Human Physiology 2024/09/18

The Nervous System

Dr.Wafaa Fawzi, Lec.1 College of pharmacy

Divisions of the Nervous System

Nervous system controls all the activities of the body. It is quicker than the other control
system in the body. Primarily, the nervous system is divided into two parts.
1. Central nervous system
2. Peripheral Nervous system
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord (Fig.1). The
brain is the part of the CNS that is located in the skull. The spinal cord is connected to the
brain and is encircled by the bones of the vertebral column. It is continued as spinal cord
in the vertebral canal through the foramen magnum of the skull bone. Brain and spinal
cord are surrounded by three layers of meninges called the outer dura mater, middle
arachnoid mater and inner pia mater. The space between the arachnoid mater and pia
mater is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The important parts of brain
and segments of spinal cord are shown in (Fig.2).

Parts of Brain
Brain consists of three major divisions:
1. Prosencephalon It is otherwise known as forebrain. 2. Mesencephalon It is also
known as midbrain. 3. Rhombencephalon or hindbrain.
Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata are together called the brainstem.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS.
Components of the PNS include nerves, ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors.
A nerve is a bundle of axons that is located in the PNS. Cranial nerves connect the brain
to the periphery, whereas spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to the periphery.
A tract is a bundle of axons that is located in the CNS. Tracts interconnect neurons in the
spinal cord and brain. Ganglia refer to a cluster of neuronal cell bodies located in the
PNS. The cell bodies within the CNS are frequently clustered into groups called nuclei.
Ganglia are closely associated with cranial and spinal nerves. Enteric plexuses are
extensive networks of neurons located in the walls of organs of the gastrointestinal tract.
The neurons of these plexuses help regulate the digestive system.
The term sensory receptor refers to a structure of the nervous system that monitors
changes in the external or internal environment. Examples of sensory receptors include
touch receptors in the skin, photoreceptors in the eye, and olfactory receptors in the nose.
The PNS is divided into a somatic nervous system (SNS), an autonomic nervous system
(ANS), and an enteric nervous system (ENS). The ANS can be divided in to two
branches, the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

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Fig.1 Organization of the nervous system.
Subdivisions of the nervous system.
FIG.2: The parts of central nervous
Functions of the Nervous System
The nervous system allows us to sense various smells, produce speech, and remember
past events; in addition, it provides signals that control body movements and regulates the
operation of internal organs. These diverse activities can be grouped into three basic
functions:
• Sensory function (input). Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli, such as an increase
in blood pressure, or external stimuli. This sensory information is then carried into the
brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves.
• Integrative function (process). The nervous system processes sensory information by
analyzing it and making decisions for appropriate responses-an activity known as
integration.
• Motor function (output). Once sensory information is integrated, the nervous system
may elicit an appropriate motor response by activating effectors (muscles and glands)
through cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes muscles to contract
and glands to secrete.
Histology of Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue comprises two types of cells-neurons and neuroglia.
Neurons: The basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. Neurons (nerve
cells) possess electrical excitability, the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into
an action potential. A stimulus is any change in the environment that is strong enough to
initiate an action potential.
Parts of Neurons: Neuron is like any other cell in the body having nucleus and all the
organelles in the cytoplasm. However, it is different from other cells by two ways: 1.
Neuron has branches or processes called axon and dendrites 2. Neuron does not have
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centrosome; so it cannot undergo division. Neurons have three principal regions: (1) a cell
body, (2) dendrites, and (3) an axon (Fig.3).
The cell body is the enlarged portion of the neuron that contains the nucleus surrounded
by cytoplasm that includes typical cellular organelles such as lysosomes, mitochondria,
and a Golgi complex. Neuronal cell bodies also contain free ribosomes and prominent
clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum, termed Nissl bodies. (The ribosomes are the
sites of protein synthesis). The cell body and larger dendrites (but not axons) contain
Nissl bodies. The cytoskeleton includes both neurofibrils that provide the cell shape and
support, and microtubules, which assist in moving materials between the cell body and
axon.
A nerve fiber is a general term for any
neuronal process (extension) that
emerges from the cell body of a neuron.
Most neurons have two kinds of
processes: multiple dendrites and a
single axon. Dendrites are thin,
branched processes that extend from the
cytoplasm of the cell body. Dendrites
provide a receptive area that transmits
graded electrochemical impulses to the
cell body.
The axon is a longer process that
conducts impulses, called action
potentials, away from the cell body. The
origin of the axon near the cell body is
an expanded region called the axon
hillock; it is here that action potentials
originate. Side branches called axon
collaterals may extend from the axon.
Fig. 3 Structure of a multipolar neuron (a
neuron with a large cell body, several short
dendrites, and a single long axon). Arrows
indicate the direction of information flow:
dendrites → cell body → axon → axon terminals.

The axon has a long central core of cytoplasm called axoplasm. The axoplasm is
covered by the tubular sheath like membrane called axolemma which is the continuation
of the cell membrane of nerve cell body. The axoplasm
along with the axolemma is called the axis cylinder of
the nerve fiber (Fig. 4). Axoplasm contains
mitochondria, neurofibrils and axoplasmic vesicles.
But, Nissl bodies are absent in the axon. The axis
cylinder of the nerve fiber is covered by a membrane
called neurilemma.

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Fig.4: A. Myelinated nerve fiber B. Non-myelinated nerve fiber

The site of communication between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell
is called a synapse. The tips of some axon terminals swell into bulb-shaped structures
called synaptic end bulbs.

Classification of Neurons
Both structural and functional features are used to classify the various neurons in the
body.
The structural classification: structurally, neurons are classified according to the
number of processes extending from the cell body (Fig.5):
1. Multipolar neurons usually have several dendrites and one axon. Most neurons in the
brain and spinal cord are of this type, as well as all motor neurons and association
neurons.
2. Bipolar neurons have one main dendrite and one axon. They are found in the retina of
the eye.
3. Unipolar neurons have dendrites and one axon that are fused together to form a
continuous process that emerges from the cell body. These neurons are more
appropriately called pseudounipolar neurons. The
dendrites of most unipolar neurons function as
sensory receptors that detect a sensory stimulus
such as touch, pressure, pain, or thermal stimuli.
The cell bodies of most unipolar neurons are
located in the ganglia of spinal and cranial nerves.
Fig.5 Three different types of neurons.
Pseudounipolar neurons, have one process that splits.
Bipolar neurons, has two processes. Multipolar neurons,
have many dendrites and one axon.

The functional classification:

Functionally, neurons are classified according to the direction in which the nerve
impulse is conveyed with respect to the CNS (Fig.6).
1. Sensory or afferent neurons either contain sensory receptors at their distal ends
(dendrites) or are located just after sensory receptors that are separate cells. Once an
appropriate stimulus activates a sensory receptor, the sensory neuron forms an action
potential in its axon and the action potential is conveyed into the CNS through cranial or
spinal nerves. Most sensory neurons are unipolar in structure.
2. Motor or efferent neurons convey action potentials away from the CNS to effectors
(muscles and glands) in the periphery (PNS) through cranial or spinal nerves . Motor
neurons are multipolar in structure.
3. Interneurons or association neurons are mainly located within the CNS between
sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons integrate (process) incoming sensory
information from sensory neurons and then elicit a motor response by activating the
appropriate motor neurons. Most interneurons are multipolar in structure.

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Fig.6 The relationship between CNS and
PNS. Sensory and motor neurons of the
peripheral nervous system carry information
into and out of, respectively, the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Neuroglia
Neuroglia or glia makes up about
half the volume of the CNS. The term
neuroglia refers to the supporting cells
of the CNS. Generally, neuroglia is
smaller than neurons, in contrast to
neurons, glia does not generate or
propagate action potentials, and they
can multiply and divide in the mature nervous system. Brain tumors derived from glia,
called gliomas (gle¯ -O¯ -mas), tend to be highly malignant and to grow rapidly.
There are two types of Neuroglia in the peripheral nervous system:
1. Schwann cells (also called neurolemmocytes), which form myelin sheaths around
peripheral axons. each Schwann cell myelinates a single axon (Fig.7a).A single Schwann
cell can also enclose as many as 20 or more unmyelinated axons (axons that lack a myelin
sheath) (Fig.7b).
2. Satellite cells, these flat cells surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia.
Besides providing structural support, satellite cells regulate the exchanges of materials
between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid (Fig.7c).
Neuroglia of the CNS can be classified on the basis of size, cytoplasmic processes, and
intracellular organization into four types (Fig.8):
1. Oligodendrocytes, which form myelin sheaths around axons of the CNS.
2. Microglia, are small cells with slender processes that give off numerous spine like
projections. function as phagocytes. Like tissue macrophages, they remove cellular debris
formed during normal development of the nervous system and phagocytize microbes and
damaged nervous tissue and secrete anti-inflammatory factors.
3. Astrocytes, are star shaped cells have many processes and are the largest and most
numerous of the neuroglia. The processes of astrocytes terminate in end-feet make
contact with blood capillaries of the CNS, neurons, and the pia mater. A. Processes of
astrocytes wrapped around blood capillaries isolate neurons of the CNS from various
potentially harmful substances in blood by secreting chemicals that maintain the unique
selective permeability characteristics of the endothelial cells of the capillaries, Form the
blood-brain barrier.
B. Astrocytes help to maintain the appropriate chemical environment of ECF
around CNS neurons for the generation of nerve impulses. For example, they regulate the
concentration of important ions such as K+ and Ca. +2
4. Ependymal cells are arranged in a single layer that possesses microvilli and cilia. These

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cells line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord (spaces filled with
cerebrospinal fluid). Functionally, ependymal cells produce, possibly monitor, and assist
in the circulation of
cerebrospinal fluid.

Fig.7 Neuroglia of
the peripheral
nervous system.
Neuroglia of the PNS
completely surround
axons and cell bodies
of neurons

Fig.8 the different types of

neuroglia cells of the
central nervous system.
Myelin sheaths around
axons are formed in the
CNS by oligodendrocytes.

Myelination
The axons surrounded by a multilayered lipid and protein covering, called the myelin
sheath, are said to be myelinated. The sheath electrically insulates the axon of a neuron
and increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction (the impulses jump from one node to
another node by salutatory conduction). Axons without such a covering are said to be
unmyelinated. Two types of neuroglia produce myelin sheaths: Schwann cells (in the
PNS) and oligodendrocytes (in the CNS).
Multiple layers of glial plasma membrane surround the axon, with the Schwann cell’s
cytoplasm and nucleus forming the outermost layer. The inner portion, consisting of
layers of Schwann cell membrane, is the myelin sheath. The outer nucleated cytoplasmic
layer of the Schwann cell, is the neurolemma. A neurolemma is found only around axons
in the PNS.
Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of Ranvier, appear at intervals along the axon
(Fig. 7a). Each Schwann cell wraps one axon segment between two nodes. In the CNS, an
oligodendrocyte myelinated parts of several axons and the neurolemma is not present.