6. IQ
7. Alcoholism (men)-
8. Autism
9. Bipolar Disorder
10. Schizophrenia
11. Divorce/Marital Success
12. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Molecular Genetics
- Studies the structure and function of genes
at the molecular level.
Risks of Genetically Modified Organisms - Studies how the genes are transferred from
generation to generation.
1. Allergenicity - Human Genome Project - mapping the
2. Gene Transfer entire genome.
3. Loss of biodiversity
4. Reduced effectiveness of pesticides as The important aspects of gene expression
insects become resistant to engineered
toxins. Complex Behavior is either:

BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Oligogenic - few genes are involved in

behavior
Behavioral Genetics - is the study of genetic
and environmental influences on behaviors Polygenic - meaning there are many genes
involved in behavior.
Almost all behaviors studied by psychologists
are affected by our genetic makeup, and so Gene Expression
the question is not whether genes are We do not inherit genes. We inherit DNA
important, strands that come on chromosomes.

but how do they affect these behaviors? Chromosome contain many genes.

We know, from thousands of studies using Genes are portions of DNA sequences that
many different methodologies, that both code for protein synthesis; this is how we get
genes and environment are important to behavior.
understand if we hope to untangle the
mysteries of virtually any behavior. An allele is a variation of a gene and can be
either long or short.

Why do we care?
Genes do not affect behavior unless they become templates or master patterns for proteins.
This happens through either transcription or translation.

Two kinds of cells relevant to psychology are those that make up neurons and endocrine
glands:

Much of our behavior is related to neurotransmitters and hormones.

Research is showing how specific environmental experiences affect the transcription

process.

Additional Information (According to the video links)

Evidence of Evolution

The theory of Biological Evolution makes two very bold claims about living creatures:
1. All living things are related. They evolved from a common ancestor.
2. 2.The evolution of living things is powered by natural processes. Things which can be
studied and understood.

To make sure that the evidence is true, i-fit in sila sa following categories:

Independent Lines of Evidence

1. Comparative Anatomy
2. Embryology & Development
3. Fossil Record
4. DNA Comparisons
5. Species Distribution
6. Evolution Observed
7. Predictive Power of Evolution
8. Nested Hierarchies of Traits

Cetaceans - this branch includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. Biologist claim that all
these creatures are closely related, and that the entire group evolved from an ancient 4
legged land mammal. Whales don't have noses like other mammals but they breathe
through their blowholes. Some whales have two blowholes that look like nostrils but
dolphins and porpoises have one.

Embryology - is the study of how creatures develop before being born or hatching from an
egg.

The extinct basilosaurid whale are known from multiple well preserved skeletons. They
appear to have lived roughly 34 to 40 million years ago.

The Maiacetus Inuus hip bones seem sturdy enough to walk on land but this animal is
considered to be a whale for many reasons:
1. Their skeletons have all been found among fossils of sea-creatures.
2. Their short legs combined with long flat fingers and toes, suggest they were strong
swimmers with webbed hands and feet.
3. The maiacetus's teeth and unique structure of her middle ear bones and bulbs behind her
jaw match with basilosaurid whales and modern whales
 Maiacetus Inuus appears to be a walking whale. They lived roughly about 47.5 million years
ago.

The fossils of many ancient whale-like mammals have been found, and people continue to
find more. Together, these fossils blur the line between 4 legged land mammals and fully
aquatic whales, solidifying the idea that whales indeed evolved from land creatures like:
Indohyus, Pakicetus, Ambulocetus, Dorudon, and Dolphin.

DNA molecules contain chemical codes which act like recipes for living things. Without ever
looking at bones, embryos, or anatomy, researchers can compare the DNA code of different
living creatures to find out who is most closely related to who.

The closest genetic match of Whale is Hippopotamus.

How Do New Genes Evolve

A gene is a long stretch of DNA containing information that codes for something. Usually, a
protein or a group of protein.

Point mutations can edit small bits of information within a gene. Modifying the type of
protein it builds. These small edits are extremely important for evolution but if we compare
the genes of flower and dolphin. Even though, they do have many genes in common,
dolphins also have entirely new genes that flowers do not have. Vice versa.

Scientists have discovered many natural mechanisms for the evolution of new genes.

Known Methods of Gene Production:

1. Gene duplication events
2. Horizontal Gene Transfers
3. Transposable Element Domestications
4. Gene Fusions and Fissions
5. De Novo Originations

One of the most common and well-understood pathway is a duplication event followed by
further mutations.

A duplication event is a special type of mutation where a stretch of genetic code is

duplicated and reinserted into a creature's DNA. Duplication happen naturally all the time,
they can be small, a few letters or nucleotides long.

Other times entire genes can be duplicated, dramatically increasing the length of a creature
genetic code.

During duplication, and in the generation that follow, further mutations can occur in the new
gene giving rise to entirely new genetic information. Information that codes for new proteins
with new functions.

Scientists have directly-observed duplication events in the lab many times over, because of
this they can now examine the genetic code of any living creatures , look for known
signatures of past duplication events, begin to piece together an understanding of how
specific genes likely evolved.

RNase1 is a protein found all throughout the cells and blood. Experiment have shown that
this protein help our cells fight against viruses by attaching yo and breaking down virus
genes.

It breaks down genes from the cells of the food you've been eating, converting those genes
into nutrients that your body can absorb.

Genes inside the saliva glands of most creatures, humans included, produce special proteins
that are able to start breaking down food on a chemical level, even before it gets to the
stomach.

Clots actually form through a series of chemical reactions that can quickly seal the wound,
even underwater. This ability is possible in part because of a protein called FactorX. It is
found in the blood of many animals including fish, frogs, snakes, birds, and even people.

FactorX normally exists in a dormant or sleeping stare, drifting about the bloodstream with
no effect. When a blood vessel is cut, however, chemicals in the damaged tissue activate
factorX at the scene of the injury. It initiates a series of chemical reactions, causing a clot to
form in seal the wound.

New genes evolve because of gene duplication and then accumulate new mutations.

The Gene Basis of Evolutionary Change

Darwin's last publications on April 6, 1882 called On the Dispersal of Freshwater Bivalves in
a prestigious journal called Nature.

On the Dispersal of Freshwater Bivalves talks about the finding of a freshwater beetle
clamped to its leg was a freshwater clam or a cockle. It resolved this great debate about why
freshwater cockles were similar among disjunct lakes in the British midlands.

Darwin was sent this beetle with a cockle clamped to its leg by a shoemaker who was
working in the British midlands, who was an amateur naturalist named Walter Drawbridge
Crick.

Crick's grandson was the one with his colleague, Jim Watson that made the second great
discovery which is the 3-dimensional structure of DNA.

Fitness-related traits means traits that improve the probability of survival or reproduction of
organisms in natural populations.

J.B.S Haldane, one of the founders of population genetics, argued that adaptive mutations
tend to be dominant because when they first appear, they are visible to selection and then
can quickly spread through the population.

Compared to a recessive mutation, which would have to build up enough number in a

population to be contrained in same individual, and that recessive trait then expresses.
To start to answer the question "what can the genes tell us about the evolutionary process?"
by making the connection between genotype and phenotype.

The most abundant mammal in North America is deer mice or mice in the genus
peromyscus.

From Darwin to DNA:

"...that perfection of structure and coadaptation which most justly excites our admiration."