Steps Involved in the Process of

Social Research: 11 Steps

Step 1# Formulation of Research Problem:

In real terms research begins with a problem which needs solution.
Such a perception on the part of the researcher, first of all, falls
within the general area of interest indicating to locate the problem
either in the quest of some intellectual pursuit or for some practical
concern, such as finding out a practical solution to a problem,
evaluation of a programme in the light of new facts, gathering of
relevant facts for social planning or even for policy making.

While selecting a problem for research, the Social Scientists are

likely to be influenced by their own personal values as well as the
prevalent social conditions. As scientists differ with regard to their
values and societies differ in respect of their preference of different
spheres, the choice of topics in social research vary widely.

As the general topic fails to provide the ability to examine the

relevance of data, adopt the methods or to organize them, the need
for formulation of a specific problem is always felt. This makes the
goal of the researcher clear-cut. It not only guides the researcher in
exploration, but also progressively sharpens the focus of questions
by narrowing down the coverage like a pinpoint. For example, if the
general topic is compared with the base of a pyramid, the specific
topic may resemble the apex of it.
In any case, formulation of a problem, arising out of theoretical
situation or practical concern, is not an easy task, as it appears to
be. In real terms it is a herculean task, so much so that even a
scientist of the stature of Charles Darwin has gone to the length of
saying that “Looking back, I think it was more difficult to see what
the problems were than to solve them.”

As a problem involves some difficulty experienced by the

investigator, the formulation of the problem should make its
various components explicit in such a manner that it will justify the
saying that “a problem well put is half solved” R.K. Merton has
identified three important questions as the three principal
components involved in the process of formulation of a problem in
the field of research in soft sciences:

(i) What one wants’ to know?

(ii) Why one wants to seek answers to those particular questions?

and

(iii) What may be the possible answers to the originating questions?

These three questions correspond to the components of the

originating questions, the rationale and the specifying questions
respectively.

There are at least three types of originating questions:

(i) Originating questions calling for discovering a particular body of
social facts,
(ii) Originating questions directing attention to the research for
uniformities between classes of variables, and

(iii) Questions addressing to a variety of institutional spheres.

As regards the rationale component in the progressive formulation

of a problem, the statement of reasons pertaining to the tenability of
a question is made. It also seeks to justify the answers’ contribution
to theoretical or practical concerns. The fundamental requirement
of a rationale is to widen the base of scientifically consequential
question and to eschew the scientifically trivial ones. R.K Merton
holds the view that “the rationale states the case for question in the
court of scientific opinion.”

The theoretical rationale attempts to justify the contribution, likely

to be made by the answers to questions, in terms of the enlargement
of the scope of the prevalent ideas or concepts or theory. It may also
throw light on the observed inconsistencies in existing ideas and
examine the nature of inconsistencies in terms of its spuriousness
or reality. On the other hand, the practical rationale acts as a
pointer to justify as to how the answers to the research questions
will bring about certain desired practical values. However, a
question raised for the practical concern may also have its bearings
on the theoretical system.

The component of specifying questions in the process of

formulating a research problem aims at transforming the
originating questions into a series of observations in a particular
concrete situation, necessitating collection of empirical data, so as
to seek possible answers to the originating questions in terms that
satisfy the rationale fruitfully.

Step 2# Review of Related Literature:

Since an effective research is based on past knowledge, an
investigator must always take advantage of the knowledge which
have been preserved or accumulated earlier. It not only helps the
researcher in avoiding duplication and formulating useful
hypothesis, but also provides him with the evidence that he is
familiar with what is already known and what is still unknown and
untested in the field.

Review of related literature implies the analysis of the summary of

the writings of recognized authorities and the earlier researches in
the particular area. According to J.W. Best practically all human
knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike other
animals…man builds upon the accumulated and recorded
knowledge of the past.

In the words of C.V. Good “the keys to the vast store house of
published literature may open doors to sources of significant
problems and explanatory hypothesis and provide helpful
orientation for definition of the problem, background for selection
of procedure and comparative data so interpretation of results.”

The essentiality of the review of literature remains in the fact that it

provides the researcher with an indication of the direction, updates
information relating to researcher’s own problem, avoids the
replication of the study of findings, provides the scope for analogy
and formulation of hypothesis.
The main objectives of review of related literature are:
(i) To provide theories, ideas, explanations or hypotheses, which are
likely to be helpful in the formulation of research problem?

(ii) To avoid overlapping studies,

(iii) To be a fertile source for formulating hypothesis,

(iv) To suggest the methods of data collection, procedures, to

explore the sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to
the solution of the problem,

(v) To gather comparative data and findings of earlier researches

which are of use in the interpretation of data and analysis of
results?

(vi) To enable the investigator to gain expertise in his area of

interest, and

(vii) To keep the researcher abreast of the most recent development

in his area of activity.

In order to survey the relevant literature, the investigator

should follow the following principles:
(i) At the outset, he should endeavor to obtain an overall view from
the general source comprising those written materials which are
more likely to provide the meaning and nature of the concepts and
variables within the theoretical system.

(ii) Thereafter, the researcher should embark upon reviewing the

empirical researches conducted in the concerned field. At this stage
we make use the Handbook of Research, International Abstracts,
etc.

(iii) The researcher must review the library material in a thorough

and systematic manner.

(iv) He should take care to record the references with complete

bibliographic data.

The main sources of literature which are of immense use for the
researcher are books and text books; periodicals; encyclopedias;
hand books, yearbooks and guides; abstracts; dissertations and
theses; newspapers etc.

Step 3# Formulation of Hypotheses:

The next step in the process of research is the formulation of a
tentative explanation of the problem in the form of a proposition
wherever feasible. This tentative explanation or assumption or
proposition refers to a conjectural statement of the relation between
two or more variables and its tenability remains to be tested.

For formulating the hypothesis the researcher gathers information

from several sources, such as existing theories, previous reports of
research concerning analogous problems, information from
knowledgeable persons, researcher’s own beliefs and insights.
However, all studies do not begin with clearly formulated
hypothesis.

Some are hypothesis testing studies and some others are hypothesis
formulating studies. The exploratory studies are called hypothesis
formulating studies because such researches end up with
formulation of hypothesis. On the contrary, the hypothesis testing
researches begin with clearly formulated hypothesis.

Notwithstanding the formulation of hypothesis at this level, the

investigator needs to state the operational definitions of the
concepts in order to translate the formal definitions, conveying the
nature of the phenomenon, into observable referents.

In developing hypothesis, sociologists attempt to explain or account

for the relationship between two or more variables. A variable is a
measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under
different conditions. For example, income, religion, occupation and
gender can all be variables in a study.

If one variable is hypothesized to cause or influence another one,

social scientists call the first variable as the independent variable
and the second is termed the dependent variable. A correlation
exists when change in one variable coincides with a change in the
other. Correlations are an indication that causality may be present:
they do not necessarily indicate causation.

Step 4# Working Out Research Design:

After formulating the research problem, reviewing the related
literature and formulating hypothesis, wherever feasible, the
researcher reaches the stage of embarking upon working out a
design of study as he is guided by the maxim that “work must be
planned, if it is to lead to discoveries”. A research design is the
general blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data incorporating what the researcher will have to perform from
the formulating the tentative generalizations and their operational
definitions to final analysis of data.

By providing answers to various questions and acting as a standard

and guidepost, it helps in carrying out research validly, objectively,
accurately and economically and thereby ensures against its failure.
Research designs vary according to the research purposes as well as
from the point of view of realizable working procedure.

As regards the research purposes, broadly speaking, there

are four categories:
(i) Exploration,

(ii) Description,

(iii) Diagnosis and

(iv) Experimentation.

From the view point of realizable working procedure there

are four parts of research design:
(i) Sampling design, describing the different sampling methods to
be used for selection of units for study,

(ii) Observational design, describing the way in which the

observations are to be made,

(iii) Statistical design, dealing with the statistical techniques to be

applied in the analysis and interpretation of data, and

(iv) Operational design, dealing with the specific techniques by

which the entire operation of research is to be carried out. Thus it
incorporates all the three designs mentioned above, such as the
sampling, statistical and observational designs.

Step 5# Defining the Universe of Study:

The universe of study comprises all the items or individuals under
consideration in any field of inquiry. In statistical terms, a ‘universe’
or ‘population’ refers to the aggregate of individuals or units from
which a ‘sample’ is drawn and to which the results and analysis are
to apply. The researcher may distinguish between the target
population and survey population so as to clearly define the
universe of study. The target population is that population for which
the results of research are required.

On the contrary, the survey population implies those items or

individuals which are actually included in the sampling frame from
which the sample is drawn. However, in most sociological purposes
such a distinction is not deemed to be significant. In any case, a
complete population must be very explicitly defined in terms of
elements, sampling units, extent and time.

Step 6# Determining Sampling Design:

As in practice a complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘universe’ is not possible under many circumstances, due to the
requirement of a great deal of time, money and energy; the
researcher embarks upon deciding the way of a selecting a
representative sample which is popularly known as the sample
design. It is a definite plan chalked out prior to actual collection of
data for obtaining a sample from the universe. The sample must be
representative and adequate.
Broadly speaking there are three types of samples, such
as:
(i) Probability samples

(ii) Samples based on purposive or subjective or judgement

sampling, and

(iii) Samples based on mixed sampling. Probability samples are

drawn from the universe according to some laws of chance, based
on scientific technique, in which each unit in the population has got
some definite pre-assigned probability of being selected in the
sample.

For a sample based on purposive or subjective or judgement

sampling, units are drawn deliberately or purposely depending
upon the objectives of investigation so as include only those
important items which represent the universe truly. Units selected
for a mixed sample are selected partly according to some probability
laws and partly according to a fixed sampling rule which does not
insist upon the use of chance. Some of the important types of
sampling are: Simple random sampling. Complex random
sampling, Stratified random sampling. Cluster and area sampling,
haphazard or convenience sampling, quota sampling, judgement
sampling etc.

Step 7# Administering the Tools of Data Collection:

Adequate and appropriate data are required for any standard
research work. The data may differ considerably keeping in view the
financial aspect, time and other resources available to the
researcher. The researcher, while collecting data takes into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the
inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of
accuracy. That apart his own ability and experience also counts
much in the collection of required data.

Secondary data are collected from books, journals, newspaper,

reports of the earlier studies etc., whereas primary data are to be
collected either through experiment or through survey. For
examining the facts through hypothesis, the researcher, takes
recourse to experiment for observing some quantitative
measurements.

But, for the purpose of a survey, data may be gathered by

observation, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, mailing of
questionnaires and through schedules. For any particular survey he
may administer one or more than one of the above methods,
depending on the nature of study.

Step 8# Analysis of Data:

After completion of the collection of data, the researcher embarks
upon the analysis of these data. This involves a number of
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of
these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation. Thereafter
statistical inferences are drawn.

All these operations are very closely related to one another. At the
outset, the researcher classifies the raw data into some usable
categories on the basis of some purposes. At this stage coding
operations is also done so as to transform the categories of data into
symbols in order to make them amenable to be tabulated and
counted. The researcher may also induct editing in order to improve
the quality of data for coding.

Thereafter, in the post-coding stage, the classified data are put in

the form of tables as a part of technical procedure either manually
or through mechanical devices such as computers. Computers are
generally used in large enquiries for the dual purposes of saving
time and for making the study of large number of variables possible.
While analyzing data, the researcher applies various well defined
statistical formulae for the computation of percentages, coefficients,
tests of significance, so as to determine with what validity data can
indicate any conclusion.

Step 9# Testing of Hypotheses:

Sociological studies do not always generate data that confirm the
original hypothesis. In many instance, a hypothesis is refuted and
researchers must reformulate their conclusions. In behavioural
sciences it is not possible to test several hypotheses directly. The
social scientist can only test the research hypotheses by establishing
some kind of sample of behaviour in order to observe it directly.

On the basis of these observable incidents, he determines whether

or not those are consistent with the hypothesis so as to deduce their
logical consequences. Thus an indirect test of the proposed
hypothesis can only be made.

The research hypothesis is the prediction derived from the theory

under test. It provides simply an inconclusive test. Actually a
stronger test of logic is formed when a null hypothesis is rejected.
The null hypothesis is a hypothesis of no difference, the rejection of
which results in the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis is the operational statement of the
researcher’s research hypothesis. In behavioural science research
the rejection or acceptance of a null hypothesis is based on 0.05 or
.01 alpha level of significance.

The statisticians have developed various tests like chi-square test, t-

test, F-test for the purpose of testing the hypothesis. In the studies,
where no hypotheses are there to begin with, the generalizations
will serve the basis of formulation of hypothesis which may be
tested by subsequent researcher in future.

Step 10# Generalization and Interpretation:

After the hypothesis is tested and found valid, it becomes possible
on the part of researcher to reach the stage of generalization, which
may be construed to be the real value of research. This is only
possible in case of hypothesis-testing studies. But in the hypothesis
formulating studies where the researcher has no hypothesis to begin
with, he may seek to interpret his findings. In other words, he may
seek to explain the findings of his research on the basis of some
theoretical framework, which may probably raise some new
questions for further researches.

Step 11# Reporting the Research:

Research report is the end product of a research activity which gives
an account of a long journey on the path of finding a new knowledge
or modified knowledge. Writing a research report is a technical task
as it requires not only skill on the part of the researcher but also
considerable effort, patience and penetration, an overall approach
to the problem, data and analysis along with grasp over language
and greater objectivity, all springing from considerable thought.

The purposes of research report are:

i. transmission of knowledge;

ii. presentation of findings,

iii. examining the validity of the generalization, and

iv. Inspiration for further research.

The outline of a report comprises:

(i) The preliminaries incorporating the title page, foreword or
preface, acknowledgements; list of tables, charts or illustrations;
and table of contents.

(ii) Contents of the reports which covers the introductory part of

research reports which should not only contain purpose of the
study, statement of the problem, hypothesis and operational
definition of the concepts but also should contain a description of
the agency, personnel and other aspects of research.

This part of research also covers:

(a) The study design;

(b) The universe and the organisation of sampling procedures;

(c) Methods, tools and techniques employed for collection of data as

well as analysis and presentation of findings;

(iii) The reference material consisting, the bibliography, appendices,

glossary of terms and index.