INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Definition of Psychology

The word Psychology originates from two Greek

words: Psyche, which means the mind or the soul and logos,
which means study.

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and

mental processes. Behaviour includes all of our outward and
covert actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expression
and movement. Mental processes refer to all the internal,
covert activity of our minds, such as thinking, feeling and
remembering that cannot be seen directly and that must be
inferred from observable measurable responses. As a science,
psychology uses systematic methods to observe, describe,
predict and explain human behaviour and mental processes.
Researchers carefully and precisely plan and conduct their
studies and try to observe the results without influencing them
in any way.

EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Philosophical roots: Mind-body problem

Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), who is known as the father of

modern medicine, had an impact on both philosophy and
physiology (which were still closely connected in his time). He
proposed the then "radical" ideas that disease is not a
punishment sent by the gods and that physical malfunctions
rather than demons caused mental illness. Hippocrates used
what were at the time unorthodox methods - empirical
observations to study medicine. These included dissection
(operating on human cadavers) and vivisection (operating on
living organisms). He was interested in the nature of the mind
and what its source is. He viewed it as an entity that controls
the body. The philosophical belief that the mind (or spirit or
soul) is qualitatively different from the body is known as mind-
body dualism. According to this view the body is composed of
physical substance but the mind is ethereal or intangible - not
composed of physical substance. Hippocrates was the first to
suggest that the mind resides in the brain. Furthermore,
Hippocrates introduced the theory of humorism, suggesting
that mental illness was caused by imbalances in bodily fluids
(blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile). This biological view
laid the foundation for the later scientific study of the mind and
influenced medical approaches to mental health for centuries.

Following Hippocrates, Socrates (469–399 BCE) was an

Ancient Greek philosopher who was one of the first to turn
philosophy toward questions about the nature of the mind. He
spent his days in the marketplace of Athens debating
philosophy with anyone who was willing to talk with him. He’d
mastered the instructional technique of asking questions to
guide students in a self-exploration of their own thoughts, now
known as the Socratic Method.

Socrates' student, Plato (427–347 BC), expanded on these

ideas and developed a more structured dualistic theory. He
argued that the mind (or soul) and body are distinct and
separate, with the mind being the seat of true knowledge. Plato
introduced the concept of the world of forms, a realm of
perfect, eternal ideas that the mind could access through
reason. He believed that sensory experiences were unreliable
and that true knowledge came from rational thought. For Plato,
the body was a temporary vessel, while the mind was eternal,
capable of understanding deeper truths beyond the physical
world.

Aristotle (384–322 BC), a student of Plato, took a different

approach. Unlike his teacher, Aristotle rejected the notion of
dualism and instead supported monism, the idea that the
mind and body are inseparable. He believed that humans
are born with a mind like a tabula rasa (blank slate), and all
knowledge comes through sensory experience and observation.
Aristotle’s ideas laid the groundwork for empiricism, the belief
that knowledge is derived from experience. His systematic
approach to studying the mind through observation marked an
early form of the scientific method, which would later be crucial
to psychology.He argues that knowledge is derived from a
combination of sensory experience and rational inquiry, with
the mind actively organizing and interpreting sensory data to
form universal principles or essences. He posits that knowledge
begins with sense perception, which serves as the foundation
for higher forms of understanding.

Several centuries later, Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) further

developed the idea of monism, arguing that everything,
including thought and mental processes, could be explained in
terms of physical interactions. For Hobbes, the mind was not a
separate, immaterial entity but a result of physical processes in
the brain. This materialistic view laid the foundation for later
developments in neuroscience and behavioral psychology.

René Descartes (1595–1650) revived mind-body dualism in a

more developed form. Descartes argued that the mind and
body were two distinct entities: the mind, a non-material,
spiritual entity, and the body, a material one. He proposed that
the two interacted through the pineal gland, a small structure
in the brain. Descartes also introduced the idea of innate ideas,
suggesting that certain concepts, such as the notion of God and
the self, are inborn and do not depend on experience. His
theory of rationalism that knowledge comes primarily through
reasoning rather than sensory experience stood in contrast to
the empiricism of thinkers like Aristotle.

Descartes' view of interactionism, in this context, refers to

the idea that although the mind and body are separate entities,
they influence each other, with the mind affecting bodily
actions and bodily experiences influencing mental states. In
the Cartesian philosophy, the theorists who propose an
interaction between the mind and body hold that the two,
though separate and distinct substances, casually interact with
each other. They assert that a mental event can be the cause
of a physical event and the physical event as that of a mental
event. It means that there are two types of events, physical
and mental, either of which can cause the other. For example, a
pin-prick causes pain and the pain causes screaming.

Locke(1632–1704) was concerned primarily with cognitive

functioning; that is, the ways in which the mind acquires its
knowledge. In tackling this issue, he rejected the existence of
innate ideas, as proposed by Descartes, and argued that
humans are born without any knowledge whatsoever.

Aristotle had held a similar notion centuries before, that the

mind at birth was a tabula rasa, a blank or clean slate on which
experience would write. To Locke, as for Aristotle earlier, the
answer was that the mind acquired knowledge through
experience. Sensation and reflection. Locke recognized two
kinds of experiences, one deriving from sensation and the other
from reflection. The ideas that derive from sensation—from
direct sensory input from physical objects in the environment—
are simple sense impressions. These sense impressions operate
on the mind, and the mind itself also operates on the
sensations, reflecting on them to form ideas. This mental or
cognitive function of reflection as a source of ideas depends on
sensory experience because the ideas produced by the mind’s
reflection are based on impressions already experienced
through the senses.

Their ideas about the mind-body relationship, whether through

dualism, monism, rationalism, or empiricism, contributed to the
gradual development of psychology as a scientific discipline.
Concepts like interactionism-the notion that mental and
physical processes interact continue to inform modern
psychology, especially in understanding how the mind and
body work together.

Modern perspective of Psychology

Structuralism: • Psychology as a formal science was born in

the year 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) established
the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig University in
Germany. Thus Wundt took the first step to bring objectivity
and measurement to the concept of psychology and thus
making psychology a science. Wundt defined psychology as the
study of consciousness and his method of study was called
introspection. Introspection involved the careful observation
and analysis by specially trained people of their own mental
experience under controlled conditions. Wundt attempted to
analyze the conscious experience in terms of elements such as
sensations, images, and feelings just matter is broken down
into atoms. Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927) became
interested in knowing the structure of the mind. With
structuralism came an active interest in knowing the elements
of consciousness. Wundt’s ideas were popularized in America in
somewhat modified form by one of his students, E.B. Titchener.
Titchener’s brand of psychology became to known as
Structuralism.

Functionalism: William James (1842- 1910), the main

contributor, was concerned on how the mind allows people to
function in the real world. This approach came to be known as
functionalism. This view was strongly influenced by Darwin’s
theory of natural selection (functionalists believed that the
theory could be applied to psychological characteristics) and
the focus of study was functions of mind and behavior (like
learning, memory, problem-solving and motivation). John
Dewey (1859-1952) developed functionalism, focusing on what
the mind and behavior do and how they enable a person to
adapt to new and complex situations.

The psychodynamic perspective: Sigmund Freud (1856-

1939), the Viennese physician specialised in treating problems
of the nervous system, particularly neurotic disorders. Freud’s
patients suffered from nervous disorders for which he and other
doctors could find no physical cause. Therefore, it was thought,
the cause must be in the mind, Freud’s clinical discoveries led
him to develop a comprehensive theory called the
psychoanalytic theory.
He proposed that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into
which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and
desires. .He believed that these repressed urges, in trying to
surface, created the nervous disorders in his patients. This
theory emphasizes the unconscious aspects of the mind,
conflicts between biological instincts and society’s demands
and early family experiences. This approach argues that
unlearnt biological instincts, especially sexual and aggressive
impulses, influence the way people think. The Proponents of
psychodynamic perspective believes behaviour is motivated by
inner, unconscious forces and conflicts over which person has
little control.

The psychoanalytic psychologists held the following beliefs:

1. Psychologists should study the laws and determinants of

personality (normal and abnormal) and devise treatment
methods for personality disorders.

2. The important aspects of personality like unconscious

motives, memories, fears, conflicts and frustration are to be
brought to consciousness for treatment of personality
disorders.

3. Personality is formed during early childhood. Exploring

memories of the first five years of life is essential for treatment.

4. Personality is most suitably studied in the context of a long

term intimate relationship between patient and therapist.

The behavioural perspective: Watson’s view of psychology,

known as behaviourism, was based on well known experiments
conducted by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov
concluded that all behaviour is learned response to some
stimulus in the environment called conditioning.

The early behaviourists had the belief that:

1. Psychologists should study environmental events (stimuli)

and observable behaviour (responses).
2. Experience has a more important influence on behaviour,
abilities and traits than heredity.

3. Introspection should be abandoned and objective methods

should be used like experimentation, observation and testing.

4. Psychologists should aim at the description, explanation,

prediction and control of behaviour.

5. The behaviour of lesser animals should be investigated along

with human behaviour because; simple organisms are easier to
study and understand than complex ones.

Behavioural approach emphasizes the scientific study of

observable behaviour and asserts that behaviour is shaped by
the environmental determinants. In other words, the
behavioural approach focuses on human interactions with the
environment that can be seen and measured. This perspective
focuses on external behaviour.

Skinner, one of the main proponents of the behavioural

perspective developed a theory of how voluntary behaviour is
learned, called operant conditioning. In this theory,
behavioural responses that are followed by pleasurable
consequences are strengthened, or reinforced. For example, a
child who cries and is rewarded by his mother’s attention will
cry again in the future.

Gestalt Psychology: Later psychologists conducted

experiments to study sensations in order to know how the mind
functions. In 1912, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang
Kohler founded gestalt psychology in Germany. According to
Gestalt psychologists, the mind is best understood in terms of
the ways elements are organized as a whole, entire event.
Hence the famous quote, “The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts”.

They emphasized upon the whole notion of sensory experience,

connecting the sensations to relations and organization as a
whole. They studied the mind by applying the principles of
organization to human behavior.

The cognitive perspective: This approach focuses on how

people think, understand and know about the world. The
emphasis is on learning how people comprehend and represent
the outside world within themselves, and how our ways of
thinking about the world influence our behaviour. This modern
perspective focuses on memory, intelligence, perception,
problem solving, language, and learning. Psychologists using
the cognitive perspective often compare human thinking to the
workings of a computer, considering how information is input,
transformed, stored and retrieved. In this view thinking is
information processing.

Cognitive psychologists hold the following beliefs:

1. Behaviourist scientists should study the mental processes

like thought, memory, perception, attention, problem solving,
language, etc.

2. Psychologists should aim at acquiring precise knowledge of

how these processes operate and how they are applied in daily
life.

Evolutionary psychology: The evolutionary perspective

focuses on the biological bases for universal mental
characteristics that all human share. It seeks to explain general
mental strategies and traits, such as why we lie, how
attractiveness influences mate selection, why fear of snakes is
so universal. Evolutionary psychology focuses on how the
human behaviors required for survival have adapted in the face
of environmental pressures over the long course of evolution.
Evolutionary psychology draws heavily on Charles Darwin’s
theory of natural selection. Darwin's theory asserts that
individual members of a given species who possess
characteristics that help them survive are the most likely to
pass on the genes underlying those characteristics to
subsequent generations.As a result, traits that support
individual survival become universal in the species; that is,
every individual member of the species has them. For example:
evolutionary psychologists would view the human behaviour of
not eating substances that have a bitter taste as an adaptive
behaviour that evolved as early humans came into contact with
such bitter plants.

Sociocultural: Focuses on social and cultural factors that can

influence behaviour. sociocultural perspective combines two
areas of study: social psychology, which is the study of groups,
social roles, and rules of social action, and relationships; and
cultural psychology, which is the study of cultural norms, values
and expectations. These two areas are related in that they are
both about the effect that people have on one another, either
individually or in a larger group, such as a culture.

The socio cultural perspective is important because it reminds

people that how they and others behave [or even think] is
influenced not only by whether they are alone, with friends, in a
crowd, or part of a group but also by the particular culture in
which they live. For example: in a classic study, researchers
Darley and Latane (1968) found that the presence of other
people actually lessened the chances that a person in trouble
would receive help. The phenomenon is called diffusion of
responsibility.

The Biological perspective: This approach views from the

perspective of biological functioning. This perspective includes
the study of heredity and evolution, and how heredity might
influence behaviour. They study the structures of the brain and
central nervous system, the functioning of neurons, the delicate
balance of neurotransmitters and hormones, and the effects of
heredity to look for links between these biological factors and
behavior. Example: An increased levels of dopamine results in
the brain and Schizophrenia, a mental disorder.

The humanistic Movement and positive psychology

One of the newer perspectives, often called the “third force” in
psychology, was really a reaction to both psychodynamic
theory and behaviourism.

Humanistically oriented psychologists have the aim of

humanising psychology. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) is an
important psychologist in the humanistic movement. Most of
the humanistically oriented psychologists share the following
beliefs:

1. Psychologists should help people understand themselves and

develop to their fullest potential enriching human lives.

2. Behavioural scientists should study living human beings as a

whole.

3. Significant human problems should be the subject of

investigations.

4. Behavioural scientists should focus on subjective awareness.

This focuses on people’s ability to direct their own lives. The

humanistic movement emphasizes a person’s positive
qualities, the capacity for positive growth and the
freedom to choose any destiny. Humanistic psychologists
stress that people have ability to control their lives and avoid
being manipulated by the environment. They believe that,
rather than being driven by unconscious impulses, as the
psychodynamic approach dictates, or by external rewards, as
the behavioural approach emphasizes, people can choose to
live by higher values, such as altruism. Humanistic
psychologists also think that people have a tremendous
potential for self-understanding and that the way to help others
achieve self-understanding is by being warm, nurturant, and
supportive. Two of the earliest and most famous founders of
this view were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the

capacity to seek and reach fulfillment. The emphasis of the
humanistic perspective is on free will, the ability to freely
make decisions about one’s own behaviour and life.

Positive psychology: In 2000, two influential American

psychologists, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Martin Seligman
introduced positive psychology. Their analysis of psychology in
the 20th century was that it had become far too negative,
focusing on what can go wrong in people’s lives rather than on
what they can do competently. They describe the positive
psychology movement as giving a stronger emphasis to and
conducting more research on three general topics:

 Experiences that people value subjectively, such as hope,

optimism, and happiness
 Positive individual traits, such as the capacity for love,
work, creativity, talent and inter-personal skills.

Positive group and civic values, such as responsibility,

nurturance and tolerance.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Based on the nature of studies going on in the field of

psychology, it can be divided into two broad categories: Pure
Psychology and Applied Psychology.

Pure psychology formulates broad principles, brings out

theories and suggests methods and techniques for the study of
human behaviour. In applied psychology, the theories,
principles and techniques generated through pure psychology
is applied to solve real life-situations to solve problems.

Pure psychology, also known as basic or theoretical

psychology, focuses on the study of fundamental principles and
theories of human behavior and mental processes. It aims to
expand knowledge and understanding of psychological
phenomena without any immediate practical application.
Researchers in pure psychology conduct experiments, collect
data, and develop theories to explain various aspects of human
behavior and cognition.
Applied psychology involves the practical application of
psychological principles and theories to solve real-world
problems and improve people's lives. Applied psychologists use
their knowledge and skills to address specific issues in various
settings, such as healthcare, education, business, and sports.

Fields of Psychology

Biopsychology: It is the subfield of psychology that

specializes in the biological bases of behaviour. It examines
how biological structures and functions of the body affect
behaviour. Bio psychologists focus on the operation of the brain
and nervous system. For example: They might examine the link
between specific sites in the brain and the muscular tremors of
people affected by Parkinson’s disease or attempt to determine
how our emotions are related to physical sensations.

Clinical psychology: Clinical psychology deals with the study,

diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. E.g.: a
clinical psychologist probes a depressed client’s thoughts for
clues about the cause of the depression and thinks about ways
to help the client become psychologically healthier. Their
places of employment are hospitals or clinics, teaching careers
at colleges or universities. They also do private practice.

Cognitive psychology: Cognitive psychology focuses on the

study of higher mental processes, including thinking, memory,
reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making and
language. Cognitive psychologists work at academic settings,
schools, advertising, communication industry etc.

Experimental psychology: Experimental psychology is the

branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing,
perceiving, learning and thinking about the world.

Counselling psychology: It focuses primarily on educational,

social and career adjustment problems. Counselling
psychologists who staff college centres advise students on
career choices, methods of study, and strategies for coping
with everyday problems.
Developmental psychology: Developmental psychology
studies how people grow and change from the moment of
conception through death. They do not provide therapy and
may do research in various areas of development.

Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychology involves applying

psychology to criminal investigation and the law. A forensic
psychologist practices psychology as a science within the
criminal justice system and civil courts.

Personality psychology: Focuses on the consistency in

people’s behaviour over time and the traits that differentiate
one person from another.

Health psychology: Health psychology explores the

relationship between psychological factors and physical
ailments or disease. For example, health psychologists are
interested in how long-term stress can affect physical health
and in identifying ways to promote behaviour that brings about
good health.

Social psychology: Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings

and actions are affected by others. Social psychologists focus
on such diverse topics as human aggression, liking and loving,
persuasion and conformity.

Cross cultural psychology: Cross cultural psychology

investigates the similarities and differences in psychological
functioning in and across the various cultures and ethnic
groups of the world. For example: Cross cultural psychologists
examine how cultures differ in their use of punishment during
child rearing.

Clinical neuropsychology: It unites the areas of

biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the
relationship between biological factors and psychological
disorders.

Evolutionary psychology: Evolutionary psychology considers

how behaviour is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our
ancestors. It focuses on the possible role of evolved
psychological mechanisms (inherited tendencies shapes by
evolution) in human behaviour. This approach suggests that the
chemical coding of the information in our cells not only
determines such traits as hair colour and race, but also holds
the key to understanding a broad variety of behaviours that
helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

Industrial / organizational psychology: Study of

relationships between people and their environment. They are
often hired by corporations, govt. agencies, and business to
deal with the hiring and assessment of employees. Also in
academic settings.

Consumer psychology: It is the study of when, why, how, and

where people do or do not buy product. It blends elements from
psychology, sociology, social anthropology and economics. It
attempts to understand the buyer decision making process,
both individually and in groups. It studies characteristics of
individual consumers such as demographics and behavioural
variables in an attempt to understand people's wants. It also
tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as
family, friends, reference groups, and society in general.
Customer psychology is based on consumer buying behaviour,
with the customer playing the three distinct roles of user, payer
and buyer. Relationship marketing is an influential asset for
customer behaviour analysis as it has a keen interest in the re-
discovery of the true meaning of marketing through the re-
affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer.

Sports psychology: The psychological and mental factors

that effect and are affected by participation and performance in
sport, exercise, and physical activity. It is also a specialization
within the brain psychology and kinesiology that seeks to
understand psychological/mental factors that affect
performance in sports, physical activity, and exercise and apply
these to enhance individual and team performance. It deals
with increasing performance by managing emotions and
minimizing the psychological effects of injury and poor
performance. Some of the most important skills taught are goal
setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk, awareness and
control, concentration, confidence, using rituals, attribution
training, and periodization.

PSEUDO-PSYCHOLOGY

Pseudo-psychology means false psychology hence it refers to

unsubstantiated, false or fake psychology. It involves practices
which are given semblance of psychology but which in the real
sense of the word are not.They are given some manifestation of
science but do not satisfy scientific requirements. It has been
referred to as dubious and unfounded system, which relies on
some physical features of a person to predict his/her future.
Examples include, Graphology, palmistry, phrenology etc.

 Graphology:The believe that one's handwriting reveals

one's personality traits and could also be used to predict
nonperformance.Graphology is concerned about the using
the size, the slant and other aspects of one’s handwriting to
make predictions about the person.This is different from an
aspect of forensic psychology in which an expert in
handwriting can determine one’s signature. Forensic
psychologists ascertain the veracity and authenticity of
signatures and/or hand writings.

 Palmistry: It is the claim and believe that lines and the

pattern of the in individual's palm have something to do with
their personalities and that the nature of the lines and the
pattern could be used to predict one’s future or destiny –
success or otherwise.

 Phrenology: It is the belief that the bumps on one’s head

and shape of one's skull determine one's personality,
intelligence, and other individual characteristics. Based on
this we may often hear people describe others as stupid or
intelligent because of shape of the head.

 Astrology: It is a belief system that claims the positions of

celestial bodies at the time of a person's birth influence their
 personality, behavior, and future. Although popular in many
cultures, it is considered a pseudoscience because its claims
lack empirical evidence and cannot be scientifically tested.
Psychological phenomena like the Barnum effect, where
individuals believe general statements are uniquely
applicable to them, help explain astrology's appeal.

 Iridology: Iridology claims that patterns, colors, and other

characteristics of the iris (the colored part of the eye) can
provide information about a person's health. Practitioners
believe that different parts of the iris correspond to different
organs and systems in the body. However, iridology lacks
scientific evidence and is not supported by medical
research, making it a pseudoscience.

NEURON

The neuron or nerve cell is the specialized cell in the nervous

system that receives and sends messages within the nervous
system.
 Neurons are one of the messengers of the body, with a very
special structure. It is the functional unit of nervous system.
Neuron is similar to any other cell in the body, having nucleus
and all the organelles in cytoplasm.

Types of Neurons
Sensory Neurons: Sensory neurons are neurons responsible
for converting external stimuli from the environment into
corresponding internal stimuli. They are activated by sensory
input, and send projections to other elements of the nervous
system, ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain
or spinal cord. Unlike the motor neurons of the central nervous
system (CNS), whose inputs come from other neurons, sensory
neurons are activated by physical modalities (such as visible
light, sound, heat, physical contact, etc.) or by chemical signals
(such as smell and taste).

Motor Neurons: Motor neurons are neurons located in the

central nervous system, and they project their axons outside of
the CNS to directly or indirectly control muscles. The interface
between a motor neuron and muscle fiber is a specialized
synapse called the neuromuscular junction. The structure of
motor neurons is multi polar, meaning each cell contains a
single axon and multiple dendrites. This is the most common
type of neuron.

Interneurons: Interneurons are neither sensory nor motor;

rather, they act as the “middle men” that form connections
between the other two types. Located in the CNS, they operate
locally, meaning their axons connect only with nearby sensory
or motor neurons. Interneurons can save time and therefore
prevent injury by sending messages to the spinal cord and back
instead of all the way to the brain. Like motor neurons, they are
multipolar in structure.

STRUCTURE OF NEURON
Dendrite:The parts of the neuron that receive messages from
other cells are called the dendrites. The name dendrite means
“tree-like,” or “branch,” and this structure does indeed look like
the branches of a tree. The dendrites are attached to the cell
body. Usually, the dendrite is shorter than axon.

Cell body: Also known as a soma, it keeps the entire cell alive
and functioning. The word soma means “body. The cell body
carries genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure,
and provides energy to drive activities. Like other cell bodies, a
neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles.
It’s enclosed by a membrane which both protects it and allows
it to interact with its immediate surroundings.

Axon: Axon is the longer process of nerve cell. Each neuron

has only one axon. Axon arises from axon hillock of the nerve
cell body and it is devoid of Nissl granules. Axon extends for a
long distance away from the nerve cell body. Length of longest
axon is about 1 meter. Axon transmits impulses away from the
nerve cell body.

Mylean Sheath: Myelin sheath is a thick lipoprotein sheath

that insulates the myelinated nerve fiber. Myelin sheath is not a
continuous sheath. It is absent at regular intervals. Myelin
sheath is responsible for white color of nerve fibers.The myelin
sheath is a very important part of the neuron. It not only
insulates and protects the neuron, it also speeds up the neural
message traveling down the axon. In the disease called
multiple sclerosis (MS), the myelin sheath is destroyed
(possibly by the individual’s own immune system), which leads
to diminished or complete loss of neural functioning in those
damaged cells.

Node of Ranvier: The area where myelin sheath is absent is

called node of Ranvier. Node of Ranvier, periodic gap in the
insulating sheath (myelin) on the axon of certain neurons that
serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses. This
forces the current to travel down the nerve fibre to the
unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier, which have a high
concentration of ion channels.

Axon Terminal: An axon terminal refers to the axon endings

that are somewhat enlarged and often club- or button-shaped.
Axon terminals are that part of a nerve cell that makes synaptic
connections with another nerve cell.

Synaptic Knobs: Synaptic knobs play an important role in the

transmission of impulses from one neuron to another across
synapses with the help of neurotransmitters.

Synapses: The cellular junctions or connections between two

neurons or nerve cells or a neuron and a muscle cell/gland cell
are known as synapses. a synapse is a small gap at the end of
a neuron that allows a signal to pass from one neuron to the
next. Synapses are found where nerve cells connect with other
nerve cells.

Glial cells

Two special types of glial cells, called oligodendrocytes and

Schwann cells, generate a layer of fatty substances called
myelin. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin for the neurons in the
brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system); Schwann
cells produce myelin for the neurons of the body (the peripheral
nervous system). Myelin wraps around the shaft of the axons,
forming an insulating and protective sheath. Bundles of myelin-
coated axons travel together as “cables” in the central nervous
system called tracts, and in the peripheral nervous system
bundles of axons are called nerves. Myelin from Schwann cells
has a unique feature that can serve as a tunnel through which
damaged nerve fibers can reconnect and repair themselves.
That’s why a severed toe might actually regain some function
and feeling if sewn back on in time. Unfortunately, myelin from
oligodendrocytes covering axons in the brain and spinal cord
does not have this feature, and these axons are more likely to
be permanently damaged.

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an

electrical impulse known as action potential. Once the
action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs to be
transferred to another neuron or tissue. It must cross over a
gap between the pre-synaptic neuron and post-synaptic
neuron - which is known as the synaptic gap. At the end of
the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles
which contains chemical messengers, known as
neurotransmitters. When the electrical impulse (action
potential) reaches these synaptic vesicles, they release their
contents of neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters then carry the signal across the synaptic

gap. They bind to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell that
then become activated. Once the receptors have been
activated, they either produce excitatory or inhibitory
effects on the post-synaptic cell.

Some neurotransmitters are excitatory and some are inhibitory.

Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) make the
post-synaptic cell more likely to fire, whereas inhibitory
neurotransmitters(e.g. GABA) make them less likely to fire. For
example, if an excitatory neurotransmitter like nor adrenaline
binds to the post-synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical
charge in the cell membrane which results in an excitatory
post-synaptic potential (EPSP) which makes the post-
synaptic cell more likely to fire. Whereas, if an inhibitory
neurotransmitter like GABA binds to the post-synaptic receptors
it will result in an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP),
which makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire.

ACTION POTENTIAL
The process of an action potential involves several key steps
that explain how nerve cells (neurons) transmit electrical
signals in response to a stimulus.

1. Resting State (Resting Membrane Potential)

Neurons at rest have a membrane potential of around -70 mV,

meaning the inside of the neuron is more negatively charged
than the outside. This state is maintained by the sodium-
potassium pump (which pumps 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions in)
and selective permeability to K⁺ ions. Negatively charged
proteins also contribute to the negative charge inside.

2. Stimulus

A stimulus, such as a chemical, mechanical, or electrical signal,

triggers a change in the neuron's membrane potential. If the
stimulus is strong enough to reach the threshold potential
(about -55 mV), an action potential is initiated. This is the all-or-
nothing principle: if the threshold is not reached, no action
potential occurs.

3. Depolarization

Once the threshold is reached, voltage-gated sodium (Na⁺)

channels open, allowing Na⁺ ions to rush into the neuron.This
causes the inside of the neuron to become more positive
relative to the outside, leading to depolarization. The
membrane potential can rise to about +30 mV.

4. Repolarization

After the peak of depolarization, the voltage-gated Na⁺

channels close, and voltage-gated potassium (K⁺) channels
open. K⁺ ions flow out of the neuron, restoring the negative
charge inside the neuron. This is the process of repolarization,
bringing the membrane potential back toward a negative value.

5. Hyperpolarization
K⁺ channels are slow to close, so the membrane potential
temporarily becomes more negative than the resting potential,
leading to hyperpolarization (around -80 mV).This prevents
another action potential from occurring immediately,
contributing to the refractory period (a period during which a
neuron is less likely to fire another action potential).

6. Return to Resting State

The sodium-potassium pump restores the ionic balance,

returning the membrane potential to its resting state at around
-70 mV.The neuron is now ready to fire another action potential
if stimulated again.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released by

electrical impulses into the synaptic cleft from synaptic vesicles
of presynaptic membrane . It then diffuses to the postsynaptic
membrane, binds to and activates the receptors present
leading to initiation of new electrical signals or inhibition of the
post-synaptic neuron.

 Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types

of neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron,
meaning they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire
an action potential. Some of the major excitatory
neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Examples:
Dopamine,Histamine,Norepinephrine,Epinephrine,Glutam
ate and Acetylcholine. 

 Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of

neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron;
they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an
action potential. Some of the major inhibitory
neurotransmitters include serotonin and gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA).Some neurotransmitters, such as
acetylcholine and dopamine, can create both excitatory and
 inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that
are present. Examples:GABA,Dopamine,Serotonin,
andAcetylcholine.

A chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of a

neurotransmitter is called antagonist. A chemical substance
that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter is
called agonist.

1. Acetylcholine is found in both the central and

peripheral nervous systems, it is the primary
neurotransmitter associated with motor neurons. It plays
a role in muscle movements as well as memory and
learning. Acetylcholine stimulates the skeletal muscles to
contract but actually slows contractions in the heart
muscle. If acetylcholine receptor sites on the muscle cells
are blocked in some way, then the acetylcholine can’t get
to the site and the muscle will be incapable of
contracting—paralyzed.

2. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acts as the

body's main inhibitory chemical messenger. GABA
contributes to vision, motor control, and plays a role in
the regulation of anxiety. Benzodiazepines, which are
used to help treat anxiety, function by increasing the
efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which can increase
feelings of relaxationand calm.

3. Glutamate is the most plentiful neurotransmitter

found in the nervous system where it plays a role in
cognitive functions such as memory and learning.
Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause excitotoxicity
resulting in cellular death. This excitotoxicity caused by
glutamate build-up is associated with some diseases and
brain injuries including alzheimer's disease, stroke, and
epileptic seizures.2.Peptides

4. Oxytocin is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.

It is produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in
social recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction.
Synthetic oxytocin such as Pitocin is often used as an aid
in labour and delivery. Both oxytocin and Pitocin cause
the uterus to contract during labor.

5. Endorphins are neurotransmitters that inhibit the

transmission of pain signals and promote feelings of
euphoria.These chemical messengers are produced
naturally by the body in response to pain, but they can
also be triggered by other activities such as aerobic
exercise. For example, experiencing a "runner's high" is
an example of pleasurable feelings generated by the
production of endorphins.

6. Epinephrine is considered both a hormone and a

neurotransmitter. Generally, epinephrine (adrenaline) is a
stresshormone that is released by the adrenal system.
However, it functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain.

7. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that plays an

important role in alertness is involved in the body's fight
or flight response. Its role is to help mobilize the body
and brain to take action in times of danger or stress.
Levels of this neurotransmitter are typically lowest during
sleep and highest during times of stress.

8. Dopamine plays an important role in the coordination

of body movements. Dopamine is also involved in
reward,motivation, and additions. Several types of
addictive drugs increase dopamine levels in the
brain. Parkinson's disease, which is a degenerative
disease that results in tremors and motor movement
impairments, is caused by the loss of dopamine-
generating neurons in the brain.

9. Serotonin Serotonin (5-HT) is a neurotransmitter

originating in the lower part of the brain that can have
either an excitatory or inhibitory effect, it plays an
important role in regulating and modulating
 mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and appetite.
Selective serotonin re uptake inhibitors usually referred
to as SSRIs, are a type of antidepressant medication
commonly prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, panic
disorder, and panic attacks. SSRIs work to balance
serotonin levels by blocking the re uptake of serotonin in
the brain, which can help improve mood and reduce
feelings of anxiety.

10. Histamine acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain

and spinal cord. It plays a role in allergic reactions and
is produced as part of the immune system's response to
pathogens.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain

Brain is the major part of CNS. It is the most complex as well as

delicate structure that plays a central role in all our activities.

The brain and the spinal cord are surrounded by 3 membranes

or coverings called the meninges. if they surround the brain
they're called cranial meninges. If they surround the spinal
cord they're called spinal meninges. From inside outwards,
these meninges are;

The dura mater-The outermost of the three meninges is

known as the dura mater, which is a thick, strong, and dense
membrane.
The arachnoid mater-The meninges' middle element is given
as either the arachnoid mater or arachnoid membrane. It is so
named due to its resemblance to a spider web. It also cushions
the central nervous system meninges.

The pia mater-The meningeal envelope that tightly adheres to

the surface of the spinal cord and brain is known as the pia
mater. It's a thin membrane made up of fibrous tissue that's
filled on the outside with a flat cell layer that's considered to be
fluid-tight. And, the pia mater is pierced by the blood vessels,
which travel to the spinal cord and brain.

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain,

midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of the
cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic
system). The midbrain consists of the tectum and
tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons
and medulla.

Forebrain

The Cerebrum

The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain,

associated with higher brain function such as intelligence,
memory, personality, emotion, speech, and ability to feel and
move. The cerebrum is the largest region of the human brain.
Elevated ridges of tissue, called gyri (singular: gyrus),
separated by shallow groves called sulci (singular: sulcus)
mark nearly the entire surface of the cerebral
hemispheres. Deeper groves, called fissures, separate
large regions of the brain.

The cerebrum has two halves, the right hemisphere and left
hemisphere, and it is responsible for thinking, reasoning, both
short and long term memory, and for voluntary muscle
movement. The right side of the cerebrum controls the left side
of the body and is related to abstract thought, colours, shapes,
music and creative endeavors. The left side of the cerebrum
controls the right side of the body and is associated with
logical, analytical and mathematical thought, and speech.

The cerebral cortex:

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex (also

known as “gray matter”). It encompasses about two-thirds of
the brain mass and lies over and around most of the structures
of the brain. It is the most highly developed part of the human
brain and is responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and
understanding language.

The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes":

the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.

 Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning,

parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem
solving; heavy thinking, pondering and planning our
actions. The most forward part of the frontal lobes is
called the prefrontal cortex. The middle area toward the
center (medial prefrontal cortex) and bottom surface
above the eyes (orbitofrontal prefrontal cortex—right
above the orbits of the eye) have strong connections of
the limbic system. The frontal lobes also contain the
motor cortex, a band of neurons located at the back of
each lobe. These cells control the movements of the
body's voluntary muscles by sending commands out to
the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system.
The motor cortex is laid out just like the somatosensory
cortex, which is right next door in the parietal lobes.This
area of the brain has been the focus of a great deal of
recent research, specifically as related to the role of a
special type of neuron. These neurons are called mirror
neurons, which fire when an animal performs an
action—but they also fire when an animal observes
that same action being performed by another.
Previous brain-imaging studies in humans
suggested that we, too, have mirror neurons in
this area of the brain. Researches also show that mirror
neurons are not only found in motor regions but also in parts of
the brain involved in vision and memory.

 Parietal Lobe- associated with movement,

orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli; integrate
or makes sense of all of the different bits of information
that are bombarding our brain. The parietal lobes are at
the top and back of the brain, just under the parietal
bone in the skull. This area contains the somatosensory
cortex, an area of neurons at the front of the parietal
lobes on either side of the brain. This area processes
information from the skin and internal body receptors for
touch, temperature, and body position. The
somatosensory cortex is laid out in a rather interesting
way—the cells at the top of the brain receive information
from the bottom of the body, and as one moves down the
area, the signals come from higher and higher in the
body. It’s almost as if a little upside-down person were
laid out along this area of cells.

 Occipital Lobe- At the base of the cortex, toward

the back of the brain, is an area called the occipital lobe.
This area processes visual information from the eyes in
the primary visual cortex. The visual association
cortex, also in this lobe and in parts of the temporal and
parietal lobes, helps identify and make sense of the
visual information from the eyes. The famed neurologist
Oliver Sacks once had a patient who had a tumor in his
right occipital lobe area. He could still see objects and
even describe them in physical terms, but he could not
identify them by sight alone. When given a rose, the man
began to describe it as a “red inflorescence” of some
type with a green tubular projection. Only when he held it
under his nose (stimulating the sense of smell) did he
recognize it as a rose. Each area of the cortex has these
 association areas that help people make sense of sensory
information.

 Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and

recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech;
process sounds and form memories. The beginning of the
temporal lobes are found just behind temples of the
head. These lobes contain the primary auditory cortex
and the auditory association area. Also found in the
left temporal lobe is an area that in most people is
particularly involved with language.

The Association Areas of the Cortex

Association areas are made up of neurons in the cortex that are

devoted to making connections between the sensory
information coming into the brain and stored memories,images,
and knowledge. In other words, association areas help people
make sense of the incoming sensory input.

Broca’s Area: In the left frontal lobe of most people is an area

of the brain devoted to the production of speech. (In a small
portion of the population, this area is in the right frontal lobe.)
More specifically, this area allows a person to speak smoothly
and fluently. It is called Broca’s area after nineteenth-century
neurologist Paul Broca, who first studied people with damage
to this area. Damage to Broca’s area causes a person to be
unable to get words out in a smooth, connected fashion. People
with this condition may know exactly what they want to say
and understand what they hear others say, but they cannot
control the actual production of their own words. Speech is
halting and words are often mispronounced, such as saying
“cot” instead of “clock” or “non” instead of “nine.” Some words
may be left out entirely, such as “the” or “for.” This is called
Broca’s aphasia. Aphasia refers to an inability to use or
understand either written or spoken language (Stuttering is a
somewhat different problem in getting words started, rather
than mispronouncing them or leaving them out, but may also
be related to Broca’s area.)

Wernicke’s Area: In the left temporal lobe (again, in most

people) is an area called Wernicke’s area, named after the
physiologist and Broca’s contemporary, Carl Wernicke, who
first studied problems arising from damage in this location. This
area of the brain appears to be involved in understanding the
meaning of words.

The Limbic System:

The Limbic System sometimes called the "emotional brain" or

"Old Mammalian Brain" is the next brain to have evolved in the
more primitive mammals about 150 million years ago. This is
where our emotions reside, where memory begins and where
these two functions combine together to mark behaviours with
positive or negative feelings. It's where mostly unconscious
value judgments are made. Information going through the
Limbic System are filed under "agreeable or disagreeable". It
also plays a role in salience (what grabs our attention),
spontaneity and creativity. The limbic system, often referred to
as the "emotional brain", is found buried within the cerebrum.
This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala,
and hippocampus.

 Thalamus A large mass of gray matter deeply situated in

the forebrain.The structure has sensory and motor functions.
Almost all sensory information enters this structure where
neurons send that information to the overlying cortex. Axons
from every sensory system (except olfaction) synapse here
as the last relay site before the information reaches the
cerebral cortex. The thalamus carries messages from the
sensory organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and fingers to the
cortex.

 Hippocampus: The crescent shaped hippocampus is found

deep in the temporal lobe, in the front of the limbic
 system.The hippocampus forms and stores your memories.
Hippocampus is the Greek word for “seahorse” and it was
given to this brain structure because the first scientists who
dissected the brain thought it looked like a seahorse. The
hippocampus is located within the medial temporal lobe on
each side of the brain (medial means “toward the middle”).
Research has shown that the hippocampus is instrumental
in forming long-term (permanent) declarative
memories that are then stored elsewhere in the brain. ACh,
the neurotransmitter involved in muscle control, is also
involved in the memory function of the hippocampus. People
who have Alzheimer’s disease, for example, have much
lower levels of ACh.

 The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system. It is

located in the internal portion of the brain in front of the
thalamus.The hypothalamus controls your body
temperature, emotions, hunger, thirst, appetite, digestion
and sleep.It sits right above the pituitary gland. The
hypothalamus controls the pituitary, so the ultimate
regulation of hormones lies with the hypothalamus.

 Amygdala: The almond shaped amygdala is part of the

limbic system so it is located in the internal portion of the
brain.The amygdala (there are two of them) control your
emotions such as regulating when you’re happy or mad. It is
located near the hippocampus. The amygdala is involved in
fear responses and memory of fear. Information from
the senses goes to the amygdala before the upper part of
the brain is even involved, so that people can respond to
danger very quickly, sometimes before they are consciously
aware of what is happening. In 1939 researchers found that
monkeys with large amounts of their temporal lobes
removed, including the amygdala were completely unafraid
of snakes and humans,both normally fear-provoking stimuli.
This effect came to be known as the Klüver-Bucy
syndrome. Rats that have damaged amygdala structures
will also show no fear when placed next to a cat. Case
 studies of human with damage to the amygdala also show a
link to decreased fear response.

 Cingulate Cortex: The cingulate cortex is the limbic

structure that is actually found in the cortex. It is found right
above the corpus callosum in the frontal and parietal lobes
and plays an important role in both emotional and cognitive
processing. The cingulate cortex can be divided into up to
four regions that play different roles in processing
emotional, cognitive, and autonomic information. It has been
shown to be active during a variety of cognitive tasks such
as selective attention, written word recognition, and working
memory and has been implicated in a variety of
psychological and mental disorders including attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder schizophrenia, major
depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder

Midbrain

Mid-brain connects cerebellum with cerebrum. It contains a

large number of nerve cells scattered in white matter. Some of
these cells control muscle tone and modify motor activities.
Some act as centres for auditory and visual reflexes.

The Reticular Formation:

The reticular formation (RF) is a network of neurons running

through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly
beyond. These neurons are responsible for people’s ability to
generally attend to certain kinds of information in their
surroundings. Basically, the RF allows people to ignore
constant, unchanging information (such as the noise of an air
conditioner) and become alert to changes in information (for
example, if the air conditioner stopped, most people would
notice immediately). The reticular formation is also the part of
the brain that helps keep people alert and aroused. One part of
the RF is called the reticular activating system (RAS), and
it stimulates the upper part of the brain, keeping people awake
and alert. When a person is driving and someone suddenly pulls
out in front of the vehicle, it is the RAS that brings that driver to
full attention. It is also the system that lets a mother hear her
baby cry in the night, even though she might sleep through
other noises. The RAS has also been suggested by brain-
scanning studies as a possible area involved in attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder, in which children or adults have
difficulty maintaining attention to a single task.It is critically
concerned in regulating various degrees of arousal-from deep
sleep to alert awareness of the environment. The mid-brain is
divided into two main parts:

(a) The roof or tectum and

(b) The floor

The roof or tectum: It contains two pairs of sensory centres

called superior colliculi and inferior colliculi. These are
involved in visual and auditory sensation respectively.

The floor: It is a pathway for conducting sensory and motor

fibres to and from the higher brain. Thus, it provides
connections between the lower and higher centres of brain.

Hindbrain

Cerebellum

It is also called the “little brain” because it looks like a small

version of the cerebrum and is responsible for balance,
movement, and coordination. This structure is associated with
regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and
balance. The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the
cerebrum, evolutionarily. The pons and the medulla, along with
the midbrain, are often called the brainstem.

The Pons
The pons (Latin for “bridge”) is a structure located on the brain
stem. It is superior to (up from) the medulla oblongata, inferior,
to (down from) the midbrain, and rostral to (in front of) the
cerebellum. The pons.The pons measures about 2.5 cm in
length. It contains nuclei that relay signals The Brain from the
cerebrum to the cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal
primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control,
hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions,
facial sensation, and posture. It is a part of the metencephalon
in the hindbrain. It is involved in motor control and sensory
analysis, for example, information from the ear first enters the
brain in the pons. It has parts that are important for the level of
consciousness and for sleep. Some structures within the pons
are linked to the cerebellum, thus are involved in movement
and posture.

Medulla:

This structure is the caudal-most part of the brain stem,

between the pons and spinal cord. It is responsible for
maintaining vital body functions, such as breathing and heart
rate. The brainstem takes in, sends out, and coordinates all of
the brain’s messages. It also controls many of the body’s
automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,
swallowing, digestion, and blinking.

Spinal cord

In the middle of the back, there is a spinal bone (tail bone). It

extends from lowest part of the back (waist) to the neck. Inside
it, there is a semi-solid substance or nervous tissue. This tissue
also extends from bottom of the back to left in the lowest part
of the skull. It thus, forms a thick string or cord and is therefore
called spinal cord. A cross-section of spinal cord shows that its
centre (inside) contains gray matter and looks like a butterfly
(H-shaped). It consists of cell bodies of association or
interneurons and motor nerves. The gray matter appears
penetrating into white matter which consists of the axon fibres
of the sensory and motor neurons in the form of horns which
conduct the impulses to and fro in the peripheries.

Pathways or nerve tracts

Nerve tracts are bundle of nerve fibres that ascend or descend

along white matter of the spinal cord.They originate and
terminate at similar sites. There are two types of nerve tracts
as mentioned below:

(a) Ascending nerve tracts: Ascending nerve tracts are

those that conduct nerve impulses from spinal cord to the
brain. Hence, the nerve impulses from periphery are brought by
incoming spinal nerves to ascending tract and conveyed to the
brain to produce sensation.

(b) Descending nerve tracts: Descending nerve tracts are

those that conduct nerve impulsesfrom brain to different levels
of spinal cord.Such impulses evoke response via spinal nerves
to muscles and glands.

The cord
The cord is cylindrical with two swellings one in cervical region
and one in lumbar region. It is approximately 18" string of
nerve fibres. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves arising at
intervals from dorsal and ventral roots.

The 'dorsal root' is sensory and contains sensory-nerve fibres.

'Ventral root' is motor and has motor fibres.The motor nerves
emerge from ventral root of the cord which carries motor
impulses into the muscles and glands in the peripheries. The
dorsal root fibres bring in the information to spinal cord from
periphery giving sensation of vision,audition, touch etc.

Spinal cord functions in two ways as mentioned below:

(a) It acts as a main centre of reflex action.

(b) It acts as a link between spinal nerves and brain.

Reflex action: A reflex action is the spontaneous and

involuntary action of the body. These are performed to cope
with the emergent situations. Such actions are sudden and
immediate without involving neuronal analysis and integration.
These actions occur very fast, even before one can feel the
stimulus through brain. Such actions are described as
autonomic response to stimuli. Reflex actions are simplest and
inborn actions which are controlled and regulated by the spinal
cord of CNS.

Reflex arch: The body responds to external or internal

changes. The above-mentioned reflex actions are done in
response to certain external and internal changes which call for
immediate action. Therefore, the spinal cord as second-in-
charge of the centre (brain) passes the motor signals to the
organ of response in the periphery and thus, evokes immediate
action to cope with the emergency situation caused by sudden
stimulus exciting the receptors in the periphery. Reflex arch is
a simple nervous pathway connecting a receptor and an
effector. It consists of the following parts:

 The receptors: It is situated in the sensory organs which

receive a stimulus and generate sensory nerve impulse.

 Afferent or sensory neuron: It connects the receptors to

the spinal cord where it enters through 'dorsal root'. It
conveys afferent or sensory nerve impulse to the spinal
cord.

 Association neuron or interneuron: It is situated in the

spinal cord which connects and passes impulses conveyed
by afferent neurons to the motor or efferent neurons.
Generally, there is only one association neuron in reflex
arch. But, sometimes two such neurons may be present in a
reflex arch. On this basis, two types of reflex archs have
been differentiated.

 Efferent or motor neuron: It comes out from ventral root

of spinal cord and extends to muscles or glands in the
periphery. It transmits motor impulses to the organs of
response which may be a muscle or a gland.

 Effector organ: It is the organ of response which responds

to the exciting stimulus on receiving the motor impulse
through motor neurons. These organs may be either a
muscle or a gland. Thus, it is clear that reflex arch is a path
of flow for the signals from receptor to spinal cord and again
 down to the effector and a response to the stimuli is evoked
which we call reflex action.

Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is a neural channel that

carries information from receptors to the CNS and from CNS to
the effectors or organs of response (motor organs). It consists
of fibres of sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons. The
sensory fibres run from sense organs into the CNS. The motor
fibres run out from CNS and activate or excite the motor organs
(muscles and glands) to respond or act. Since, the entire neural
channel of PNS runs from sense organs to the centre and again
come out from centre to the organs of response in the
peripheries, the neural mechanism or system is called
peripheral nervous system-PNS. Thus, the main organs of PNS
are as follows:

 Receptor organs: These organs receive the stimulus and

send the impressions (sensory codes of the stimuli) in the
form of neural impulse to the CNS causing sensations, viz.
vision, addition, olfaction etc.

 Afferent or sensory nerve fibres: Through these fibres,

the sensory input is transmitted to the CNS.

 Efferent or motor nerve fibres: Through these fibres,

motor nerve impulses (response messages) are carried from
CNS to the organs of response.

 Effectors or motor organs: As the motor impulses

impinge upon the effectors or motor organs (muscles or
glands), these organs get excited and perform the act
respond to the stimuli.

Division of PNS
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) can be divided into following
two main types:

(a) Sensory Peripheral Nervous System (SPNS)

(b) Motor Peripheral Nervous System (MPSN).

Sensory peripheral nervous system(SPNS): Consists of

afferent nerve fibres originating from receptors and passing
through the central nervous system (CNS) and thus, makes a
connection between sensory organs in the peripheries and CNS.
These fibres carry afferent or sensory nerve impulses and enter
CNS through the dorsal or sensory root.

Motor peripheral nervous system (MPNS): Motor

peripheral nervous system consists of efferent nerve fibres
coming out from CNS and passing through down the motor
organs or organs of response (effectors), i.e. the muscles and
glands. Thus, it connects the brain with the effector organs and
carries the efferent nerve impulses to stimulate or excite the
organs of response. The efferent fibres leave the CNS through
ventral or motor root.

Anatomy of PNS

PNS includes cranial and spinal nerves that connect the CNS
with the receptors and effectors of the body.

Cranial nerves

Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from brain. Of them four

pairs are sensory in nature and concerned with the sensation
of vision, olfactory, audition and balance. Other four pairs are
motor in nature and are concerned with eye movements,
regulation of pupils size, visceral reflexes, shoulder movements
and tongue movements. Another four pairs are mixed nerves
connecting both kinds of fibres- sensory and motor and
concerned with taste, swallowing, secretion of saliva, facial
expression, properioception, abduction of eye and visceral
reflexes associated with pharynx, larynx, thoracic and
abdominal viscera.
Spinal nerves

All spinal nerves are of mixed type. 31 pairs of them arise from
the spinal cord. These are as follows: Cervical nerves 8 pairs,
Thoracic nerves 12 pairs, Lumbar nerves 5 pairs, Sacral
nerves 5 pairs, Coccygeal nerves 1 pair. All five spinal
nerves arise from two roots of spinal cord-dorsal or sensory
root and ventral or motor root.

Autonomic Nervous system (ANS)

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is concerned with regulation

and governance of involuntary activities of visceral organs.
Hence, it is also known as visceral nervous system (VNS). The
term autonomic here does not mean that system is self-
regulating (autonomous) or automatic, rather it refers to the
system that is concerned with such neural mechanism that
regulates and controls those organic functions over which the
organism has no conscious control, i.e. these organic activities
are involuntary. Such organic functions include functions of
heart, maintenance of blood pressure, digestive functions etc.
These are the vital functions of visceral organs and essential for
sustenance and growth of life.

The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

is primarily located on the middle of the spinal column—running
from near the top of the ribcage to the waist area. It may help
to think of the name in these terms: The sympathetic division is
in sympathy with one’s emotions. In fact, the sympathetic
division is usually called the “fight-or-flight system” because it
allows people and animals to deal with all kinds of stressful
events. Emotions during these events might be anger (hence,
the term fight) or fear (that’s the “flight” part, obviously) or
even extreme joy or excitement. The sympathetic division's job
is to get the body ready to deal with the stress. The pupils
seem to get bigger, perhaps to let in more light and, therefore,
more information. The heart starts pumping faster and harder,
drawing blood away from nonessential organs such as the skin
(so at first the person may turn pale) and sometimes even
away from the brain itself (so the person might actually faint).
Blood needs lots of oxygen before it goes to the muscles, so the
lungs work overtime, too (the person may begin to breathe
faster). One set of glands in particular receives special
instructions. The adrenal glands will be stimulated to release
certain stress-related chemicals (members of a class of
chemicals released by glands called hormones) into the
bloodstream. These stress hormones will travel to all parts of
the body, but they will only affect certain target organs.

Digestion of food and excretion of waste are not

necessary functions when dealing with stressful
situations, so these systems tend to be shut down or
inhibited. Saliva, which is part of digestion, dries right up. Food
that was in the stomach sits there like a lump. Usually, the urge
to go to the bathroom will be suppressed, but if the person is
really scared the bladder or bowels may actually empty (this is
why people who die under extreme stress, such as hanging or
electrocution, will release their urine and waste). The
sympathetic division is also going to demand that the body
burn a tremendous amount of fuel, or blood sugar.

The Parasympathetic Division If the sympathetic division can be

called the fight or-flight system, the parasympathetic division might be
called the “eat-drink-and-rest” system. The neurons of this division are
located at the top and bottom of the spinal column, on either side of the
sympathetic division neurons. The parasympathetic division’s job is to
return the body to normal functioning after a stressful situation ends. It
slows the heart and breathing, constricts the pupils, and reactivates
digestion and excretion. Signals to the adrenal glands stop because the
parasympathetic division isn’t connected to the adrenal glands. In a
sense, the parasympathetic division allows the body to restore all the
energy it burned—which is why people are often very hungry after the
stress is all over. The parasympathetic division does more than
just react to the activity of the sympathetic division. It is the
parasympathetic division that is responsible for most of the
ordinary, day-to-day bodily functioning, such as regular
heartbeat and normal breathing and digestion. People spend the
greater part of their 24-hour day eating, sleeping, digesting, and
excreting. So it is the parasympathetic division that is typically active.

The Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system is made up of the sensory pathway, which

comprises all the nerves carrying messages from the senses to the
central nervous system (those nerves containing afferent neurons), and
the motor pathway, which is all of the nerves carrying messages from
the central nervous system to the voluntary, or skeletal,* muscles of the
body-muscles that allow people to move their bodies. When people are
walking, raising their hands in class, lifting a flower to smell, or directing
their gaze toward the person they are talking to or to look at a pretty
picture, they are using the somatic nervous system. Although these
muscles are called the “voluntary muscles,” they can move
involuntarily when a reflex response occurs. They are called
“voluntary” because they can be moved at will but are not
limited to only that kind of movement.

ENDOCRINE GLAND

The glandular system consists of various glands found in human body

which secrete various chemical substances necessary for the growth
and maintenance of body. These glands are of two types-exocrine and
endocrine. The exocrine glands have ducts and as such called duct-
glands. The duct or exocrine glands secrete chemical
substances other than the hormones which are carried
to different parts of the body through ducts or tubes,
viz. tear glands, the salivary glands, the sweat glands,
the bile glands etc. The endocrine glands secrete
hormones and are directly poured into blood stream.
These glands do not have any duct. Hence, these are
called ductless glands. The endocrine glands do not initiate any
specific activity by themselves but influence the activity of various organs
such as heart, liver, circulation of blood etc. The activities of these
organs are either accelerated or slowed down depending upon the hyper
or hypo secretions of hormones which are reflected in various
physiological and psychological behaviour events.

Hormones are the chemical messengers released by these glands

and they travel through the blood stream to target cells that have
receptors for those hormones.

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland receives signals from the hypothalamus.

This gland has two lobes, the posterior and anterior lobes. The
posterior lobe secretes hormones that are made by the
hypothalamus. The anterior lobe produces its own hormones,
several of which act on other endocrine glands.

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

 Growth hormone (GH): Over-secretion of GH stimulates

abnormal growth of the body leading to gigantism and low
secretion of GH results in stunted growth resulting in
pituitary dwarfism. Excess secretion of growth hormone in
adults especially in middle age can result in severe
disfigurement (especially of the face) called Acromegaly.

 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH):stimulates the

thyroid gland to produce thyroxine which stimulates
oxidative respiration.

 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH):stimulates the

adrenal gland to produce steroid hormones. Some regulate
glucose production, others balance sodium & potassium in
the blood.

 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):plays an important

role in the menstrual cycle. In males, it causes the testes to
produce a hormone that regulates sperm production.
 Luteinising hormone (LH):plays an important role in the
menstrual cycle. It also stimulates the production of
testosterone in males.

 Prolactin:Primarily involved in stimulating milk production

in females after childbirth, prolactin also plays a role in
regulating the immune system and development of
pancreatic cells.

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

 Oxytocin: Oxytocin initiates uterine contraction during

childbirth and milk release in mothers. • These hormones
are actually synthesized in the hypothalamus and stored in
the posterior pituitary.

 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Regulates the kidney’s

retention of water. Can inhibit urine production. In large
amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood
pressure (vasopressin)

Pineal gland

The pineal gland is a small, pea-shaped endocrine gland on top

of the brain stem between the two hemispheres.

The hormone released by pineal gland is known as melatonin.

This regulates the biological clock of the body which controls
our sleeping, waking,eating, reproductive cycle (menstrual
cycle and onset of puberty) in women and behavior. Pineal
gland does not secrete melatonin in sunlight, this tends to
influence a persons' mood. It keeps track of length of days and
seasons. For example, in seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
patient suffers from severe depression during winters. As days
are small in winters, so there is less daylight, and as a
resurrection in the production of melatonin. When there is jet
lag, then melatonin is also used to treat it.

This hormone:
 Regulates sleep-Wake Cycle: Melatonin levels rise in the
evening, promoting sleep, and fall in the morning, helping to
wake the body.

 Influences circadian Rhythms: It helps synchronize the

body’s internal clock with the external environment, such as
light and dark cycles.

 Has antioxidant Properties: Melatonin has antioxidant

effects, which may protect cells from damage.

Pancreas

Pancreas lies near the stomach and the small intestine.It is a

long gland,about 12 cms long and weighs about 100 gms. It is
made up of small cells known as islets of langerhans. These
cells are joined together by gap junctions. There are different
kinds off pancreatic cells.

 Glucagon:This converts the glycogen into glucose in the

blood, It thus increases the blood glucose level.

 Insulin:Helps to lower the blood glucose level and promotes

metabolism.

 Somatostatin: This regulates some cells of the pancreatic

islets, inhibits the secretion of growth hormone, glucagon,
insulin and pancreatic polypeptide.

Thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the

front of the neck and is made up of two lobes that are
connected by anisthmus in the neck region. It secretes
hormones as:

 Calcitonin: Calcitonin is another hormone secreted by the

thyroid gland. It controls the calcium content of the blood by
increasing the formation of bones.

 Thyroxine (T4): Helps regulate metabolism by controlling

how the body uses energy. It is a storage form that gets
 converted into T3. The secretion of thyroxin depends upon
the temperature of the environment. When it is cold then
the secretion of thyroxin increases while when it is warm it
reduces.

 Triiodothyronine (T3): It plays a crucial role in controlling

metabolism, affecting nearly every tissue in the body. T3
increases the basal metabolic rate, influences heart rate and
body temperature, and is essential for growth and
development.

A condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough

thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) is called hypothyroidism.
Hyperthyroidism is when the thyroid gland produces
excessive amounts of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

Adrenal Glands

These two triangular adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney.

The adrenal glands have two parts, each of which makes a set
of hormones and has a different function:

The outer part is the adrenal cortex. It makes hormones

called corticosteroids that help control salt and water balance
in the body, the body's response to stress, metabolism,
the immune system, and sexual development and function.

 Cortisol: Known as the "stress hormone," cortisol helps

regulate metabolism by controlling how the body uses fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates. It plays a critical role in the body's
response to stress, reduces inflammation, and maintains blood
sugar levels.

 ldosterone: Aldosterone acts in the kidney to promote the

uptake of sodium & other salts from the urine.

The inner part is the adrenal medulla. It primarily produces

catecholamines, which are crucial for the body's fight-or-flight
response.
 Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Epinephrine increases heart
rate, expands air passages, and enhances blood flow to
muscles during stressful situations. It prepares the body for
quick responses by promoting the release of glucose and fats
for energy.

 Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): Norepinephrine

complements the actions of epinephrine and primarily
increases blood pressure by constricting blood vessels. It
also influences attention, arousal, and mood, playing a role
in the body's overall response to stress.

Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are four small glands attached to the

thyroid.The hormone they produce is parathyroid hormone
(PTH) which regulates the level of calcium in the blood.
Essential that calcium is kept within narrow limits for muscle
contraction, including the heart.

 Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland, stimulates Ca2+

deposition in the bones and secretion by the kidneys, thus
lowering blood Ca2+ levels.

 PTH or parathormone secreted by the parathyroid glands,

has the opposite effects on the bones and kidneys, and
raises Ca2+ levels.

Thymus

The thymus plays a major role in the development of the

immune system and maturation of T-cells. In addition,
thymosins also promote production of antibodies to provide
humoral immunity. Thymus is degenerated in old individuals
resulting in a decreased production of thymosins. As a result,
the immune responses of old persons become weak.

 Thymosin: Thymosin is the main hormone produced by the

thymus gland. It plays a vital role in the development of T-
cells, which are essential for adaptive immunity. T-cells, or
T-lymphocytes, are critical for identifying and destroying
 infected cells or cancerous cells in the body. Thymosin aids
in the differentiation and maturation of these cells as they
migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus.

 Thymopoietin: This hormone also helps in the

differentiation and maturation of T-cells. It ensures that
immature T-cells develop into fully functional T-cells that can
recognize foreign pathogens and distinguish them from the
body’s own cells.

 Thymulin: Thymulin works alongside thymosin and

thymopoietin to assist in the production of T-cells and
enhance their ability to regulate immune responses. It is
involved in promoting the immunological function of T-cells
and modulating the body's immune response.

Gonads

Gonads are known as the male and female reproductive

organs. Ovaries are the female gonad while testes are the male
gonad, and they are responsible for producing sex hormones in
our bodies.

The Primary Female Gonad hormones are:

 Oestrogens: They aid in the development of the female

reproductive system and facilitate reproduction. For
instance, oestrogens promote the growth of a uterus,
maturation of vagina, widening of breasts and pelvis.

 Progesterone: They help to prepare a uterus for

conception and are also responsible for regulating it during
the menstrual cycle. Progesterone also plays a key role in
milk production during pregnancy and even for stimulating
glands.

The Male Gonad Hormones are:

Androgens are hormones that majorly influence the

development of the male reproductive system.
 Testosterone is responsible and essential for increased
growth of bone and muscle, growth of body hair, developing
broader shoulder, voice deepening and growth of the penis.

 Androstenedione: These are the hormones that act as a

precursor to estrogens and testosterone.

 Inhibin: These hormones inhibit the release of FSH and

thought to be involved in sperm cell regulation and
development.