CONCRETE

CVE 09- CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & TESTING

 Table of contents
02 Properties of
01 Other Types Fresh Concrete 03 Early Age
of Cement Properties of
Concrete
04 Strength and
Failure of 05 Special
Concrete Concrete
01
Other Types
of Cement
1. Calcium Aluminate Cement
(High alumina Cement) (HAC)
• Calcium aluminate cement (CAC), also known as
high-alumina cement (HAC), distinguishes itself
from Portland cement due to its base material,
calcium aluminate, rather than calcium silicate.
Developed in France in the early 20th century,
CAC was designed to combat sulfate attack issues
seen in Portland cement concrete.
• CAC is a specialized cement with a significantly
higher alumina content (around 40%), making it
particularly effective in resisting the corrosive
effects of sea water. This quality makes it the
preferred choice for concrete structures in coastal
regions.
 Properties:
a. It is greatly resistant to corrosive action of acids and salts
of sea water.
b. The ratio of alumina to lime is kept between 0.85 and
1.30.
c. Although it has a higher initial setting time (more 3.5
hours), its final setting time is much lower only; 5 hours.
These setting characteristics give ample time for working
with high alumina cement.
 Properties:
d. The shorter final setting time is accompanied with a raped gain in
both tensile and compressive strength. Thus, it gains a compressive
strength of 400kg.cm2 within 24 hours and 500kg/cm2 after 72
hours.
e. It evolves great heat during setting. As such it is not suitable for use in
a massive construction. At the same time, this property (of evolution of
great heat) gives an advantage to high alumina cement for use in
frost forming area.
f. This cement reacts quickly with free lime or even with ordinary
Portland Cement. It must not therefore, come in contact with them.
 USE
Because of the manufacturing process and raw material
(bauxite), the high alumina cement is more costly than
ordinary Portland cement. It is, therefore used only in
situations, where resistance against corrosive situations
and sea water is required. It is, therefore, commonly
used for good quality construction work near and along
seashore.
 MANUFACTURE
High alumina cement is manufactured by calcinating a
well-proportioned mixture of limestone and bauxite
(AL2O3.nH2O). No other raw material is added; not
even gypsum is mixed to the clinker during grinding.
The total alumina content is generally above 32 %.
 2. Rapid Hardening
Cement (RHC)
• It is also known as Early Strength
Cement. It is manufactured with such
adjustment in the proportions of raw
materials so that the cement produced
attains maximum strength within 24 – 72
hours.
 Properties:
a. It contain relatively more tricalcium silicate. This is done by adding greater
proportion of limestone in the raw materials compared to that required for
ordinary cement.
b. It is more fine grained (air permeability surface area = 3250 aq. Cm/gm)
than the ordinary cement. This factor helps quicker and complete hydration
of cement particles during setting and helps in gaining early strength. The
extra fineness, however, may be often the cause of development of cracks,
which have to be taken care of.
The setting time for rapid hardening cements, are, however the same
as for ordinary cement. Moreover, the ultimate strength values may
also be almost similar to the ordinary cement.
 USE
The key difference between rapid hardening cement and
ordinary cement is the setting time and early strength
development. RHC is prized for its rapid setting and high
early strength, while OPC is a standard construction
material with a slower setting time. The choice between
the two depends on the specific requirements of a
project and the timeframe for achieving desired strength
levels.
3. Low Heat Cement
(LHC)
Low heat cement, a variety of Portland
cement, is characterized by its minimal heat
of hydration release during the setting and
hardening phases. It finds widespread
application in the construction of substantial
concrete structures like dams and pillars.
 Properties:
a. The proportion of dicalcium silicate (C2S) is increase to almost
double than in ordinary Portland cement.
b. The proportion to tetra alumino ferrite (C4ALFe) is also increase to
one and one half time than in ordinary Portland cement. This is
because above to are least heat-liberating compounds in the
cement.
c. The proportion of tricalcium silicate (C3S) and tri-calcium
aluminates (C3 AL) are reduced by about 50% than in Ordinary
cement. This is because both these compounds are known to
liberate very high amounts of heat during hydration.
 Most important qualities of low-heat cement:

a. Fineness. The residue in the Sieve Test shall not exceed

10%.
b. Setting time. The initial setting time shall not be less than
60 minutes (1 hour). The final setting time shall not be
more than ten hours.
c. Strength. It should develop compressive strength not less
than 70kg/cm2 in 3 days; 115kg/cm2 in 7 days; and
265 kg/cm2 in 28 days.
 USE
The low-heat cement is the ideal cement for such mass
construction works as concrete DAMS. If Ordinary
Portland Cement in used is such structures, cracks will
develop in the cement concrete work due to great
amount of heat liberated during setting and hardening.
A dam having cracks in its body would be a defective
and often dangerous structure.
4. Quick Setting
Cement (QSC)
This is quite different than rapid
hardening cement. It is
characterized with a quality to set
into stone like mass within a period
of less than 30 minutes.
 This property of setting as quickly as possible
is achieved by following controls in the
manufacture process:

a. The quality of retarding agents like gypsum is reduced to

bare minimum.
b. The quantity of alumina-rich compounds is increased.
c. The clinker is ground to extreme fineness, much greater
than in ordinary Portland cement.
 USE
Quick setting cement is used only in
very specific situations such as while
constructing piers and other structures
in running or standing water.
5. Portland (Blast
Furnace) Slag
Cement
It is modified type of Portland cement which
contains besides Portland cement, 25 – 65 % by
weight of blast furnace slag. The slag, as we
know, is a water product from the blast furnace
used in the manufacture of iron. The slag is first
converted to granulated form and is then
ground with clinker. A small percentage of
gypsum is also added for controlling the setting
time of the slag cement.
 Properties:
a. The cement possesses better workability, cohesiveness and plasticity
than the ordinary Portland cement. These qualities are explained to
be due to lesser specific gravity and greater specific surface area of
the slag cements that result as a consequence of slag component.
b. The slag cement has better resistance to sulphate of alkali metals,
alumina and iron. As such, it is better suited for use in marine structures
as in docks, harbors and jetties,. It is also an ideal type of cement for
use in road construction in marshly and alkaline soils.
 Properties:
c. It has low heat of hydration. This property makes it useful
for mass concrete work.
d. It is economical compared with ordinary Portland cement
because slag use in its manufacture is essentially a waste
product.
6. Pozzolana
Cement
It is the type of cement in which Portland
Cement clinker has been mixed with definite
proportions of Pozzolanic material such as
volcanic ash, fly ash, powdered burnt bricks etc.
the pozzolanic materials do not have any
cementing qualities when used alone, but when
mixed with Portland Cement, they react with
cement components and form compounds having
cementing properties.
 The pozzolana cement has many properties similar
to Ordinary Portland Cement; it offers the following
additional advantages:
a. It produces less heat of hydration (and is therefore
suitable for mass concrete work)
b. It offers great resistance to sulphate and corrosive action
of sea water. These qualities make such a cement more
useful for construction near or along the coast and also in
sulphate soils. It is also suitable for use in sewage works
and for under-water construction.
 7. COLORED CEMENT
▪ Any desired color can be imparted to the Portland cement by mixing
with it a definite proportion of a mineral pigment.
▪ The amount of pigment used depends upon the shade of the desired
color.
▪ Less than 10% by weight, most commonly between 2-5%.
Pigments used to obtain colored cements
are:

a) Chromium oxide - green color;

b) Cobalt - blue color;
c) Iron oxide - various shades of red, brown
and yellow;
d) Manganese dioxide - black and deep
brown colors.
 8. WHITE CEMENT
▪ It may also define as a special type of
Portland cement which on use gives a
milky or snow-white appearance.
▪ White cement is manufactured from pure
limestone (chalk) and clay that are totally
free form oxides of iron, manganese and
chromium.
▪ White cements are the most favored
material for use in making highway curbs
and for variety of ornamented work.
▪ They are also used widely for making cast
stones of appealing appearance.
 9. Hydrophobic cement
•It is type a of cement containing admixtures which reduce the affinity of
cement grains for water.
•Such cements are especially useful for application in cold, frost-forming
conditions.
•Admixtures of naphtha, a soap and acidol are generally added to achieve
this property.
 10. Super Sulphate Cement
1. This variety of cement is manufactured
by adding quantities of calcium sulphate
and blast-furnace slag to the ordinary
Portland cement.
2. The resulting cement is especially useful
for mass-concrete work especially in
sulphate-rich environments and marine
conditions.
3. Comparatively economical
 11. Low Alkali Cement
▪ In circumstances where aggregates
available for making concrete are
suspected to contain reactive, silica,
use for low-alkali cements is
recommended.

▪ Such cements are especially made

Portland cements in which alkali
contend is kept below a specified
minimum by exercising a very strict
control over the composition of the raw
materials used.
02
Properties of
Fresh Concrete
 Fresh Concrete
referred to as fresh when the setting and
hardening process has not yet started
• Civil Engineer encompass the production,
transportation, placement, compaction, and
curing of fresh concrete.
• Correct mixing and placement are just the
start; early concrete treatment matters for
long-term performance.
A. General Behavior
Fresh concrete has essential properties that influence its workability and long-term
performance:
• FLUIDITY:
capability of being handled and of flowing into formwork and around any
reinforcement, with assistance of compacting equipment.
• COMPACTABILITY:
air entrapped during mixing and handling should be easily removed by
compaction equipment, such as vibrators.
• STABILITY OR COHESIVENESS:
fresh concrete should remain homogenous and uniform. No segregation of cement
paste from aggregates (especially coarse ones)

Traditionally, workability has been used to describe fluidity and compactability, but modern
standards now favor the term "consistence," though both terms are often used interchangeably.
• One challenge in the industry is the use of
subjective terms like 'harsh,' 'cohesive,'
'lean,' 'stiff,' or 'rich' to describe
concrete properties.
• The subjectivity of these terms makes it
difficult to quantify concrete behavior
and reach a consensus on what constitutes
'good' or 'bad' concrete.
• Workability and consistence aim to
define the ease with which freshly mixed
concrete or mortar can be mixed, placed,
consolidated, and finished
Composition
of Concrete
• In most concrete mixes, 65-
80% of the volume consists of
fine and coarse aggregates.
• The remaining volume
comprises cement paste, in
which about 30-50% is
cement, with the rest being
water.
B. Measurement of Consistence
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES
• Rheometers and viscometers measure concrete flow behavior
 Bingham Model
• Fresh paste, mortar, and concrete
behavior closely align with the Bingham
model, which explains how flow begins
when the applied shear stress surpasses
a yield stress (τy).
• The slope of the shear rate vs. shear
stress curve defines the plastic viscosity
(μ), requiring both τy and μ to define
concrete behavior.
 Single-Point Tests
Single-point tests have been devised to measure consistence or workability
and are typically used in practice.

A. Slump Cone Test

“Slump" is defined as the downward movement
of the concrete.
• The slump test involves placing concrete in the
frustum of a steel cone and compacting it in three
layers.
• The cone is then lifted off.
TRUE SLUMP- concrete retains the overall shape of the cone and does not collapse
SHEAR SLUMP- occurs when the top layer slides off while the lower part remains
relatively undisturbed
COLLAPSED SLUMP- happens when the concrete loses shape, often due to
excessive water content
B. Degree of Compactability Test
In this test, a rectangular steel container is filled with concrete by allowing it to
drop from a trowel under its own weight from the top of the container. The
concrete is then compacted, typically by vibration, and the final height is
measured.
Degree of Compactability = h/(h-s)
C. Vebe Test

the response of the concrete

to vibration is determined
• VEBE TIME - defined as
the time taken to
completely remold a
sample of concrete after
a slump test carried out in
a cylindrical container
D. Flow Table Test
The flow table test is designed to differentiate between high-
consistence concrete mixes
C. FACTORS AFFECTING CONSISTENCY
The consistency of concrete, or how thick or fluid it is, depends on two main
properties: yield stress and plastic viscosity. Lower values of yield stress and
plastic viscosity indicate a more fluid mix.

YIELD STRESS

PLASTIC VISCOSITY
 Several factors affecting yield stress and
plastic viscosity:
1. Increasing the water content while 2. Adding a plasticizer or superplasticizer
keeping other proportions the same decreases yield stress but leaves plastic
makes yield stress and plastic viscosity relatively constant.
viscosity decrease in a similar way, Superplasticizers are especially effective
and vice versa. and can even make plastic viscosity increase.
 4. Replacing some of the cement with fly ash or
3. Increasing the paste content will normally
ggbs will generally decrease yield stress,
increase plastic viscosity and decrease yield
but may either increase or decrease plastic
stress and vice versa
viscosity, depending on the nature of the
addition and its interaction with the cement
5. Air-entraining agents create small air
bubbles in the concrete, which help reduce
plastic viscosity while keeping yield stress
relatively constant.

Importantly, yield stress and plastic viscosity are

independent properties. While many methods use
the amount of water to predict concrete's consistency
(like the slump test), other factors like cement content
and aggregate grading also affect the mix's
cohesiveness and stability. Additives like plasticizers
and superplasticizers are often measured based on
their impact on slump, making it easier to work with
the concrete.
D. LOSS OF CONSISTENCY
Although concrete remains sufficiently workable for handling and placing for some time after it has
been mixed, its consistence continually decreases. This is due to:

1. Aggregate Water Absorption- mix

water being absorbed by the 2. Evaporation of the mix water
aggregate if this is not in a
saturated state before mixing
3. Early Hydration Reactions (but this 4. Interactions between Admixtures
should not be confused with (particularly plasticisers and
cement setting) superplasticisers) and the other
component of the mix.
 To maintain the right consistency of concrete, we
need to consider a few things:
1. AGGREGATES: Make sure that the rocks and sand use are saturated before
mixing.
2. EVAPORATION: Keep the concrete covered during transport and handling,
especially in hot weather.
3. TEMPERATURE MATTERS: Keep the concrete moving, for example, by
stirring it in a truck and use some additives, like retarders
4. COOLING TECHNIQUES: Adding ice to the water used in the mix is a
common trick and using special trucks that keep the concrete cool.
5. RE-TEMPERING: If the concrete becomes too thick, add a bit more water to
get the right consistency back.
03
Early Age
Properties of
Concrete
A. BEHAVIOR AFTER PLACING
The constituent materials of the concrete are of differing relative particle density (cement
3.15, normal aggregates approx. 2.6 etc.) and therefore while the concrete is in its semi-fluid,
plastic state the aggregate and cement particles tend to settle and the mix water has a
tendency to migrate upwards.

FOUR INTERRELATED PHENOMENA:

• Bleeding
• Segregation
• Plastic Settlement
• Plastic Shrinkage
1. SEGREGATION AND BLEEDING

SEGREGATION involves
the larger aggregate
particles falling towards
the lower parts of the pour,
and BLEEDING is the
process of the upward
migration or upward
displacement of water.
They often occur
simultaneously.
 SEGREGATION BLEEDING

The combined effects of bleed and particle settlement are that after
hardening the concrete in the lower part of a pour of any significant depth is
stronger than that in the upper part, possibly by 10% or more, even with a
cohesive and well produced concrete.
 2. PLASTIC SETTLEMENT

Overall settlement of the concrete

will result in greater movement in
the fresh concrete near the top
surface of a deep pour. If there is
any local restraint to this movement
from, say, horizontal reinforcing
bars, then plastic settlement cracking
can occur, in which vertical cracks
form along the line of the bars,
penetrating from the surface to the
bars.
PLASTIC
SETTLEMENT
3. PLASTIC SHRINKAGE
Bleed water arriving at an
unprotected concrete surface
will be subject to evaporation;
if the rate of evaporation is
greater than the rate of
arrival of water at the
surface, then there will be a
net reduction in water content
of the surface concrete, and
plastic shrinkage, i.e. drying
shrinkage while the concrete
is still plastic, will occur.
 Any tendency to plastic shrinkage cracking will be encouraged by
greater evaporation rates of the surface water, which occurs, for example, with
higher concrete temperature or ambient temperature, or if the concrete is
exposed to wind.
 METHODS OF REDUCING SEGREGATION
AND BLEED AND THEIR EFFECTS

PHENOMENA METHODS TO BE USED

Excessive Bleed • Increasing the sand content
• If a particularly coarse sand has to be
(Lack of fine material below a particle
used, then air can be an effective
size of 300 mm)
substitute for the fine particles.

Higher Bleeds • Preferable to use superplasticisers rather

(higher consistence mixes) than high water contents.
• Use of Microsilica, with its very high
surface area, is also an effective bleed-
control agent.

Plastic Settlement and Plastic • Re-vibrating the surface region,

Shrinkage Cracks particularly in large flat slabs.
 B. CURING
• All concretes, no matter how great or small their
tendency to bleed, must be protected from
moisture loss from as soon after placing as
possible, and for the first few days of hardening.
• This will not only reduce or eliminate plastic
shrinkage cracking, but also ensure that there is an
adequate supply of water for continued hydration
and strength gain.
• This protection is called curing, and is an essential
part of any successful concreting operation,
although often overlooked.
 CURING METHODS:
• Spraying or ponding the surface of the
concrete with water.
• Protecting exposed surfaces from wind
and sun by windbreaks and sunshades.
• Covering surfaces with wet hessian
and/or polythene sheets.
• Applying a curing membrane, usually a
EXTENDED PERIODS OF CURING are
spray applied resin seal, to the exposed
required for mixes that gain strength slowly,
surface; this prevents moisture loss, and such as those containing additions,
weathers away in a few weeks. particularly fly ash and ggbs, and in
conditions of low ambient temperature.
 C. STRENGTH GAIN AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
1. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The rate of hydration reactions between cement and water in
concrete is dependent on temperature. Generally, higher
temperatures increase the rate of these reactions.

STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT: Concrete stored at higher temperatures

tends to develop strength faster. However, at later stages, concrete
cured at lower temperatures (around 5°C) can have higher strengths
compared to concrete stored at higher temperatures (around 20°C).
This difference in strength can be as much as 20%.

C-S-H GEL FORMATION: The strength of concrete is closely related to

the formation of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) gel, a key
component in the hardening of concrete. The gel formed at higher
temperatures is produced more rapidly but is less uniform and
weaker than the gel formed at lower temperatures.
OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE: There also appears to be an optimum
temperature range (between 10 and 15°C) for achieving maximum
long-term strength. However, this optimal range can vary depending
on the type of concrete being used.

The hydration reactions do still proceed at temperatures below

the freezing point of water, 0°C. In fact they only cease completely
at about -10°C. However, the concrete must only be exposed to
such temperatures after a significant amount of the mix water has
been incorporated in the hydration reactions, since the expansion of
free water on freezing will disrupt the immature, weak concrete. A
degree of hydration equivalent to strength of 3.5 MPa is considered
sufficient to give protection against this effect.
2. MATURITY
The concept of maturity in concrete refers to the cumulative effect of time and curing
temperature on the development of concrete strength. The relationship between temperature
and time is expressed in the equation:

Where:
• Maturity is the maturity of concrete
(expressed in °C hours)
• t is the time (in hours or days),
• T is the curing temperature (in °C).
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = ෍ 𝑡(𝑇 + 10)
This concept allows for a standardized way
to compare the strength development of
concrete under different curing conditions.
The datum point for temperature is -10°C.
Figure 19.5 shows the relationship between strength and
maturity for concrete with three water : cement ratios. These
results were obtained with each mix being cured at 4, 13 and
21°C for periods of up to 1 year; the results for each mix fall
on or very near to the single lines shown, thus demonstrating
the usefulness of the maturity approach. If the temperature
history of a concrete is known, then its strength can be
estimated from the strength– age relationship at a standard
curing temperature.

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦)

This equation provides a convenient way to estimate the

strength of concrete based on its maturity. The constants a and
b in the equation will vary for different concrete mixes and
need to be determined experimentally.
A slightly different approach is to express the maturity as being
equivalent to a certain number of days at the standard curing
temperature of control cubes (normally 20°C). On this basis, for example,
a maturity of 1440°C hrs has an equivalent age of 3 days at 20°C.
Equation 19.1 then becomes

𝑨 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝟐𝟎℃ = ෍ 𝒌𝒕

where k is the maturity function. Various forms for this function have been
proposed.
 Equation 19.1: Maturity=∑t(T+10)
Equation 19.3: Equivalent age at
Example: Consider a concrete mix cured at 5°C 20°C=∑kt
for 10 days. Using Equation 19.1, the maturity
can be calculated as follows: Example: Assume a maturity function
k=0.15 for a specific concrete mix. If
Maturity = ∑ (10 × (5 + 10)) = 150 °C days the concrete has been cured at various
temperatures for different time
Equation 19.2: Strength = a + b log10(maturity) periods, the equivalent age at 20°C
can be calculated. For instance, if the
Example: Let's assume for a specific concrete mix, concrete has been cured for 5 days at
the constants a=20MPa and b=5. If the maturity 15°C and 3 days at 25°C:
of the concrete is 200°C days, the strength can be
calculated as follows: Equivalent age at 20°C
= (0.15 × 5) + (0.15 × 3)
Strength = 20 + 5 × log10 (200) =1.2 + 0.45
= 20 + 5 × 2.3010 = 1.65 days at 20°C
= 20 + 11.505 = 31.505MPa
 HEAT OF HYDRATION EFFECTS
ISOTHERMAL CONDITIONS:
• Isothermal conditions refer to a situation where the temperature remains constant
during the hydration process. In other words, the concrete is kept at a uniform
temperature throughout the curing period. Under isothermal conditions, the rate of
heat output from the hydration reactions is relatively steady. There are no rapid
temperature fluctuations because the system is thermally balanced.
ADIABATIC CONDITIONS:
• Adiabatic conditions imply perfect insulation or no heat exchange with the
surroundings. In the context of concrete, it means the concrete is perfectly
insulated, preventing any heat loss to the environment. In adiabatic conditions, the
exothermic (heat-releasing) hydration reactions cause the temperature of the
concrete to rise rapidly. This rapid temperature rise accelerates the hydration
process, leading to faster setting and hardening of the concrete.
The temperature rise in concrete
is less than that in cement paste
as the aggregate acts as a heat
sink and there is less cement to
react. An average rise of 13°C
per 100 kg of cement per m3 of
concrete has been suggested for
typical structural concretes.
When placed in a structure, concrete will
lose heat to its surrounding environment
either directly or through formwork, and it
will therefore not be under truly adiabatic
or isothermal conditions, but in some
intermediate state. This results in some rise
in temperature within the pour followed by
cooling to ambient. Typical temperature–
time profiles for the centre of pours of
varying depths are shown in Fig. 19.7; it
can be seen that the central regions of a
pour with an overall thickness in excess of
about 1.5–2 m will behave adiabatically
for the first few days after casting.
 First, the peak temperature occurs after the concrete has hardened and
gained some strength and so the cool down will result in thermal contraction of the
concrete, which if restrained will result in tensile stresses that may be sufficiently
large to crack the concrete. Restraint can result from the structure surrounding the
concrete, e.g. the soil underneath a foundation, or from the outer regions of the
concrete pour itself, which will have been subject to greater heat losses, and
therefore will not have reached the same peak temperatures, or from
reinforcement within the concrete. The amount of restraint will obviously vary in
different structural situations.

As an example, a typical coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete is

10 × 10-6 per C degree, and therefore a thermal shrinkage strain of 300 × 10-6
would result from a cool down of 30°C. Taking a typical elastic modulus for the
concrete of 30 GPa, and assuming complete restraint with no relaxation of the
stresses due to creep, the resulting tensile stress would be 9 MPa, well in excess of
the tensile strength of the concrete, which would therefore have cracked.
In structural concrete, managing thermal strains and
preventing cracking due to temperature differentials is
crucial. Rigorous analysis of thermal stresses is complex,
but control methods include:

REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM DESIGN: Proper design of the

reinforcement system helps absorb tensile stresses,
reducing the risk of cracking.

LIMITING TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIALS: In large

concrete pours, controlling temperature differences
between sections is essential to avoid cracking.

INSULATION AND LOW HEAT MIXES: Increased

formwork thickness or thermal blankets can help
maintain uniform temperatures. Low heat mixes,
containing additives like fly ash or ground granulated
blast furnace slag (ggbs), minimize heat generation
and reduce the risk of cracking.
USE OF LOW-HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT: Low-heat cement produces less heat during
hydration, lowering the risk of thermal stresses and cracks.

PRE-COOLING TECHNIQUES: Cooling the mix water or aggregates before mixing, or injecting
liquid nitrogen into the mix, reduces the concrete's initial temperature, preventing excessive heat
generation.

Second, much of the concrete will have

hydrated for at least a few days after casting at
temperatures higher than ambient, and the long-term
strength may therefore be reduced, owing to the effects
described above. Typical effects of this on the
development of strength are shown in Fig. 19.9. By
comparing Fig. 19.9a and Fig. 19.9b it can be seen that
fly ash and ggbs mixes do not suffer the same strength
losses as 100% Portland cement mixes. Measurement of
the concrete’s properties after being subjected to such
‘temperature-matched curing’ is therefore extremely
important if a full picture of the in-situ behaviour is to be
achieved.
04
STRENGTH AND
FAILURE OF
CONCRETE
 INTRODUCTION
STRENGTH – must be capable of carrying the imposed
loads.

The relation of strength to elastic modulus, a lowpermeability,

low-porosity concrete is the most durable and, considered the
strength of cement paste also means that it has high
strength.
STRENGTH TEST
 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength can be defined as the capacity of concrete to
withstand loads before failure. Of the many tests applied to the
concrete, the compressive strength test is the most important, as it gives
an idea about the characteristics of the concrete.

The simplest compressive strength test uses a concrete cube, and this is
the standard test in the UK and many other countries.
 Cube Testing Machine
• A compression Testing Machine (CTM) is used to
measure the compressive strength of a material.
The CTM is designed to apply a compressive
load to the sample until it fails.
• The CTM machine is used in construction
industries to test the quality of concrete. The
CTM machine can also be used to test the
compressive strength of other materials such as
bricks, rocks, and metals.
 Disadvantage of testing Cylinders

The top surface is finished by a trowel and is not plane

and smooth enough for testing, and it therefore requires
further preparation
 Tensile Strength
• Direct testing of concrete in uniaxial tension.

2 Indirect Test for Tensile Strength

1. Splitting Test - an indirect way of evaluating the tensile test of
concrete.
In this test, a standard cylindrical specimen is laid horizontally, and
the force is applied on the cylinder radially on the surface which
causes the formation of a vertical crack in the specimen along its
diameter.
2. Flexural Stress - is used to determine the flex or bending
properties of a material.
Since the tensile strength of concrete is much less than the
compressive strength, failure occurs when a flexural tensile crack at
the bottom of the beam, normally within the constant bending
moment zone between the loading points, propagates upwards
through the beam.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS
B. Factors Influencing the Strength of Portland Cement
Concrete
 Transition / Interface Zone
In fresh concrete a watercement (W:C) ratio gradient develops
around the aggregate particles during casting, resulting in a
different microstructure of the surrounding hydrated cement paste.
- The ‘wall effect’, whereby the cement grains cannot pack as
efficiently next to the aggregate surface as they can in the bulk paste
- Mix water separation at the interface due to the relative
movement of the aggregate particles and cement paste during mixing,
leading to a higher local water:cement ratio.
 Age
The degree of hydration increases with age, leading to
the effect of age on strength apparent. The rate of
hydration depends on the cement composition and
fineness and so both of these will affect the rate of
gain of strength.
 Temperature
A higher temperature maintained throughout the life of
a concrete will result in higher shortterm strengths but
lower long-term strengths, a similar effect to that just
described for cement class.
 Humidity

The necessity of a humid environment for adequate

curing is for concrete to achieve its desired strength.
Aggregate Properties, Size,
and Volume Concentration
For normal aggregate it is the
strength of the paste–
aggregate bond or transition
zone that has a dominant
effect on concrete strength.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS
C. Strength of Concrete Containing Additions
 USE
The nature, composition, and behaviour of additions;
particularly the pozzolanic or secondary reactions of
four Type 2 additions – fly ash, ggbs, microsilica and
metakaolin – that lead to the formation of further
calcium silicate hydrates.
 General Effect
Increase in long-term strength compared to the
equivalent strength compared to the equibalent Portland
Cement mix.
The strength of mixes containing additions does take
some time to reach and overtake that of the equivalent
Portland cement mix.
If the slower rate of gain of strength is a problem
during construction, mixes can of course be modified
accordingly, e.g. by using plasticisers to maintain workability
at a reduced water:cement ratio.
 General Effect

It is difficult to do more than generalise on the timescales and

magnitude of the strength characteristics, for two reasons:

1. The vast amount of published information on the properties

of concrete containing additions.
2. Each set of tests will have been designed for a
different purpose and therefore will have a different set of
variable.
 USE
Activity coefficient or cementing efficiency factor (k) -
The cementing efficiency factor k of a pozzolan is
defined as the number of parts of cement in a concrete
mixture that could be replaced by one part of pozzolan
without changing the property being investigated, which
is usually the compressive strength.
k>1 – addition is more active than the cement.
K<1 – addition is less active than cement
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS
D. Cracking and Fracture in Concrete
 Development of
Microcracking

The non-linear stress–strain behaviour of concrete in

compression is largely due to the increasing contribution
of microcracking to the strain with increasing load.
 Four stages of cracking behaviour have been
identified (Glucklich, 1965):
a. Stage 1, up to about 30% maximum stress. The pre-existing transition-zone cracks
remain stable, and the stress–strain curve remains approximately linear.
b. Stage 2, about 30–50% maximum stress. The cracks begin to increase in length, width
and number, causing non-linearity, but are still stable and confined to the transition
zone.
c. Stage 3, about 50–75% maximum stress. The cracks start to spread into the matrix and
become unstable, resulting in further deviation from linearity.
d. Stage 4, above about 75% ultimate stress. Spontaneous and unstable crack growth
becomes increasingly frequent, leading to very high strains. Also at this stage the
excessive cracking results in the lateral strains increasing at a faster rate than the axial
strains, resulting in an overall increase in volume.
 Creep Rupture

• Increases of stress level to the

extent that if a stress
sufficiently close to the short-
term ultimate is maintained
then failure will eventually
occur.
The Fracture Mechanisms Approach

The Griffith theory states that a crack will propagate when

the reduction in potential energy that occurs due to crack
growth is greater than or equal to the increase in surface
energy due to the creation of new free surfaces. This
theory is applicable to elastic materials that fracture in a
brittle fashion.
 The Fracture Mechanisms Approach
1. Failure in compression, and to a lesser extent in tension, is controlled
by the interaction of many cracks, rather than by the propagation of a
single crack.
2. Cracks in cement paste or concrete do not propagate in straight
lines, but follow tortuous paths around cement grains, aggregate
particles etc., which both distort and blunt the cracks.
 The Fracture Mechanisms Approach
3. The measured values of fracture toughness are heavily dependent
on the size of the test specimen, and so could not strictly be considered
as a fundamental material property.
4. Concrete is a composite made up of cement paste, the transition
zone and the aggregate, and each has its own fracture toughness (Kc),
each of which is difficult to measure.
05
SPECIAL
CONCRETES
 SPECIAL CONCRETE:
Some types of concrete that have been developed to extend the
range of its properties. These have been chosen to illustrate the tremendous
versatility of concrete, which has led to its use in an ever-increasing range of
applications and structural situations.
 Types of Special Concrete:
02 High-density
01 Lightweight aggregate 03
Concrete concrete No-fines
concrete

04
Sprayed
Concrete 05 High-strength
concrete
 Types of Special Concrete:
07
Underwater
06 Flowing Concrete 08 Self-
concrete compacting
Concrete
09
Foamed
10 Aerated
concrete concrete
 1. LIGHTWEIGHT
AGGREGATE CONCRETE
● Lightweight aggregates, which contain air voids within the aggregate
particles, produce concretes with lower densities than those made with
normal-density aggregates.
• Has a strength greater than 15 MPa and a density of less than 2000 kg/m3
• The main advantage is in reducing the weight of structures, leading to easier
handling of pre-cast elements and lower loads on foundations, but the
lower thermal conductivity can also be an advantage.
Pumice:
A naturally occurring volcanic
rock of low density, has been
used since Roman times.
1. Sintered
Fly Ash
Formed by heating pelletised ash
from pulverised coal used in
power stations until partial fusion
and hence binding occur.
2. Expanded
Clay or Shale
Formed by heating suitable
sources of clay or shale until gas
is given off and trapped in the
semi-molten mass.
3.Foamed
Slag
formed by directing jets of water, or
steam, on to or through the molten
slag from blast furnaces. Many
different products are available,
particularly in industrialized
countries
The quality and properties of different aggregates vary considerably, and
therefore produce different strength/density relationships within this range.
 2. HIGH-DENSITY
AGGREGATE CONCRETE
High-density aggregates can be used to produce highdensity concrete for a
number of specialised applications, such as:

● Radiation shielding
● Counterweights in Construction Plant
● Ballasting of Submerged Structures
Aggregates that have
been used include:
1. Those from natural sources: barytes (relative particle
density of 4.2)
2. Range of iron ores: magnetite and haematite (with
relative particle densities of 4.9)
3. Manufactured: iron and lead shot (with relative particle
densities of 7.6 and 11.3, respectively.)
Resulting density of concrete:
Ranges from 3500 kg/m3 with barytes up to
8600 kg/m3 with lead shot.
 3. NO-FINES CONCRETE

• No-fines mixes comprise cement, water and coarse aggregate with the
fine aggregate omitted.
• No-fines concrete was traditionally used for insitu internal wall
construction in low-rise housing, providing good insulation when
covered on each face by plasterboard.
PERVIOUS
CONCRETE
Increasingly popular for hard
standing areas such as car parks
 4. SPRAYED CONCRETE

• Also known as gunite or

shotcrete, has been in use for
over 100 years.
• A construction material that is
pneumatically projected or
sprayed onto a surface at a high
velocity.
Applications of Sprayed Concrete:

01 tunnel linings 04 Canal

swimming 05 Watercourse
02
pools Linings

02 Seawalls/ Freestanding
03 Reservoirs
structures
There are two distinct processes, depending on the method of mixing
of the concrete before it emerges from the nozzle:

Dry Mix Process Wet Mix Process

(Dry Shotcrete) (Wet Shotcrete)
01 02
The cement additions The entire mixture
and aggregate are dry is batched and
mixed and then fed pumped to the gun,
under pressure down a where compressed
flexible hose, which can air is fed in to
be many meters long, to project it from the
the spray gun. A fine nozzle.
water spray is then also
fed into the gun before
the mixture is projected
from the nozzle.
 5. HIGH-STRENGTH
CONCRETE
• It is designed to have higher compressive strength, durability, and other
desirable characteristics, making it suitable for specific applications
where standard concrete might not suffice.
• The upper strength level of about 130 MPa is about the limit that can
be achieved with ‘conventional’ concrete materials and practice, but
does not represent a ceiling or a limit if alternative production methods
are considered.
Structures where high-strength
concrete is conventional to use:

1. High-Rise Buildings:
2. Bridges and Infrastructure:
3. Industrial Structures
4. Dams and Hydraulic Structures:
5. Seismic Zones
 FLOWING CONCRETE:
The term ‘FLOWING CONCRETE’ appeared in the 1970s to describe the high-
consistence concretes with little bleeding or segregation that became feasible with the use of the
newly developed superplasticizers. Flowing concrete, also known as self-consolidating concrete
(SCC), is a specialized type of concrete designed for its exceptional flowability and self-
consolidating properties. It exhibits high workability, flowing and spreading easily within
formwork without the need for traditional mechanical consolidation methods like vibration. SCC
is formulated with a carefully balanced mix of materials and superplasticizers to ensure that it
maintains its structural integrity and performance characteristics while remaining highly fluid. This
makes it particularly advantageous for complex or densely reinforced structures, precast
concrete production, and architectural applications where a smooth, void-free finish is desired.
Flowing concrete minimizes the risk of segregation, bleeding, and honeycombing, leading to
improved construction efficiency and enhanced aesthetics. Careful quality control and mix design
are crucial to harness the full potential of SCC in various construction projects.
 EXAMPLE:
PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTION: SCC is frequently used in the
production of precast concrete elements such as architectural panels,
columns, beams, and more. Precast concrete manufacturers benefit
from SCC's ability to flow easily into complex molds, ensuring that
intricate designs and details are properly formed without the need
for extensive vibration or compaction. This results in high-quality,
aesthetically pleasing precast concrete elements with a smooth
surface finish. The reduced labor and equipment requirements for
consolidation contribute to the efficiency of precast concrete
production.
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE:
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC) can
achieve full and uniform compaction without the need for
any help from vibration. This in itself distinguishes it from
other high-consistence concrete, such as flowing concrete,
which needs some compaction, but also, and crucially, it
is able to flow through and around heavily congested
reinforcement while retaining its integrity and
homogeneity.
This combination of properties is typically
achieved with the following key mix proportions: o
coarse aggregate volumes in the range of 28–34% of
the concrete volume (compared to 40–55% in normal
concrete) o water:binder ratios in the range 0.3–0.4 •
binder contents in the range 450–600 kg/m3.
 PROPERTIES
1. HIGH FLUIDITY AND STABILITY: which in rheological terms, means a very low yield stress and a moderate to high
plastic viscosity (but not so high that flow times are excessive).
2. PASSING ABILITY: avoidance of aggregate particles bridging between reinforcing bars and blocking the flow,
achieved by an increase in the volume of paste or mortar, and a consequent reduction in the coarse aggregate
volume.
3. UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION: SCC is designed to distribute aggregates and other components evenly throughout the
mixture. This results in a uniform and well-compacted concrete with minimal risk of voids, honeycombing, or poor
consolidation.
4. REDUCED BLEEDING AND SEGREGATION: SCC is formulated to have minimal bleeding and segregation of its
components, ensuring that the aggregates remain well-distributed within the mixture. This reduces the risk of surface
defects and improves the appearance of the finished product.
5. ENHANCED DURABILITY: The mix design of SCC often incorporates additives, admixtures, and superplasticizers to
achieve the desired flow properties while maintaining the concrete's strength, durability, and other performance
characteristics.
 EXAMPLE
1. HIGH-RISE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: SCC is frequently used
in the construction of high-rise buildings, particularly for core
walls, columns, and sheer walls. In tall structures, the proper
consolidation of concrete can be challenging due to the height
and complexity of reinforcement arrangements.
2. TUNNEL LININGS: Tunnels often have intricate shapes and
reinforcement layouts, making it challenging to achieve proper
consolidation with traditional concrete mixes. SCC's ability to
flow and self-compact ensures that the concrete uniformly lines
the tunnel structure, creating a smooth and durable surface while
also reducing the labor and equipment required for the
installation.
 UNDER WATER CONCRETE:
Underwater concrete, as the name suggests, is a type of concrete specifically designed to be
placed and cured underwater or in submerged conditions. It is used in various construction projects
where structures need to be built or repaired beneath the water's surface.
PROPERTIES:
1. HIGH CONSISTENCE: for flow and reasonable self compacting properties since no compaction by
vibration is possible.
2. SUFFICIENT VISCOSITY: to ensure minimum wash-out of the cement at the concrete–water interface.
3. LOW PERMEABILITY: Underwater concrete is designed to have low permeability, reducing water
infiltration. This helps maintain the concrete's strength and durability in a submerged environment.
4. PROPER WORKABILITY: Underwater concrete must remain workable for a sufficient amount of
time to allow for proper placement and consolidation. The mix is adjusted to ensure it retains the
necessary workability while submerged.
 UNDER WATER CONCRETE:
1. COHESIVE SLURRY: A cohesive slurry is used during
placement to minimize the loss of concrete components and
ensure that the concrete flows properly into the desired
locations. A tremie pipe is often employed for this purpose.
2. TREMIE PLACEMENT: Tremie concrete placement is a
common method for underwater concrete. It involves using a
vertical pipe (the tremie) to pour concrete from the bottom
up, displacing the water and ensuring that the concrete
remains intact as it settles on the submerged surface.
 EXAMPLE
1. MARINE STRUCTURES: It is used in the construction and repair of
underwater structures such as docks, piers, wharfs, and bridges'
underwater foundations.
2. DAMS AND RESERVOIRS: In the construction and maintenance of dams
and reservoirs, underwater concrete is used to create and repair
spillways, outlet structures, and other submerged components.
3. SUBSEA PIPELINES: It is employed in the installation and repair of
pipelines that run on the seafloor for purposes such as transporting oil,
gas, or water.
4. REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE: Underwater concrete is utilized for
repairing and rehabilitating existing underwater structures, preventing
or addressing corrosion, and restoring structural integrity.
FOAMED CONCRETE
FOAMED CONCRETE is a misleading title
as it does not contain coarse aggregate, therefore
strictly speaking it should be termed foamed mortar
or foamed grout. It is produced by adding a
preformed foam to a base mix of water, cement,
sand or fly ash.
The density can be controlled by the base
mix composition and the amount of foam added. Air
contents range upwards from 20% by volume, giving
densities from 1700 down to 300 kg/m3 . Strengths
are relatively low but, as with all concrete, depend
on the density, as shown in Fig. 25.3
 PROPERTIES:
1. LOW DENSITY: Foam concrete is significantly lighter than traditional concrete, with densities typically
ranging from 300 to 1,800 kg/m³. This low density makes it an excellent choice for applications where
weight reduction is essential, such as in precast elements or as a backfill material.
2. GOOD INSULATION: Foam concrete has excellent thermal insulating properties, making it suitable for
insulation purposes in walls, roofs, and floors. It helps maintain indoor temperatures and reduce energy
consumption.
3. SOUND INSULATION: It offers reasonable acoustic insulation due to its low density and the ability to
dampen sound waves. Foam concrete is often used in soundproofing applications, such as in buildings,
theaters, and studios.
4. HIGH FLOWABILITY: Foam concrete exhibits good flowability, allowing it to fill intricate molds, cavities,
and hard-to-reach spaces. This property simplifies construction processes and makes it suitable for a wide
range of applications.
5. LOW PERMEABILITY: Foam concrete typically has low water absorption and low permeability, which can
be advantageous in applications where resistance to moisture penetration is important.
 EXAMPLE
1. INSULATION: Foam concrete is commonly used as an insulating material in
buildings. It can be applied as insulation in walls, floors, and roofs to enhance
thermal performance and reduce energy consumption. In addition, foam
concrete can serve as a thermal barrier in cold storage facilities, ensuring
temperature control and energy efficiency.
2. SOUNDPROOFING: Due to its ability to dampen sound waves, foam concrete
is used for soundproofing applications. It can be installed in walls and ceilings
to reduce the transmission of noise between rooms or to isolate spaces in
sound-sensitive environments, such as recording studios and theaters.
3. FIREPROOFING: Foam concrete is often utilized as a fireproofing material. It
can be applied to structural elements, such as columns, beams, and floors, to
enhance their fire resistance. Foam concrete maintains its structural integrity
and insulation properties at high temperatures, making it effective in fire
protection.
 AERATED CONCRETE:
AERATED CONCRETE which, as is the case with foamed concrete, is strictly a mortar, is a factory
produced product. A Portland cement paste or mortar, often with fly ash as an addition, is mixed with a small
amount of finely divided aluminum powder (typically 0.2% by weight cement), which in the early stages of
hydration reacts with the calcium hydroxide and other alkalis in the cement to produce hydrogen bubbles and
hence expansion while the mortar is still plastic.
PROPERTIES
1. LIGHTWEIGHT: AAC is significantly lighter than traditional concrete, with densities typically ranging from
400 to 1,600 kg/m³. Its low density reduces the overall weight of structures, making it easier and more
cost-effective to transport, handle, and install.
2. THERMAL INSULATION: Aerated concrete has excellent thermal insulating properties. It helps maintain
indoor temperatures, reduces energy consumption for heating and cooling, and provides comfort in all
seasons.
3. SOUND INSULATION: AAC offers good acoustic insulation due to its cellular structure. It helps dampen
sound waves, making it effective for noise reduction in buildings, especially for walls that face busy streets
or adjacent units.
 EXAMPLE
1. RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION: AAC is used in residential construction
for exterior and interior walls. It can be used as load-bearing walls or
as infill in timber or steel frame structures. AAC's lightweight nature
makes it easier to handle, reducing construction time and costs.
2. COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS: AAC is utilized in the construction of
commercial structures such as office buildings, warehouses, and retail
spaces. It can be used for both load-bearing and non-load-bearing
walls, providing thermal insulation, soundproofing, and fire resistance.
3. SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES: AAC is used in the
construction of educational facilities such as schools and colleges. Its
thermal and acoustic insulation properties contribute to a conducive
learning environment.