LECTURE NOTE

On
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
COURSE CODE: CVE 341

LECTURER: IBRAHIM, A.O.

1. CEMENT:
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
It can used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,depending
upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water.

Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts
with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cement is made by replacing some of the cement in a mix with activated aluminium silicates,
pozzolanas, such as fly ash. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that are not very water-soluble and
so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet condition or
underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack (e.g., Portland cement).

1.1 Use of Cement

• Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.
• Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,beams,weathershed, stairs, pillars etc.
•Construction for important engineering structures such as bridge, culverts, dams, tunnels,light house,
clocks, etc.
• Construction of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.
• Making joint for joints, pipes,etc.
• Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, artistically designed wens, flower posts, etc.
• Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.

1.2 Types of Cements

Many types of cements are available in markets with different compositions and for use in different
environmental conditions and specialized applications. A list of some commonly used cement is
described in this note:

1.2.1 Ordinary Portland cement

Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world. This
cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other materials (such as
clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is
liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the
other materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then
ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement'(often referred
to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most common
use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of
aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost
any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement
may be grey or white.

• This type of cement use in construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or ground
water.
• Lime saturation Factor is limited between i.e. 0.66 to 1.02.
• Free lime-cause the Cement to be unsound.
• Percentage of (AL2O3/Fe2O3) is not less than 0.66.
• Insoluble residue not more than 1.5%.
• Percentage of SO3 limited by 2.5% when C3A < 7% and not more than 3% when C3A >7%.
• Loss of ignition -4% (max)
• Percentage of MgO-5% (max.)
• Fineness -not less than 2250 cm/g.2

1.2.2 Rapid hardening Portland cement

• It is firmer than Ordinary Portland Cement
• It contains more C3S are less C2S than the ordinary Portland cement.
• Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of ordinary Portland cement.

1.2.3 Low heat Portland cement

• Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3days 80 cal/gm. While in
low heat cement it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
• It has low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S and less C3S than O.P.Cement.
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard ( B S. 1370 : 1974 ) limit the heat of hydration
of this cement.
1.2.4 Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• Maximum C3A content by 3.5% and minimum fineness by 2500 cm'/g.
• Firmer than ordinary pot land cement.
• Sulphate forms the sulpha-aluminates which have expensive properties and so causes disintegration of
concrete.
1.2.5 Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• For this cement, the silage as obtained from blast furnace is used
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
• Its strength in early days is less and hence it required longer curing period. It proves
to be economical as slag, which is a Waste product, is used in its manufactures.
1.2.6 Pozzolanic cement
• As per Indian standard, the proportions of Pozzolana may be 10 to 25 % by weight. e.2. Burnt clay,
shale, Fly ash.
• This Cement has higher resistance to chemical agencies and to sea water because of absence of lime.
• It evolves less heat and initial strength is less but final strength is 28 days onward equal to ordinary
Portland cement.
• It possesses less resistance to the erosion and weathering action.
• It imparts higher degree of water tightness and it is cheap
1.2.7 White Portland cement
• Grey colour of O.P. cement is due to presence of Iron Oxide.
• It is quick drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values and it also cost lee than
ordinary Cement because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials and the manufacturing
process.
• White Cement are used in Swimming pools, for painting garden furniture, moulding sculptures and
statues etc.

1.2.8 Coloured Portland

• The Cement of desired colour may be obtained by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary Cement.
• The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this percentage exceeds 10percent,
the strength of cements is affected.
• The iron Oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The coloured Cement are
widely used for finishing of floors, window sill slabs, stair treads etc.

1.2.9 Expansive cement

• This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and a stabilising
agent to the ordinary cement.
• The expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures and for repairing the
damaged concrete surfaces.
1.2.10 High alumina cement
• This cement is produced by grilling clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime. It can stand high
temper lures.
• If evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by frost.
1.3 Composition of Cement clinker
The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds formed in the
burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence of water. They are known as
Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue who identified them. These compounds are as follows: Alite
(Tricalcium silicate or C3S), Belite (Dicalcium silicate or C 2S), Celite (Tricalcium alluminate or C 3A) and
Felite (Tetra calcium alumino ferrite or C4AF).

1.3.1 Tricalcium silicate

It is supposed to be the best cementing material and is well burnt cement.I t is about 25-50% (normally
about 40 per cent) of cement. It renders the clinker easier to grind,increases resistance to freezing and
thawing, hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops an early hardness and strength. However,
raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits increases the heat of hydration and solubility of cement
in water. The hydrolysis of C3S is mainly responsible for 7 day strength and hardness. The rate of
hydrolysis of C3S and the character of gel developed are the main causes of the hardness and early
strength of cement paste. The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.
1.3.2 Dicalcium silicate
It constitutes about 25-40% (normally about 32 per cent) of cement. It hydrates and hardens slowly and
takes long time to add to the strength (after a year or more). It imparts resistance to chemical attack.
Rising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early strength, decreases resistance to
freezing and thawing at early ages and decreases heat of hydration.
The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds slowly. At early ages, less than a month, C 2S has little influence on
strength and hardness. While after one year, its contribution to the strength and hardness is
proportionately almost equal to C3S. The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.
1.3.3 Tricalciumalluminate
It is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5 per cent) of cement. It rapidly reacts with water and is responsible
for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The rapidity of action is regulated by the addition of 2-3% of
gypsum at the time of grinding cement. Tricalciumaluminate is responsible for the initial set, high heat of
hydration and has greater tendency to volume changes causing cracking. Raising the C3A content reduces
the setting time, weakens resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength, heat of hydration
and contraction during air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.

1.3.4 Tetracalciumalumino ferrite

It constitutes about 8–14% (normally about 9 per cent) of cement. It is responsible for flash set but
generates less heat. It has poorest cementing value. Raising the C4AF content reduces the strength
slightly. The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.
1.4 Hydration Process

maximum heat evolution occurs typically between about 10 and 20 hours after mixing and then gradually
tails off. In a mix containing OPC only, most of the strength gain has occurred within about a month.
Where OPC has been partly-replaced by other materials, such as fly ash, strength growth may occur more
slowly and continue for several months or even a year. Ferrite reaction also starts quickly as water is
added, but then slows down, probably because a layer of iron hydroxide gel forms, coating the ferrite and
acting as a barrier, preventing further reaction.

1.5 Products of Hydration

During Hydration process several hydrated compounds are formed most important of which
are, Calcium silicate hydrate, calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminium hydrates which is
important for strength gain.
1.5.1 Calcium silicate hydrate:
This is not only the most abundant reaction product, occupying about 50% of the paste volume, but it is
also responsible for most of the engineering properties of cement paste. It is often abbreviated, using
cement chemists' notation, to "C-S-H," the dashes indicating that no strict ratio of SiO2 to CaO is
inferred. C-S-H forms a continuous layer that binds together the original cement particles into a cohesive
whole which results in its strong bonding capacity. The Si/Ca ratio is somewhat variable but typically
approximately 0.45-0.50 in hydrated Portland cement but up to perhaps about 0.6 if slag or fly ash or
microsilica is present, depending on the proportions.
1.5.2 Calcium hydroxide:
The other products of hydration of C3S and C2S are calcium hydroxide. In contrast to the CS-H,
The calcium hydroxide is a compound with distinctive hexagonal prism morphology. It constitutes 20 to
25 per cent of the volume of solids in the hydrated paste. The lack of durability of concrete is on account
of the presence of calcium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide also reacts with sulphates present in soils or
water to form calcium sulphate which further reacts with C3A and cause deterioration of concrete. This is
known as sulphate attack. To reduce the quantity of Ca (OH)2 in concrete and to overcome its bad
effects by converting it into cementitious product is an advancement in concrete technology. The use of
Blending materials such as fly ash, silica fume and such other pozzolanic materials are the steps to
overcome bad effect of Ca(OH)2 in concrete. However, Ca(OH)2 is alkaline in nature due to which it
resists corrosion in steel.
1.5.3 Calcium aluminium hydrates:
These are formed due to hydration of C3A compounds. The hydrated aluminates do
Not contribute anything to the strength of concrete. On the other hand, their presence is harmful to the
durability of concrete particularly where the concrete is likely to be attacked by sulphates. As it hydrates
very fast it may contribute a little to the early strength.
1.6 Various tests on cement:
Basically two types of tests are under taken for assessing the quality of cement. These are either field test
or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details.
Field test:
There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain roughly the quality of cement. There are four
types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of the cement as described below.
Colour
• The colour of cement should be uniform.
• It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.
Physical properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement,it should feel cool.
Presence of lumps
• Cement should be free from lumps.
• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%,this increase of volume may be much as 20 to
40 %, depending upon the grading of sand.
Strength
• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept under water for 24
hours. It should set and not crack.
Laboratory tests:
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are:
fineness, compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.
Fineness
• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.
• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or permeability apparatus test.
• In sieve test ,the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15 minutes through
standard BIS sieve no. 9.The residue is then weighed and this weight should not be more than 10% of
original weight.
• In permeability apparatus test,specific area of cement particles is calculated.This test
is better than sieve test.The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of
particles of average size.

Compressive strength
• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.
• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in moulds.The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds are of
metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes ,the cement required is 185gm and 235 gm respectively.
• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds a replaced in a damp
cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for curing.
• The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and 7 days. Thus
compressive strength was found out.
Consistency
• The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement pastes for
other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
• Mix water and cement thoroughly.
• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
• Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached a movable rod with an indicator attached to it.
• There are three attachments: square needle, plunger and needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod the plunger is gently lowered on the paste in the mould.
• The settlement of plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of
mould, the water added is correct. If not process is repeated with different percentages of water till the
desired penetration is obtained.

Setting time
• This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. The test is
performed to find out initial setting time and final setting time.
• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
• Square needle is attached to moving rod of vicat apparatus.
• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the
Beginning the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at regular intervals till the needle
does not penetrate completely.(up to 5mm from bottom)
• Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat cement.
• The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
• The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on test block and the
collar fails to do so is noted.
• Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to
cement and time as recorded in previous step,and it is =<10hours.

Soundness
• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement.
• The cement paste is prepared.
• The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
• It is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at top and the
whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
• The distance between the points of indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in
water and heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about
30 minutes. The boiling of water is continued for one hour.
• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
• The distance between the points of indicator is again measured.The difference
between the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed
10 mm.
Tensile strength
• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.
• The water is added to the mortar.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. The mould is filled with mortar and then a small heap of
mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on the surface. Same
procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
• The briquettes are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the moulds.
• The briquettes are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and average is found out.

2. CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate, and cement. Often, additives and
reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical properties of the finished
material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is easily molded into
shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest of the ingredients together into a
durable stone-like material with many uses.

The aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to:Transport, place,
compact, finish and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The amount of each
material (ie cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened concrete.

2.1 Production of concrete

A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine aggregates and
water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the cement and water. Each of
the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser aggregate acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills
up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate. The cement in conjunction with water acts as a
binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the
use of admixtures. The stages of concrete production are: Batching or measurement of materials, Mixing,
Transporting, Placing, Compacting, Curing and Finishing.
2.1.1 Batching
It i s the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or by mass and introducing
them into the mixture. Traditionally batching is done by volume but most specifications require that
batching be done by mass rather than volume. The proportions of various ingredients are determined by
proper mix design. These proportions are best measured by weight. Measurement by volume is not as
accurate, but is suitable for minor projects.
2.1.2 Mixing
The mixing operation consists of rotation or stirring, the objective being to coat the surface of all
aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blind all the ingredients of the concrete into a uniform mass;
this uniformity must not be disturbed by the process of discharging from the mixer. The mixing may done
by manually or by mechanical means like, Batch mixer, Tilting drum mixer, Non tilting drum mixer, Pan
type mixer, Dual drum mixer or Continuous mixers.
2.1.3 Compaction
The operation of placing and compaction are interdependent and are carried out simultaneously. They are
most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of strength, impermeability and durability of
hardened concrete in the actual structure. As for as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit
the concrete as close as possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete can be
fully compacted. The aim of good concrete placing can be stated quite simply. There are two methods for
compaction which includes: vibration by vibrators or by tamping using tamping rods.
2.1.4 Curing
Curing is the process of making the concrete surfaces wet for a certain time period after placing the
concrete so as to promote the hardening of cement. This process consists of controlling the temperature
and the movement of moisture from and into the concrete. Curing of concrete is done for the following
purposes. Curing is the process of controlling the rate of moisture loss from concrete to ensure an
uninterrupted hydration of Portland cement after concrete has been placed and finished in its final
position.
Curing also helps maintain an adequate temperature of concrete in its early stages, as this directly affects
the rate of hydration of cement and eventually the strength gain of concrete or mortars. Curing period:
For ordinary Portland cement, the curing period is about 7 days to 14 days. If rapid hardening cement is
used the curing period can be considerably reduced.
2.1.5 Disadvantages of improper curing:
Following are the disadvantages of improper curing of concrete: The chances of ingress of chlorides and
atmospheric chemicals are very high. The compressive and flexural strengths are lowered. The cracks are
developed due to plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and thermal effects. The durability decreases due to
higher permeability. The frost and weathering resistances are decreased. The rate of carbonation
increases. The surfaces are coated with sand and dust and it leads to lower the abrasion resistance. The
disadvantages are more prominent in those parts of surfaces which are directly exposed or which have
large surfaces compared to depth such as roads, canal, bridges,cooling towers, chimneys etc.
2.1.6 Factors affecting evaporation of water from concrete:
The evaporation of water depends upon the following 4 factors: Air temperature, Fresh concrete
temperature, Relative humidity and Wind velocity.
2.1.7 Methods of curing:
While selecting any mode of curing the following two factors are considered:
• The loss of water should be prevented.
• The temperature should be kept minimum for dissipation of heat of hydration.
Methods of curing can be categorised into the following categories:
 Water curing-preventing the moisture loss from the concrete surface by continuously wetting the
exposed surface of concrete.
 Membrane curing-minimizing moisture loss from concrete surface by covering it with an
impermeable membrane.
 Steam curing-keeping the surface moist and raising the temperature of concrete to acceleratethe
rate of strength gain.
Water curing is of the following types:
Ponding
Sprinkling:
Wet coverings
Impermeable membrane curing is of following types:-
Formwork:
Plastic sheeting
Water cement ratio and compressive strength
2.1.8 A cement of average composition requires about 25% of water by mass for chemical reaction.In
addition, an amount of water is needed to fill the gel pores. Nearly 100 years ago, DuffAbrams discovered
the direct relationship between water-to-cement ratio and strength, i.e.,lesser the water used higher the
strength of the concrete,since too much water leaves lotsof poresin the cement past. According to
Abram’s law, the strength of fully compacted concrete at a given age and normal temperature is
inversely proportional to the water – cement ratio. Here the water-cement ratio is the relative weight of
water to the cement in the mixture. For most applications, water-to-cement ratio should be between 0.4
and 0.5 lower for lower permeability and higher strength. In concrete, the trade off, of course,is with
workability, since very low water content result in very stiff mixtures that are difficult toplace. The water-
to-cement ratio is a factor selected by the civil engineer.
2.1.9 Workability
Workability is one of the physical parameters of concrete which affects the strength and durability as well
as the cost of labor and appearance of the finished product. Concrete is said to be workable when it is
easily placed and compacted homogeneously i.e without bleeding or Segregation. Unworkable concrete
needs more work or effort to be compacted in place, also honeycombs &/or pockets may also be visible in
finished concrete.
Definition of Workability “The property of fresh concrete which is indicated by the amount of useful
internal work required to fully compact the concrete without bleeding or segregation in the
finished product.”
Factors affecting workability:
• Water content in the concrete mix
• Amount of cement & its Properties
• Aggregate Grading (Size Distribution)
• Nature of Aggregate Particles (Shape, Surface Texture, Porosity etc.)
• Temperature of the concrete mix
• Humidity of the environment
• Mode of compaction
• Method of placement of concrete
• Method of transmission of concrete
How to improve the workability of concrete
• Increase water/cement ratio
• Increase size of aggregate
• Use well-rounded and smooth aggregate instead of irregular shape
• Increase the mixing time
• Increase the mixing temperature
• Use non-porous and saturated aggregate
• With addition of air-entraining mixtures
2.1.10 Workability tests:
There are 4 types of tests for workability. They are slump test, compacting factor test, flow
test, and vee bee test.
Slump test
The slump test result is a slump of the behavior of a compacted inverted cone of concrete
under the action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete. Metal
mould, in the shape of the frustum of a cone, open at both ends, and provided with the handle.
Flow Table Test:
The flow table test or flow test is a method to determine the consistence of fresh concrete.
Vee-Bee Test:
This test is useful for concrete having low and very low workability. In this test the concrete is moulded
into a cone in a cylinder container and the entire set up is mounted on a vibrating table. When vibrator
starts, concrete placed on the cone starts to occupy the cylindrical container by the way of getting
remoulded. Remoulding is complete when the concrete surface becomes horizontal. The time required for
completion of remoulding since start of vibrator is measured and denoted as vee-bee seconds. This
provides a measure for workability. Lesser is the vee-bee seconds more is the workability.

3. TIMBER
A tree basically consists of three parts namely,trunk,crown and roots.the function of the trunk is to
support the crown and to supply water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves through branches and
from the leaves back to the roots. The roots are meant to implant the trees in the soil ,to absorb moisture
and the mineral substances it contains and to supply them to the trunk.
Details of structure:
From the visibility aspect, the structure of tree can be divided into two categories :-
(1). Macrostructure
(2). Microstructure
Macrostructure:-
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called the
macrostructure. Following are its different components:
(1) Pith:
the innermost central portion of the core of the tree is called the pith or medulla. It varies in size and
shape and for different types of trees. It consist entirely of cellular tissues and it nourishes its plant at its
young age. When the plant becomes old,the pith dies up and decays and the sap is then transmitted by the
woody fibres deposited round the pith. The pith of the branches is nothing but merely a prolongation of
the stem.
(2) Heartwood:
The inner annular rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. It is usually dark in colour .as a
matter of fact, it indicates the dead portion of tree and as such, it does not take active part in the growth of
the tree. But it imparts rigidity to the tree hence it provides strong and durable timber for various
engineering purposes.
(3) Sapwood:
The outer annular rings between heartwood and cambium layer is known as sapwood. It is usually light in
colour in light and weight.It indicates recent growth and it contains sap.The annual rings of sap wood are
less sharply defined than those of heartwood.It takes active part in the growth of the tree and the sap
moves in upward direction through it. The sapwood is also known as the alburnum.
(4) Cambium layer
The thin layer of sap between sapwood and inner bark is known as the cambium layer.It indicates sap
which has not yet been converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed for any reason,the cambium layer
gets exposed and the cells cease to be active resulting in the death of the fibre.
(5) Inner bark:
The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as the inner bark.it gives protection to the
cambium layer from any injury.
(6) Outer bark
The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as the outer bark.it is the outermost protective layer and it
sometimes contain cracks and fissures. it consists of cells and wood fibre and is also known as the cortex.
(7) Medullary rays
The thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer are known as the medullary rays. The
function of these rays is to hold together the annular rings of heartwood and sapwood. These rays are
sometimes broken and in some varieties of trees, they are not very prominent.
Microstructure:
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called the microstructure.
3.1 Defects in timber:
Various defects occurring in timber are grouped into following five categories:
(1)defects due to conversion
(2)defects due to fungi
(3)defect due to insects
(4)defects due to natural forces
(5)defects due to seasoning

Defects due to conversion:

During converting timber to commercial form the following defects may occur:
(i) chip mark
(ii)Diagonal grain
(iii)Torn grain
(iv)Wane
Fungi attack timber only when
(1)The moisture content of timber is above 20%.
(2)If there is a presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.
Due to attack of fungi following defects occur:
(i)Bluestain: the sap of the wood is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain type of fungi.
(ii) Brown rot:the fungi of certain types remove cellulose compound from wood and hence
the wood assumes the brown colour.this is known as the brown rot.
(iii) Dry rot:the fungi of certain types feed on wood and during feeding ,they attack on wood
and convert it into powder form.This is known as dry rot.
This type of defect occur in place where there is dampness and no free circulation of air.The
dry rot may be prevented by using well seasoned timber free from sap.
(iv) Heart rot: this is formed when a branch has come out of a tree.It occurs when heart
woodis exposed to atmospheric agent.
(v) Sap stain:certain types of fungi feed on cell contents of sap wood.In doing so ,the sap
wood loses its colour.this is known as sap stain.It generally occurs when moisture content
goes beyond 25 % or so.
(vi) Wet rot:some varietiesof fungi cause chemical decomposition of wood of timber in
doing so timber is converted into a greyish brown powder.This is known as wet rot.
(iv) White rot:this defect is opposite of brown rot.In this defect the wood assumes the
appearance of a white mass consisting of cellulose compounds.
Defect due to insects:
Defects in timber occur dueto various types of insects.
Such as:
(1) beetles
(2)marine borers
(3)termites
Decay of timber occurs due to the above insects.
Defect due to natural force:
The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber two,namely,abnormal
growth and rupture of tissues.
(i) Burls: these are also known as the excrescences and they are particularly formed when a
tree has received shock or injury in is young age. Due to such injury, the growth of tree is
completely upset and irregular projections appear on the body of timber.
(ii) Callus:it indicates soft tissues or skin which covers the wound of a tree.
(iii) Chemical stain: the wood is sometimes discoloured by the chemical action caused with
it by some external agency.
(iv) Coarse grain: if a tree grows rapidly, the annual rings are widened. Such timber
possesses less strength.
(v) Dead wood: the timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains dead wood.

3.2 Defects due to seasoning:

Following defects occur in the seasoning process of wood.
(i) Bow: the defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length of timber.
(ii) case-hardening: the exposed surface of timber dries very rapidly. It therefore shrinks and
is under compression. The interior surface which has not completely dried under tension.
This defect is known as the case-hardening.
(iii) Check: a check is a crack which separates fibres of wood. It does not extend from one
end to the other.
(iv)Collapse: due to uneven shrinkage, the wood sometime flattens during drying. This is
known as collapse.
(v) Cup: this defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction of timber.
(vi) Honey-combing: due to stresses developed during drying, the various radial and circular
cracks in the interior portion of timber. This defect is known as honey-combing.
(vii) Radial shake: these are radial cracks.

3.3 Preservation:
Preservation of timber means protecting timber from fungi and insects attack so that its life is
increased. Timber is to be seasoned well before application of preservatives. The following
are the widely used preservatives:

1.Tar
2.Paints
3.Chemicalsalt
4.Creosote
5. ASCO

3.4 Physical Properties:

Specific Gravity (SG):

Generally, specific gravity (SG) and the major strength properties of wood are directly related. SG for the
major , usually used structural species ranges from roughly 0.30 to 0.90. Higher allowable design values
are assigned to those pieces having narrower growth rings (more rings per inch) or more dense latewood
per growth ring and, hence, higher SG.
Thermal Properties/Temperature Effects:
Although wood is an excellent heat insulator, its strength and other properties are affected
adversely by exposure for extended periods to temperatures above about 100°F. The
combination of high relative humidity or MC and high temperatures, as in unventilated attic
areas, can have serious effects on roof sheathing materials and structural elements over and
above the potential for attack by decay organisms. Simple remedies and caution usually
prevent any problems.

Environmentally friendly
Timber is the most environmentally responsible building material. Timber has low production
energy requirements and is a net carbon absorber. Timber is a renewable resource.
In plentiful and growing supply
Timber is readily available. Australia has significant forest resources including a plantation
estate covering more than 1.6 million hectares, and the area is growing rapidly.
Strong and lightweight
Timber is strong, light and reliable making timber construction simpler and safer than steel or
concrete construction. A comparison with steel and concrete shows that radiata pine structural timber, for
example, has a strength for weight ratio 20 percent higher than structural steel and four to five times
better than unreinforced concrete in compression.
Seasoning of Timber

The process of drying out the water from "wet" or"green" timber is termed "seasoning", or more simply
"drying". Water is just as essential to the life of a tree as it is for all living matter.

Types of Seasoning

(i) Natural Seasoning: It may be air seasoning or water seasoning. Air seasoning is carried out in
a shed with a platform. On about 300 mm high platform timber balks are stacked as shown in
Fig. 1.8.

ii. Artificial Seasoning: In this method timber is seasoned in a chamber with regulated heat, controlled
humidity and proper air circulation. Seasoning can be completed in 4 to 5 days only.

4. BITUMEN:
Bitumen, also known as asphalt, is a substance produced through the distillation of crude oil that is known
for its waterproofing and adhesive properties. Bitumen production through distillation removes lighter
crude oil components, such as gasoline and diesel, leaving the “heavier” bitumen behind. Bitumen is a
petroleum based material, used for binding stones and sands and producing asphalt for road construction.
In the normal process of an oil refinery, crude oil is heated in an atmospheric distillation column. This
will lead to the separation of various parts of crude oil according to their molecular weight. The heaviest
part of the oil that remains at the bottom of the distillation column is called Vacuum Bottom and forms
the raw material for producing refined bitumen.
The bitumen can be classified into the following grade types:
 Penetration Grade Bitumen
 Oxidized Bitumen Grades
 Cut Back Bitumen
 Bitumen Emulsion
 Polymer Modified Bitumen
Penetration Grade Bitumen
The penetration grade bitumen is refinery bitumen that is manufactured at different viscosities. The
penetration test is carried out to characterize the bitumen, based on the hardness. Thus, it has the name
penetration bitumen. The penetration bitumen grades range from 15 to 450 for road bitumen. But the most
commonly used range is 25 to 200.
Oxidized Bitumen
The refinery bitumen is further treated by the introduction of processed air. This will give us oxidized
bitumen. By maintaining a controlled temperature, the air is introduced under pressure into soft bitumen.
Compounds of higher molecular weight are formed by the reaction of this introduced oxygen and bitumen
components. Thus, the Asphaltenes and the Maltenes content increases resulting in a harder mix.
Cutback Bitumen
These are a grade of bitumen that comes under penetration grade bitumen. This type of bitumen has a
temporarily reduced viscosity by the introduction of a volatile oil. Once after the application, the volatile
material is evaporated and bitumen gains its original viscosity. The penetration grade bitumen is a
thermoplastic material. It shows the different value of viscosity for different temperature. In areas of road
construction, it is necessary for the material to be fluid in nature at the time of laying i.e. during surface
dressing. The time for curing and the viscosity of cutback bitumen can be varied and controlled by the
1. Dilution of volatile oil, and
2. The volatility of the oil added.