Submitted for

Partial Fulfilment of Course of

Introduction to Psychology
BSMSNEU-S1-P2

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Riya Singh Rajawat Lepakshi Kaul
M.Sc. Neuropsychology Teaching and Research Assistant
I Semester School of Behavioral Sciences,
Batch:2022-24 NFSU, Gandhinagar

School of Behavioral Sciences, National Forensic Sciences University, Police Bhavan Rd, Sector 9,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382007
 Definition of Learning
Learning is defined as "a process that results in change, which happens as a result of experience
and enhances the potential for increased performance and future learning" (Ambrose et al, 2010,
p.3). Knowledge, attitude, or behavior changes in the learner could occur. Learners develop new
perspectives as a result of their learning, whether it be on concepts, ideas, or the wider world.
Learning is a generally long-lasting behavior change brought on by experience (Domjan, 2010).

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that precedes a response but doesn't elicit one is paired with
one that does (a horn is associated with a puff of air to the eye, for example). When the new
stimulus also elicits (provokes) reactions, we can claim that learning has taken place.

Classical Conditioning:
 Pavlov and the salivating dogs:

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, experienced an event in his lab at the start of the 20th
century that earned him the Nobel Prize: his subjects drooled at him. In reality, Pavlov was
researching digestion. He applied a tidbit or meat powder on a dog's tongue and observed how
much saliva flowed as a result to observe salivation. Pavlov saw that his dogs were salivating
before the food even reached their mouths after performing this process numerous times. When
Pavlov entered the room later, the dogs even started salivating (Schultz & Schultz, 2012).
Salivation, according to Pavlov, is a spontaneous, inherited reflex. It shouldn't significantly alter
from day to day.

When he gave his canines food to eat, they were meant to salivate, but when they just saw him,
they weren't supposed to. Due to experience, this behavior changed. As soon as Pavlov became
aware that some sort of learning had taken place, he started researching "conditioning," as he
called it. This type of learning is now referred to as classical conditioning due to its historical
significance (also known as Pavlovian conditioning or responder conditioning) (Mackintosh,
2003) Pavlov’s Experiment

 How did Pavlov study conditioning?

He started by ringing a bell. The bell initially served as a neutral stimulus (the dogs did not
respond to it by salivating). The dogs' tongues were then immediately coated in meat powder,
which prompted reflexive salivation. Bell, meat powder, salivation were the next three steps,
which were repeated several times. As conditioning progressed, the dogs eventually started to
salivate when they heard the bell. By association, the bell, which had no effect before, started to
elicit the same reaction as food. The bell was occasionally rung alone to demonstrate this. The
dogs then started salivating despite not having any food in their mouths.

 Elements of classical conditioning

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The unconditioned stimulus is the first, naturally occurring
stimulus (UCS). Unconditioned simply means "unlearned." This stimulus typically triggers
an involuntary response. The unconditioned stimulus is food in the instance of Pavlov's dogs.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR): For a similar reason, the unconditioned response (UCR) is
the term used to describe the automatic and involuntary reaction to the unconditioned
stimulus. It is innate and arises as a result of the nervous system's genetic "wiring." For
instance, in Pavlov's experiment, the UCR for salivation to food (unconditioned response).
 Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulation that has no corresponding reaction. Bell, for example,
in Pavlov's experiment.
 Conditioned stimulus (CS): A stimulus is said to be conditioned (CS) when it starts to elicit
the same kind of automatic response after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned
stimulus. We can now refer to the formerly neutral stimulus as a conditioned stimulus. An
illustration would be the pairing of bell and food.
 Conditioned response (CR): A learnt reaction induced by a conditioned stimulus is known
as a conditioned response (CR).
 Acquisition: A conditioned response needs to be reinforced (made stronger) during
acquisition or training. When the CS is followed by, or paired with, an unconditioned
stimulus, classical conditioning is strengthened. Because the US induces a response that
becomes linked to the CS, this process is known as respondent reinforcement. The ideal time
between CS and US for the majority of reflexes ranges from 0.2 seconds to roughly 5
seconds (Chance, 2009)
 Stimulus Generalization: Stimulus generalization is the propensity to react to stimuli
that are comparable to the initial conditioned stimulus. In fact, Pavlov discovered that his
dogs would exhibit a similar conditioned reaction to similar noises. The strength of the
response to comparable sounds was not as powerful as it was to the original sound, but that
the stronger the response was the more similar the other sound was to the original (Siegel,
1969)
 Stimulus Discrimination: Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns to
respond to different stimuli in different ways. Here in this case, Pavlov did not give the dogs
any food following the comparable ticking sound. Only after the proper CS, they were given
food.
 Extinction: After the actual CS, Pavlov stopped feeding the dogs, and the pooches
progressively ceased salivating in response to the ticking. The salivation (CR or conditioned
reaction) "died out" in a process known as extinction when the metronome's ticking (CS or
conditioned stimulus) was repeatedly delivered in the absence of the UCS (unconditioned
stimulus or food, in this case).
 Spontaneous recovery: When the original CS returns, the conditioned response may
temporarily recur in spontaneous recovery, however the response is often faint and fleeting.
 Higher-Order Conditioning: When a potent conditioned stimulus is coupled with a
neutral stimulus, higher-order conditioning takes place. The initially neutral stimulus is
transformed into a second conditioned stimulus by the powerful CS, which can operate as a
UCS.
For instance, if Pavlov snapped his fingers shortly before activating the metronome? Snap-
ticking-salivation, or "NS-CS-CR" (neutral stimulus/conditioned stimulus/conditioned
response), would now be the proper order. If this occurs frequently enough, the finger snap
will eventually cause salivation as well.
 Applications of Classical Conditioning
o Drug cravings
o Food cravings
o Immune responses
 Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, organisms link their own behaviors to the results. When actions are
rewarded, they are commonly increased; when they are punished, they are frequently decreased.

 Skinner’s Experiments

B. F. Skinner, a college English major and aspiring author (1904–1990), enrolled as a graduate
psychology student in search of a new purpose. The law of effect, coined by psychologist
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1959), was expanded upon in Skinner's work: behaviors that are
reinforced are more likely to be repeated (Chance, 2009). The outcome of a reaction affects its
likelihood (Benjafield, 2010).

 Skinner box

A Skinner box, also known as an operant chamber, was created by Skinner. The box features a
bar (a lever) or a key (a disc) that an animal can press or peck to unlock a reward of food or
water. It also has a mechanism for recording these answers.

Reinforcement in skinner box was food and water that satisfies thirsty and hungry rats. It could
be recognition, admiration, or money for certain people. Others might find relief from their
distress or joy via drugs (Bechara et al., 2019).

 Information and Contingency

We learn to anticipate that a particular response will have a particular consequence at a particular
time through operant conditioning. Additionally, operant reinforcement functions best when it is
response-based i.e. contingent. In other words, it can only be delivered once the desired outcome
has been achieved.

Illustration: When a child says "Please," he gets the object he asked for and is rewarded for good
behavior. The child soon learned to say "Please" nearly every time he wanted something.
(Matson et al., 1990).

 Positive Reinforcement: Any event that follows a response and raises the likelihood
that it will happen again.
 Negative reinforcement:

It is the process of increasing the likelihood that a response will be repeated once it is followed

by the removal or escape from something unpleasant.

 The Timing of Reinforcement

o Continuous Reinforcement: An incentive is given for each and every successful reaction.
o Partial Reinforcements: In which actions are occasionally reinforced and occasionally
not. Though learning takes longer to manifest, it is more resistant to extinction than
continuous reinforcement (Domjan, 2010; Svartdal, 2003).
o Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement with fixed
intervals, where a reinforcer is given after a predetermined amount of time has passed. E.g.:
get paid once every month
o Variable Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: A variable interval schedule of
reinforcement, where the interval of time after which the individual must respond in order
to receive a reinforcer. For instance, pop quiz.
o Fixed Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement: The number of responses required to receive
each reinforcer will always be the same number. Like, café offers
us a free drink for every 5 items we buy.
o Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement:
The quantity of responses varies from trial to trial. In the rat experiment, the rat may only
need to push the lever 10 times before receiving a reinforcer but it might push the bar
around 20 times to obtain reinforcement.
 Shaping: Shaping is the process of gradually reshaping reactions to fit a desired pattern.
Researchers and animal trainers can gradually mold complicated habits by assigning rewards
to desired activities.
 Punishment: By eliminating or reducing something bad, negative reinforcement increases
a reaction. Any result that lessens the frequency of an earlier behavior is a punisher, or a
punishment. Punishments that are swift and certain can effectively stop undesirable behavior.
 Primary Reinforcer: A primary reinforcer is a reinforcer that satisfies a fundamental
need, like hunger, such as a candy bar.
 Secondary Reinforcer: A secondary reinforcer like money acquires its reinforcing
qualities from having previously been linked to primary reinforcers.
References
 Ambrose, S.A. et.al. (2010). How Learning Works Seven Research-Based Principles for
Smart Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 Bechara, A., Berridge, K. C., Bickel, W. K., Morón, J. A., Williams, S. B., & Stein, J. S.
(2019). A neurobehavioral approach to addiction: Implications for the opioid epidemic
and the psychology of addiction. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 20, 96–
127.
 Benjafield, J. G. (2010). A history of psychology (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University
Press.
 Chance, P. (2009). Learning and behavior (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage
Learning/Wadsworth.
 Domjan, M. (2010). The principles of learning and behavior (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Cengage Learning/ Wadswort
 Mackintosh, N. J. (2003). Pavlov and associationism. Spanish Journal of Psychology,
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 Matson, J. L., Sevin, J. A., Fridley D., et al. (1990). Increasing spontaneous language in
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 Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2012). A history of modern psychology (10th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning/ Wadsworth
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 Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 Svartdal, F. (2003). Extinction after partial reinforcement: Predicted vs. judged
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