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CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR IMPLEMENTING HALAL

PRINCIPLES IN THE JAMU INDUSTRY IN INDONESIA
TANTANGAN DAN PROSPEK PENERAPAN PRINSIP HALAL DALAM INDUSTRI
JAMU DI INDONESIA
Received: 30/04/2024; Revised: 12/05/2024; Accepted: 22/05/2024; Published: 30/06/2024
Iif Hanifa Nurrosyidah*1, Abd. Syakur2

1
Program Studi Pengobat Tradisional, Fakultas Vokasi Universitas Airlangga,
2
Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas PGRI Delta Sidoarjo
*Corresponding author: hanifa.nurrosyidah@vokasi.unair.ac.id
ABSTRACT
The traditional herbal medicine (jamu) industry in Indonesia faces challenges in applying halal
principles due to the common use of non-halal ingredients in jamu production. Jamu is in high demand
in Indonesia, a largely Muslim country with a thriving halal economy. This article reviews the
challenges and prospects of implementing halal principles in Indonesia's jamu industry. The research
methods employed include literature review and analysis of relevant regulations and industry practices
in jamu production. The research findings indicate that the presence of non-halal ingredients in some
jamu products poses obstacles to meeting halal requirements. The discussion proposes strategies
and potential avenues to enhance the implementation of halal principles in the jamu industry, such as
developing alternative raw materials and obtaining halal certification. The conclusion drawn from this
article is that implementing halal principles in the jamu industry holds promising prospects but requires
close collaboration between the government, producers, and other stakeholders.
Keywords: Halal, Indonesia, Jamu Industry, Challenges
ABSTRAK
Industri jamu tradisional di Indonesia menghadapi tantangan dalam penerapan prinsip halal karena
adanya bahan-bahan non-halal yang umumnya digunakan dalam pembuatan jamu. Jamu tradisional
sangat diminati oleh masyarakat di Indonesia yang populasinya mayoritas muslim yang sangat erat
hubunya dengan Industri halal yang berkelanjutan. Artikel ini mengulas tantangan dan prospek
penerapan prinsip halal dalam industri jamu tradisional di Indonesia. Metode penelitian yang
digunakan meliputi studi pustaka dan analisis terhadap regulasi terkait serta praktik industri jamu.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa keberadaan bahan non-halal dalam beberapa produk jamu
menjadi hambatan dalam memenuhi prinsip halal. Pembahasan mengemukakan strategi dan potensi
untuk meningkatkan penerapan prinsip halal dalam industri jamu, seperti pengembangan bahan baku
alternatif dan sertifikasi halal. Kesimpulan dari artikel ini adalah bahwa penerapan prinsip halal dalam
industri jamu tradisional memiliki prospek yang menjanjikan namun memerlukan kerja sama yang erat
antara pemerintah, produsen, dan pemangku kepentingan lainnya.
Kata Kunci: Halal, Indonesia, Industri Jamu, Farmasi Halal
How to cite: Nurrosyidah, I. H & Syakur, A. 2024. Challenges And Prospects For Implementing Halal
Principles In The Jamu Industry In Indonesia. Journal of Halal Product and Research. 7(1), 104-112,
https://dx.doi.org/10.192501 /jhpr.vol.7-issue.1.104-112
INTRODUCTION
The tradition of concocting and consuming herbal remedies known as "jamu" for health purposes
originated during the heyday of Hindu-Buddhist culture in Java. Jamu is not only regarded as a health
tonic but also as a means of aiding in healing and detoxifying the body. The theory regarding the origins
and development of the tradition of using jamu in Java often encompasses cultural, historical, and
traditional medicinal aspects. One frequently cited theory suggests that this practice originated from the
104
Journal of Halal Product and Research (JHPR) Volume 7 Issue 1, 2024
105 doi: 10.192501 /jhpr.vol.7-issue.1.104-112 | Nurrosyidah & Syakur (2024) |
hanifa.nurrosyidah@vokasi.unair.ac.id
influence of Hindu-Buddhist culture in Java in ancient times. According to this theory, knowledge of
jamu concoctions and their use as health tonics has been passed down through generations since the
Hindu-Buddhist era.
The UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) Committee has designated "Healthy Herbal
Medicine Culture" (Budaya Sehat Jamu) as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity on December
6, 2023. Budaya Sehat Jamu encompasses traditional skills and cultural values associated with
traditional herbal medicines made from plants and spices, as well as traditional healing methods aimed
at improving health by enhancing immune system. The Jamu culture is believed to have existed since
the 8th century CE, as evidenced by reliefs in the Borobudur Temple and ancient manuscripts such as
Kakawin Ramayana and Serat Centini (Anonim, 2023).
The herbal medicine industry in Indonesia has long been an integral part of the country's cultural
heritage and traditional health practices. Jamu, a traditional remedy made from natural ingredients like
herbs and organic materials, holds a significant position in Indonesian society as a trusted and effective
alternative treatment. However, as times change and market demands become more complex, the jamu
industry faces new challenges, one of which is the implementation of halal principles in its production.
Halal principles have gained increasing importance in Indonesia, which has the world's largest
Muslim population. People in the country are highly concerned about consuming products that are halal,
not just in terms of food and beverages but also in traditional health products like jamu. This has
prompted the jamu industry to reevaluate its production processes, from sourcing halal-compliant raw
materials to ensuring halal practices throughout distribution (Fahmi, 2017). Halal certification provides
assurance to Muslim consumers that jamu products meet the requirements of halal (permissible)
according to Islamic teachings. Observant Muslim consumers tend to seek products with halal
certification, and having such certification helps maintain consumer trust. This is crucial for retaining
and expanding the market share of jamu products among Muslim consumers (Alwi, 2016).
Halal certification is very important. Halal certification protects Muslim consumers from consuming
products that are haram (forbidden) or contain ingredients prohibited in Islam. In the context of jamu,
certain ingredients such as alcohol or non-halal animal-derived substances can be used in the
production process. With halal certification, consumers can be confident that the jamu they consume is
free from haram ingredients (Zulkarnain & Abbas, 2017). In many countries, including Indonesia, halal
certification for jamu products is a legal requirement regulated by the government. Countries with a
majority Muslim population generally have laws or regulations governing halal certification. Therefore,
jamu producers need to obtain halal certification to market their products legally and comply with
applicable regulations. Halal certification also plays a significant role in enhancing the competitiveness
of jamu products in the global market. In recent decades, the demand for halal products has increased
worldwide, including in non-Muslim-majority countries. By having halal certification, jamu producers can
market their products to Muslim consumers in various countries, thus opening up export opportunities
and expanding market reach (Umar, 2019).
In this context, there are both challenges and prospects for implementing halal principles in the
jamu industry in Indonesia. Challenges include ensuring the compatibility of raw materials with halal
requirements and improving the understanding of halal compliance among industry stakeholders. On
the other hand, there are significant opportunities associated with implementing halal principles, such
as gaining consumer trust and expanding into larger global markets through exports.
This study aims to thoroughly investigate the challenges and prospects of implementing halal
principles in the jamu industry in Indonesia. By gaining a better understanding of these dynamics, it is
hoped that insights can be gained into the necessary steps to optimize the production of halal-compliant
jamu while preserving its traditional values and quality.

METHODOLOGY
The research method you are referring to is commonly known as a literature review. It involves
collecting relevant articles related to the research topic and objective, reading the articles thoroughly,
understanding their content and arguments, identifying challenges faced in implementing halal
principles in the herbal medicine industry in Indonesia, exploring potential prospects, conducting
analysis, and drawing conclusions.The steps involved in conducting a literature review using this
method typically include:
1. Defining the research topic and objective: Clearly define the focus of your research and the specific
objectives you want to achieve.
2. Searching for relevant articles: Use academic databases, online libraries, and search engines to find
articles that are related to your research topic. Use appropriate keywords and filters to narrow down
your search.
3. Article selection: Evaluate the articles based on their relevance to your research topic, the quality of
the research, and the credibility of the authors. Select articles that provide valuable insights and
information.
4. Reading and understanding the articles: Read the selected articles thoroughly, making sure to
understand the content, arguments, and findings. Take notes and highlight key points that are
relevant to your research.
5. Identifying challenges: Analyze the articles to identify the challenges faced in implementing halal
principles in the herbal medicine industry in Indonesia. Look for common themes, issues, and
concerns that emerge from the literature.
6. Exploring prospects: Examine the articles for potential prospects and opportunities related to the
implementation of halal principles in the industry. Consider factors such as market demand,
consumer preferences, regulatory frameworks, and technological advancements.
7. Analysis and conclusion: Analyze the information gathered from the literature review, compare
different perspectives, and draw conclusions based on the findings. Identify gaps in the existing
literature and suggest areas for future research.
RESULTS
This study shows that the implementation of halal principles in the herbal medicine industry in
Indonesia faces several main challenges, one of which is the complexity of the raw materials used in
the production of herbal medicine, where some of these materials may contain substances that require
further assessment regarding their halal status (Nurrosyidah et al., 2023). In addition, the lack of
sufficient understanding of halal principles by some industry players is also a constraint in implementing
appropriate halal standards.
An interesting issue regarding the use of alcohol in some herbal medicine (jamu) products. It is
true that there are some jamu drinks that contain alcohol, and this can be problematic for those who
wish to avoid consuming alcohol. Jamu products that are clearly labeled as containing alcohol, such as
"jamu anggur merah" (red wine jamu), should be avoided by those who want to steer clear of alcohol,
as alcohol is a substance that is haram (forbidden) in Islam. Additionally, there is a possibility that some
other jamu products may contain a small amount of alcohol as a result of natural fermentation
processes, even if they are not labeled as such. In these cases, if the alcohol content is very low, some
experts believe that consuming such products may be permissible. However, to be certain, you should
always carefully check the labels and ingredients of jamu products before purchasing and consuming
them. In general, I would suggest that you be cautious and selective when choosing jamu products,
especially if you want to avoid alcohol consumption. Opt for jamu products that are guaranteed to be
alcohol-free and align with the principles of your religion (Anonim, 2022).

Figure 1. Herbal Medicines Containing Alcohol
However, there are also opportunities that can be exploited. The implementation of halal
principles can enhance consumer confidence in herbal medicine products, particularly in the global
market that pays increasing attention to halal aspects. With halal certification, Indonesian herbal
medicine products have a greater opportunity to be exported and widely accepted in the international
market.
DISCUSSION
Proud news for Indonesia came from the 18th session of the Intergovernmental Committee for
the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Republic of Botswana, which took place on
December 6, 2023. UNESCO officially recognized Jamu as an intangible cultural heritage of Indonesia.
The Jamu culture is believed to have existed since the 8th century, as evidenced by reliefs found in
Borobudur Temple and other ancient manuscripts. Jamu is the 13th intangible cultural heritage from
Indonesia to be included in UNESCO's list (Anonim, 2023). With the recognition of Jamu as a cultural
heritage by UNESCO, it is hoped that the younger generation in Indonesia will continue to preserve the
healthy tradition of Jamu for the future. This recognition may also lead to an increased popularity of
Jamu as a sought-after commodity, resulting in a growing number of Jamu consumers.
The herbal medicine industry in Indonesia has a rich and long history. Jamu, or traditional
herbal medicine, has been used by the local population since the time of the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms
and has continued to evolve with the introduction of Islam and Dutch colonization. Initially, jamu was
known as a traditional medicinal concoction believed to have both health and spiritual benefits.
However, with modernization and technological advancements, the herbal medicine industry has
undergone transformations in production methods and marketing.
Halal principles are highly important in the herbal medicine industry in Indonesia due to the
country's large Muslim population and the increasing awareness of halal consumption. The
implementation of halal principles in the herbal medicine industry is not only an religious obligation but
also a smart business strategy, as it can expand the market and enhance consumer trust (Charina &
Charisma, 2023). Halal certification ensures that jamu products are produced in accordance with the
principles of Halal and Tayyib, which refer to both the permissibility and wholesomeness of the products.
These principles encompass the use of halal raw materials, clean and hygienic production processes,
and prevention of contamination with non-halal substances. Thus, halal certification encourages jamu
producers to maintain the quality and cleanliness of their products, allowing consumers to consume
safe and beneficial jamu (Miftahul Jannah & Rosyidi, 2018).
According to the information provided by the Indonesian Food and Drug Review Institute of the
Indonesian Ulema Council (LPPOM MUI), there are several herbal medicines that are haram
(prohibited) because they contain alcohol. Alcoholic beverages that fall under the category of khamr
(intoxicants) are considered impure (najis) and their consumption is prohibited (haram), regardless of

the amount. Here are three types of prohibited herbal medicines (jamu) according to LPPOM MUI (the
Indonesian Food and Drug Supervisory Agency) that the public should be cautious about (Henry, 2022):
1. Alcohol-based Liquid and Capsule Herbal Medicines

Liquid and capsule herbal medicines tend to be more practical and less bitter when consumed,
but LPPOM MUI urges the public to investigate the extraction ingredients used. This is because
in addition to using water, herbal medicines sometimes use alcohol. Generally, in instant
powder herbal medicines, the alcohol has already been evaporated until dry.
2. Apart from using plants, traditional Chinese herbal medicines also often use additional
ingredients from wild animals, such as crocodile claws, tiger claws, bear liver, and snake blood.
"These additional ingredients are clearly prohibited for consumption," according to LPPOM
MUI.
3. Brewed Herbal Medicines Containing Arak or Wine
Brewed herbal medicines sold at roadside stalls usually use powdered herbal mixtures. As long
as they only use egg or honey as an additive, the herbal medicine is not problematic.
Certainly, Here are some additional points to provide more information about the challenges
faced by the herbal medicine (jamu) industry in Indonesia concerning halal certification:
1. Government regulations - Halal certification and compliance with health regulations can be
complex and require coordination with various authorities.
2. Consumer acceptance - Educating consumers and building trust in herbal medicines takes
time. Some may prefer conventional medicines.
3. Resource availability - Sustainably sourcing high-quality halal herbal ingredients can be
challenging, depending on the required plants/herbs. Climate change can affect availability (Aji
et al., 2023).
4. However, challenges exist, such as the perceived high costs and lack of public awareness,
hindering the optimal implementation of halal policies, particularly for small and medium
enterprises (Budiman & Mujib, 2020).
5. Despite the importance of halal certification, research indicates that its influence on purchasing
decisions among NU Muslim consumers of herbal products in Boyolali regency was not
significant (Mardhotillah et al., 2022). While halal certification is vital for market access and
consumer trust, addressing challenges and enhancing awareness are crucial for maximizing its
impact on herbal medicine exports.
6. Diversity of Ingredients of Jamu often contains a wide range of herbal ingredients, and ensuring
the halal status of each ingredient can be challenging. Some herbal ingredients may not have
a clear halal certification, especially if they are imported or sourced from different regions.
Manufacturers need to thoroughly research and verify the halal status of each ingredient to
ensure compliance with the certification requirements (WHO, 2020).
7. Traditional Production Methods of Jamu is often produced using traditional methods that have
been passed down through generations. These traditional practices may not have been
originally designed with halal certification in mind. Adapting traditional production methods to
meet halal requirements without compromising the authenticity and efficacy of the jamu can be
a complex task (Beers, 2012).
8. Limited Standardization of herbal medicine industry in Indonesia consists of numerous small
and medium-sized enterprises that produce jamu using different recipes and processes. This
lack of standardization poses challenges in terms of ensuring consistency in halal certification
across the industry. Developing standardized procedures and guidelines for halal production
while accommodating the diversity of jamu formulations can be a significant undertaking (Pols,
2016).
9. Compliance with Halal Assurance Systems obtaining halal certification requires implementing
a comprehensive halal assurance system within the manufacturing facilities. This includes
establishing standard operating procedures, traceability systems, and documentation
processes to ensure the integrity and halal status of the products. Implementing and
maintaining such systems can be resource-intensive and may require investments in staff
training, infrastructure, and technology.

10. Market Competitiveness while halal certification is essential for targeting Muslim consumers, it
is also crucial for competing in domestic and international markets. Non-halal certified products
may face limited market access and consumer mistrust. Therefore, the jamu industry needs to
balance the requirements for halal certification with the need to remain competitive and meet
other regulatory standards.
11. Collaboration and Industry Support, overcoming the challenges related to halal certification
requires collaborative efforts between the government, halal certification authorities, industry
associations, and jamu manufacturers. This collaboration can involve providing guidance,
training, and support to help manufacturers navigate the certification process effectively. It also
involves continuous dialogue and feedback to address any emerging issues or concerns.
By addressing these challenges, the jamu industry can enhance consumer confidence, expand
market reach, and contribute to the overall growth and development of the herbal medicine sector in
Indonesia.
There have been several cases related to the halal status of herbal products or traditional
Indonesian medicines, especially those formulated in the form of capsules. One of the main concerns
is the use of animal gelatin, particularly pork gelatin, in the production of capsules. The presence of
pork DNA in these capsules is a significant issue that requires further investigation. The objective of a
particular study was to determine the presence or absence of pork DNA in the shells of jamu capsules.
The researchers obtained samples from an e-commerce platform based on specific criteria. Five jamu
capsules, labeled as samples A, B, C, D, and E, were selected for analysis. The researchers isolated
the DNA from these samples to obtain pure DNA, which was then amplified using the polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) method with specific primers. The PCR process resulted in the generation of millions of
copies of DNA. Subsequently, electrophoresis was performed to visualize the DNA bands produced on
an agarose gel medium. The size of these DNA bands, measured in base pairs (bp), was then compared
with positive controls.The research findings revealed that four samples, B, C, D, and E, tested positive
for the presence of pork DNA at 132 bp. On the other hand, the jamu capsule shell preparation in
sample A tested negative for pork DNA. These findings emphasize the need for further scrutiny and
quality control measures in the production of herbal products and jamu capsules to ensure their
compliance with halal standards. It is essential to address the issue of non-certified halal products and
take appropriate measures to safeguard consumer preferences and religious requirements (Sarina et
al., 2023).
In addition to the challenges and difficulties related to the halal aspects of herbal medicine
products in Indonesia, there are also opportunities and prospects that can be identified. Some of these
include:
1. The increasing global Muslim population creates a potential market for halal health products.
More consumers are seeking halal alternatives.
2. The growing interest in herbal and natural remedies opens opportunities to position halal herbal
medicine as a safer choice compared to some synthetic drugs.
3. Digital technology can help improve production and distribution while maintaining standards.
Online platforms expand reach within and across countries.
4. Collaboration with herbal extract manufacturers and healthcare providers can help enhance the
acceptance of halal herbal medicine.
5. Some markets in Southeast Asia and the Middle East are more receptive due to their cultural
acceptance of herbal remedies, providing early growth opportunities.
6. The Indonesian government has provided stronger support and regulations regarding halal
certification. This creates an enabling environment for companies to develop and market halal
herbal medicine products more easily. This support may also include fiscal incentives or other
assistance that encourages the growth of the halal herbal industry.
7. Technological advancements enable the development and production of more efficient and
high-quality halal herbal medicine products. Technologies such as supercritical extraction,

processing with modern methods, and the use of standardized raw materials can enhance the
effectiveness and safety of products. These innovations can help companies meet halal
requirements and increase their competitiveness in the market.
8. Increased education and research in the field of halal herbal medicine can provide a significant
boost to the development of this industry. With more in-depth research on the health benefits
of halal herbal medicine and increased knowledge of production processes that align with halal
principles, companies can produce higher-quality products and gain greater consumer trust.
The Sharia Enterprise theory directs companies in the development of halal products. This
theory is based on Islamic business principles that encompass justice, transparency, sustainability, and
the well-being of society. In the context of the herbal medicine industry, the Sharia Enterprise theory
guides companies to ensure that their products adhere to the principles of halal (Anggraeni, 2019). One
of the main principles in the principles of halal is the use of halal and thayyib (good and wholesome)
ingredients. In the context of herbal medicine, this means using natural ingredients obtained ethically
and not containing elements that are prohibited in Islam. For example, avoiding the use of pork in the
production process or confirming that any additives used, such as preservatives or colorants, are halal.
(Athiroh, 2022). Furthermore, the principle of cleanliness (tahir) is also crucial. This includes aspects
such as the cleanliness of production facilities, equipment, and personnel involved in the herbal
medicine manufacturing process. Ensuring that the entire supply chain maintains cleanliness helps to
avoid contamination that could affect the halal status of the product (Aslikhah, 2021) .
Another principle that should be considered is fairness and sustainability. This includes aspects
such as fair trade with farmers or raw material suppliers, as well as ensuring sustainable production
practices to preserve the environment. In the context of product development, the Theory of Sharia
Enterprise also guides companies to ensure that the process of product development and testing is
conducted in accordance with halal principles. This may involve halal certification by relevant authorities
or recognized halal certification bodies (Alfian & Muslim, 2017).
Overall, adhering to halal principles in the herbal medicine industry in Indonesia not only fosters
religious compliance but also strengthens a company's reputation, expands its market, and enhances
consumer trust. By following the Theory of Sharia Enterprise, companies can ensure that their products
are not only legally halal but also aligned with Islamic business values that promote fairness,
transparency, and sustainability (Andriani, 2023).
Even though there are many challenges, there are benefits to be gained from implementing this
halal certification for all aspects of the industry, including herbal medicine. Halal certification can impact
herbal medicine exports positively. Halal certification ensures compliance with Islamic dietary laws for
exports (Hasan & Pasyah, 2022). Halal certification boosts herbal medicine exports in global markets.
Ensures compliance with halal standards for international acceptance and sales (Hidayati et al., 2022).
Halal certification moderate relationships between export performance and various factors. Certification
practices moderate relationships between export performance and influencing factors (Guo, 2010).
CONCLUSION
Implementing halal principles in the jamu industry indeed holds promising prospects. Halal
certification ensures that products and processes comply with Islamic dietary laws and guidelines, which
is of significant importance to Muslim consumers. By incorporating halal standards into the jamu
industry, manufacturers can tap into a vast market of Muslim consumers who seek products that align
with their religious beliefs and values. To successfully implement halal principles in the jamu industry,
close collaboration between the government, producers, and other stakeholders is crucial. Here's why:
1. Government Support: The government plays a vital role in establishing and enforcing halal
regulations. They can create a regulatory framework that outlines the specific requirements for
halal certification in the jamu industry. This framework should address issues such as sourcing
of ingredients, manufacturing processes, labeling, and storage. Additionally, the government

can provide financial incentives and support programs to encourage producers to adopt halal
standards.
2. Producers' Commitment: Jamu producers need to recognize the potential benefits of catering
to the halal market and demonstrate their commitment to implementing halal principles. They
should invest in training and education to ensure their staff understands the requirements of
halal certification. Producers should also establish robust quality control measures to ensure
that their products comply with halal standards throughout the production process.
Collaborating with halal certification bodies can help streamline the certification process and
ensure compliance.
3. Stakeholder Engagement: Collaboration with various stakeholders is essential to address the
complexities of implementing halal principles. This includes engaging with halal certification
bodies, Islamic scholars, consumer associations, and industry experts. Their expertise and
guidance can assist in formulating industry standards, certification processes, and addressing
any challenges that may arise. Regular communication and collaboration ensure that all
perspectives are considered, leading to more effective implementation.
4. Consumer Awareness: Educating consumers about the significance of halal certification and
promoting awareness of halal jamu products is crucial. Effective marketing and labeling
strategies can help Muslim consumers identify and choose halal-certified jamu products with
confidence. Additionally, clear and accurate labeling should be implemented to provide
transparency regarding the halal status of the product, including information about the
certification body and relevant halal standards.
By fostering collaboration between the government, producers, and other stakeholders, the
implementation of halal principles in the jamu industry can thrive. This collaboration will enhance
consumer trust, open new market opportunities, and contribute to the growth and development of the
industry while catering to the specific needs and preferences of Muslim consumers.
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Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

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CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS FOR IMPLEMENTING HALAL

Iif Hanifa Nurrosyidah*1, Abd. Syakur2

Keywords: Halal, Indonesia, Jamu Industry, Challenges

Kata Kunci: Halal, Indonesia, Industri Jamu, Farmasi Halal

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

Figure 1. Herbal Medicines Containing Alcohol

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

1. Alcohol-based Liquid and Capsule Herbal Medicines

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

Nahdlatul Ulama Studies, 1(2), , 181-200.

Online ISSN: 2654-977 | Print ISSN: 2654-9409

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