Formation Evaluation

Lecture 3

Caliper Logs

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

1
Caliper Logs
Introduction
The Caliper Log

• The caliper log is used to measure the size and shape of a borehole

• Tools have one, two, three or four extendable arms.

• The simple mechanical caliper measures a vertical profile of the hole

diameter.

• It operates with two moving arms, which are pushed against the borehole
wall. Movement of these arms is recorded as an electrical current, which
is then transformed into a measurement of hole diameter.

• The caliper log is run with many different tools, and simple calipers are
used to apply the measuring pads against the borehole wall.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Introduction
The Caliper Log

• Three- and four-arm (dual caliper) tools give a better contact with the
borehole wall.

• The four-armed tool works with two opposite pairs to measure the
borehole diameter in two perpendicular orientations.

• Four-arm calipers that record separate measurements from each of the

two opposing sets of arms are commonly called X-Y calipers.

• X-Y calipers give a rough idea of hole shape, and can be used to make
somewhat more accurate estimations of hole volume than with a single
axis caliper.

• Borehole volume computer modules have been manufactured for use with
X-Y calipers, but boreholes are rarely round or elliptical.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Introduction
The Caliper Log

• As a generalization, one and two arm calipers tend to measure the

maximum dimension of a non-round hole, while three-arm calipers tend
to measure something closer to the minimum dimension.

• Running the caliper log with different tools allows the condition of the
hole to be calibrated each time for the individual tools run.

• But they are also run on cased hole sections to check the internal casing
diameter, which gives an indication of possible restrictions due to scale
deposition or enlargement resulting from corrosion.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.1
Examples of caliper log tools
Caliper Logs
Introduction
The Caliper Log

• Caliper logs measure the diameter of

the borehole by using one or more
extendable arms that align with the
borehole wall.

• The X-Y Caliper consists of two

independent cross-hole diameter
measurements made at right angles
(90°) and performed by two spring
loaded, non-motorised measurement
arms.

• www.leespecialties.com

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.2
Example of caliper log display
Caliper Logs
Introduction
BS (in)
Log Presentation 15 25
CALI (in)
• The caliper log is presented as a 15 25
curve recording borehole diameter 0
Differential
with depth. Caliper
CALI (in)
• The standard caliper log is
accompanied by a reference line, -2 8
0
which indicates bit size. 50

• Any deflection from this reference Hole size

line indicates either an increase or Bit size diameter = 19”
diameter (17.5 “) at base
decrease in hole diameter.
50

• Logs can be displayed as normal or

differential caliper measurements. Hole size
Bit size diameter = +3”
diameter = 0 at base
at reference

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University (Redrawn from Rider, 1996) 6
Caliper Logs
Borehole diameter
Gauged holes and borehole quality CALI LITH
15 25
GR Sand
• The aim of many drillers is to drill a perfectly gauged hole.
0 150 Shale
This is a hole that has the same hole diameter as the bit
which drilled it.

• This indicates a good drilling technique, and a borehole of

good quality in which wireline logs can be run without
worrying about making complicated corrections for caving
or mudcake.

• Because hole condition can frequently be related to

lithology, the shape of the caliper log can be used as a
general indication of rock type.

• Greater lithological certainty can be gained by displaying

the caliper log with other logs (e.g. gamma ray).
Bit Size
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Borehole diameter
Gauged holes and borehole quality

• Boreholes with a much larger diameter than the bit size, are termed caved or
washed out.

• Caving can occur while drilling, when the borehole wall can cave in or
collapse, or is broken by the rotating drill pipe, or eroded by circulating drilling
mud.

• This typically happens to shales, especially if they are shallow or

unconsolidated.

• Overpressured rocks also tend to cave, especially when the mud weight is not
adequate to control the formation pressure.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.3
Example of some typical responses
Caliper Logs recorded on caliper logs (After Rider, 1996)
Borehole diameter
Gauged holes and borehole
quality

• Good hole condition: if perfectly

gauged.

• Poor hole conditions: Off-gauge,

caused by cavings, sloughing or
mudcake.

• Lithology Indicator: Shales are prone

to caving, thus showing a greater
positive deflection on the caliper log
than harder sandstones or limestones.

• Tool Readings: The better the quality

of the borehole, the better and more
reliable the tool readings.
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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 Figure 3.4
By Gordon H. Wood, Jr., Thomas M. Kehn, M. Devereux Carter, and William C.
Culbertson
Example of a log suite used to identify
Caliper Logs GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 891
lithology in a coal bearing formation.
Borehole diameter Caliper Gamma Ray Density Lithology

Caving (increase in borehole

diameter)

• Greater lithological certainty can

be gained by displaying the caliper
log with other tools (e.g. gamma
ray). Sand

Silt
Low Density
• Shales are prone to caving, thus
showing a greater positive
deflection on the caliper log than
harder sandstones or limestones. Caving at
coal seams

• Caving is also very common in

coals or organic rich shales. Shale

Fractures make them prone to Coal

caving.
Hot Shale

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Borehole diameter
Mudcake (decrease in borehole diameter) CALI LITH
15 25
Sand
• Calipers can sometimes show a hole diameter smaller Shale
than the bit size. This might seem strange at first, until
we consider the effect of hole condition, such as mud
cake.
Permeable
MC
Sand
• If the hole size is smaller, and smooth, then this
indicates a build up of mud cake on the borehole wall.

• This is an extremely useful indicator of permeability,

because only permeable beds allow mud cake to form.
Permeable
MC
Sand

• Thus the vertical limits of the mud cake are a good

indicator of the vertical limits of the potential reservoir.

Bit Size
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Borehole diameter
Mudcake (decrease in borehole diameter)

• It is possible to estimate the thickness of the mud cake from the

caliper by dividing the decrease in hole size by two.

• The appropriate equation to calculate Mud Cake Thickness is as

follows:

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Borehole diameter
Mudcake (decrease in borehole diameter) CAL(ML) LITH
15 25
CAL(DEN) Sand
• The caliper log can be run several times in a hole, with 15 25 Shale
different tools, so mudcake thickness calculations can
vary between each of the tools.

• For example, the caliper of a density tool is applied with

more pressure than the caliper of a microlog.

• This may give a thinner caliper reading for the density

tool by causing a groove in the mud cake.

CAL
CAL (DEN)
(ML)

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs CAL

Borehole diameter
Mudcake (decrease in borehole diameter)

• If a borehole diameter is smaller than the bit size, SEM: Chlorite/Smectite Clays

and the curve shape is serrated, not smooth,

then the borehole size has probably decreased
by hole collapse. C/S

• This can be caused by the swelling of clays.

Collapsed holes form tight spots where the bit S
may get stuck.
SEM: Illite/ Smectite Clays

• Smectite is swelling clay that takes water from

the drilling mud, causing expansion and collapse S
of the formation into the hole (sloughing).
S
• The collapsed section presses against the tool,
which measures a decrease in hole diameter.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.5
Changes in hole size (reduction) recorded on the caliper log
due to (a) mud cake and (b) swelling clays (After Rider, 1996).

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Cased Hole Use of Caliper Log
Casing

• Calipers can be used on cased holes to check the quality of the casing and to
calculate the internal diameter of the hole.

• The internal diameter is required to make an accurate calculation of fluid rate,

but this will not be covered in this course.

• Cased hole caliper logs are usually made differently to openhole caliper logs.

• Instead of having one to four mechanical arms the measurement is made by

numerous multifinger tubular inspection calipers.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.6
Example of a Multifinger mechanical caliper for tubing QC
Caliper Logs
Cased Hole Use of Caliper Log
Taken from the Kinley Website
Multifingers The KINLEY "MEGADATA"
Tubing Caliper Service is
• Multifinger mechanical calipers are designed specifically for 2-3/8”
to 3-1/2" tubing.
principally used to evaluate wear Here are the advantages over
and corrosion of the borehole any other service available.
casing. More coverage - With 30
feelers recording
independently, simultaneously
• The tool is centralized with an and continuously you get all
array of fingers or feelers that the information all the time.
reach out to the inside wall of the
tubular material under
investigation.

• Multifinger calipers are made with

as few as 12 fingers on some
tubing calipers, and up to 80
fingers or more on some casing
calipers.
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Breakouts and washouts

• Four-armed caliper tools can yield much more information about hole
condition than single, or double armed tools.

• Data from a four-armed caliper enables the shape of a borehole to be better

defined than other simpler caliper tools.

• Using a single armed caliper does not yield any information on borehole
shape. However, a four-armed (dual caliper) tool can determine if a hole is on
gauge, or if it is oval and washed out, or enlarged by single cavities.

• When oval shaped, the direction of enlargement can be given, but much more
information can be determined by examining borehole shape and orientation.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Breakouts and washouts

• Three main types of elliptical borehole have been recognised, and are termed
(a) key seats, (b) washouts and (c) breakouts.

• Key seats are asymmetrical oval holes, which form by wear against the drill
string where borehole inclination changes (doglegs). Doglegs should be
avoided as good drilling practice.

• Washouts generally occur in shales, and dipping beds, and develop from
drilling wear. A washout has considerable vertical length, and both calipers are
larger than the bit (one caliper usually larger than the other). The shape of the
caliper is variable, and changes are gradual.

• Breakouts are believed to form as a result of the interaction of stresses

induced by drilling on the existing stress regime of the country rock.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.7
Breakouts and washouts
Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Breakouts and washouts
•Three main types of elliptical borehole have been recognised, and are termed
(a) key seats, (b) washouts and (c) breakouts.

(After Rider, 1996).

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Breakouts and washouts

• Breakouts can be defined using the criteria of Bell (1990) as follows:

•1. Tool must stop rotating (ideally the tool should rotate before and after the
breakout zone)

•2. Calipers should separate to indicate an oval hole. The larger caliper
should exceed hole gauge. The smaller caliper should not be less than the
hole gauge, and its trace should be straight.

•3. The caliper difference should be larger than 6mm and the zone of
elongation should be greater than 1.5 metres. The limits of the breakout
should normally be well defined.

•4. The larger diameter of hole elongation and its direction should not
consistently coincide with the azimuth of hole deviation.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Breakouts and washouts

• Breakouts are often considered in terms of in situ stresses, where fragments

are spalled in a direction parallel to the minimum (least) horizontal stress (Sh).

• Borehole spalling (chipping) occurs along intersecting shear fractures

generated during drilling and progresses with time.

• The identification and analysis of borehole breakouts as a technique for in situ

measurement of stress orientation and magnitude, and for identifying
orientation (azimuth) of both naturally occurring and induced fractures has been
a hot topic of research for the last 15 years or more.

• Structural geologists apply the knowledge of the orientation of horizontal earth

stresses derived from analysis of borehole breakouts in an attempt to predict
areas prone to breakouts.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.8
Illustration of borehole breakouts and
Caliper Logs their relationship to stress fields
Caliper Log Interpretation
(From Rider, 1996).
Breakouts and washouts

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.9
Rose diagrams plotted to illustrate the interpretation
Caliper Logs of stress fields identified from the caliper log
Caliper Log Interpretation
Breakouts and washouts

• Structural geologists apply the

knowledge of the orientation
of horizontal earth stresses
derived from analysis of
borehole breakouts in an
attempt to predict areas prone
to breakouts.

(From Rider, 1996).

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.10
Example of borehole image tool for the
Caliper Logs identification of breakouts and tension-related
Caliper Log Interpretation fractures (Courtesy of TaskGeoscience)
Breakouts and washouts
• One of the best methods for identifying SHmin
breakouts is from borehole image tools
or televiewer tools. Shear failure zone (curvilinear
fracturing) at azimuth of SHmin
where compressive stress is
concentrated.
Original borehole
• However, dipmeter data are widely diameter
Te nsile
available and less expensive, and are fracture s
therefore commonly used in regional
and field studies. SHmax SHmax
Drilling-induced
Sh MAX tension
(open vs closed fractures
Breakout
fractures?) spall zone

SHmin

Breakout
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Influence of hole condition on tool measurement
• In combination with hole condition,
understanding how tools operate and PAD
generate measurements is of
paramount importance before Borehole
interpreting well logs. CALIPER READS NORMAL Wall
DIAMETER, TOOL READS THICK
MUDCAKE & FORMATION
• For example, the tool will not operate
properly in an uneven or caved hole Caliper
Log
because the pads will not touch the
formation correctly, and thus the tool will
not read the formation correctly.

• Example of pad type tools are the

shallow resistivity tools (e.g. ML, MLL,
MSFL). Borehole
Wall
Caliper
Log Mudcake
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Influence of hole condition on tool measurement

• As an example, the density log is significantly affected by bad hole, which is

represented by a sharp decrease in density, where the tool is reading less of
the formation and more of the borehole environment. (This density log has
been used to calculate the porosity logs.)
A) Density Tool B) Density Tool reading
reading mostly mostly borehole
formation environment

Shallow Depth
of Investigation
(5” or less)

5“

Porosity Log Porosity Log

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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 Figure 3.11
Example of poor hole conditions influencing log
Caliper Logs readings (after Rider, 1996)
Caliper Log Interpretation
Influence of hole condition on tool measurement

The automatic density correction derived from the caliper is insufficient to compensate for the large caves at
around 700 m. The density and sonic logs suggest a formation change at 690 m, but the interval is
homogeneous from top to bottom, consisting of poorly consolidated clay and shales.
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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 Figure 3.12
Example of bad hole conditions influencing well
Caliper Logs log readings and resulting log interpretations.
Caliper Log Interpretation
Influence of hole condition on tool measurement
Badhole
GR Caliper Flag Density Log (RHOB) Porosity Log 1 Porosity Log 2 Porosity Log 3

Artificial
Density Porosity
Drops Increase

Hand Edit
Density Log

RHOB Cor

Bad hole conditions (cavings) are recognisable on the caliper log. A bad hole flag has been generated using the caliper
as a guideline. The density log is significantly affected by the bad hole, which is represented by a sharp decrease in
density, where the tool is reading less of the formation and more of the borehole environment. This density log has been
used to calculate the porosity logs by three different approaches.
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Influence of hole condition on tool measurement
• Porosity logs

• Porosity Log 1 was generated without considering the condition of the hole.
This has resulted in an overestimation of the porosity in a shaly zone.

• Porosity Log 2 has been generated from a manually edited density log,
which has attempted to take account of the bad hole by increasing the
density in line with the rest of the curve.

• Porosity Log 3 uses an alternative approach where the calculated log has
been deleted in the area of bad hole

•This is useful when hole condition is extreme, or when there is

uncertainty with the density log pattern. The bad hole flag can be used to
do this very rapidly in a log interpretation package.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Logs
Caliper Log Interpretation
Dealing with Bad hole (Bad hole Flags)

• The caliper log is also used to flag up bad hole conditions. For example, if the
diameter of the borehole (caliper reading) is larger than the bit beyond a certain
size, then bad hole conditions can be flagged.

• The cut-off used will vary from well to well, and must be determined both visually
and by experimentation. Bad hole flags can be used to either flag areas for
borehole corrections or for removal of calculated log values.

• If the bad hole is not corrected for, or erroneous readings from calculated logs
(e.g. density porosity) are not removed, errors will remain in the petrophysical
interpretation.

• These errors may then be incorporated into volumetric calculations and reservoir
modelling and simulation work.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Caliper Log
Caliper Log Interpretation
Use Other Caliper Logs?

• The Caliper Tool does not always measure the bad hole because of the limited
cover of the arms. Commonly the maximum hole size is measured (4 arm), but
certain caves and washouts may be missed, which can lead to improper tool
alignment, etc.

• Note that in some cases it may be worth checking the Density Caliper Log
because the standard Caliper run with resistivity logs is a much gentler tool.

• Bad hole not detected by the caliper may also be indicated on other tools
susceptible to bad hole (e.g. Density, MSFL).

Breakout
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Log QC
Quality Control of Logs
Check your log data!

• Check all of your data first – look at the raw digital data and visually
display the data in well log format.

• Ensure there are no null or missing values (e.g. –999.25) loaded as data
points. Do not get zeros and null values confused!

• Check that all of the log data are listed and loaded as the correct curves,
e.g. don’t load the GR log as the Caliper Log.

• A simple way to avoid this is to become familiar with the common units for
each log. Therefore check units and decimal places.

• Loading curve groups may be a little trickier as values will be similar, but
check that log readings make sense for each curve (e.g. Deep versus
Shallow Resistivity, etc.)
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Log QC
Quality Control of Logs GR
Common Log Errors

• Depth Mismatching. There may be depth

differences between the different logs.
These should be corrected. The gamma
ray log is usually used as the datum.

• Bad Hole. Can be detected on caliper log,

or other tools susceptible to bad hole.
Log Depth Matched

• Cycle Skipping. Occasionally tools such

as the sonic log miss out a reading
because of a weak signal, leading to
sudden blips on the well log.
Cycle Skip Removed
• Tool Pick ups. Are recognised by tails at
the base of the logs.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

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Log QC
Quality Control of Logs Tool pick ups represent the lag time when the
Common Log Errors tool is not operating at the start of logging.

Tool Pick ups are recognised by tails at the

base of logs. They should be removed LOGS
GR RHOB DT
before interpretation.

DT

RHOB

GR
Log Tails
TD TD
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
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Log QC
Quality Control of Logs
Summary

• Quality control of log data cannot be understated. Data QC is

a prerequisite to log interpretation.

• You must check all of your data first – look at the raw digital
data, and display it as well logs before you begin
petrophysical evaluation.

• Use all information available, including the mud log, core

data and well header information.

• Remember to check your depths and depth displays for all

the data!
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
36