» Peer A> EFINITIONS a Design is the act of conceiving and planning the structure and parameters values of a system, device, process or work of art, Machine design is the application of science and invention to the development, specification and construction of a machine. Machines are useful and required by society. A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture and construction of something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency and performance or quality. A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and a specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard is to place a limit on the number of items in the specification so as to provide a reasonable inventory, DESIGN APPROACHES The design approaches available to the engineer can be categorized into six different groups, namely: 1) Empirical 2) Deterministic 3) Probabilistic 4) Linear elastic fracture mechanics 5) Combined 6) Computer aided design Empirical design is a trial-and-error approach that emphasizes iterative fabrication and testing and deemphasizes mathematical modeling and anaiysis. It can be the most effective approach where mechanical loads are minimal. Empirical design may be the only approach or may be required in addition to analytical approaches, where. the survival of a component is strongly affected by environmental factors. Deterministic design is a standard “safety factor" approach. The maximutn stress in a component is calculated by finite element analysis or closed form mathematical equations, A material is then selected which has a strength with a reasonable margin of safety over the calculated peak component stress. The deterministic approach is routinely used with metals, It works well, largely because metals have relatively low pro} scatter. Often, metals can be designed within a small margin of their ultimate strength and used with confidence that they thay not fail prematurely. 7lack of proper instructions or specifications, insufficient supervision, poor ‘environment, unrealistic production quota, inadequate training and poor motivation, neering systems are designed on the assumption they will receive adequate e at specified periods. When maintenance is neglected or is improperly med, service life will suffer. Since many consumer products do not receive proper ance by their owners, a good design strategy is to make the products maintenance Design Limits If the operator exceeds the limits of temperature, speed, etc. for which it is designed, the equipment is likely to fail. Environmental Factors ‘Subjecting equipment to environmental conditions for which it was not designed, e.g. rain, high humidity and ice, usually greatly shortens its service life, Design for Disassembly Provide for easy access and removal of components. Avoid embedding a part in an incompatible material. Minimize the use of adhesives and welds. Try to avoid the use of screws, Snap fits and spring clips make for easier disassembling. Design for Product Waste Minimization An obvious way to minimize waste is to practice source reduction. Minimize the amount of “material used by avoiding overdesign. This also saves cost, Realize which materials are incompatible in recycling and will have to be separated and segregated. Keep the number of different materials used in the design to a minimum to reduce recycling costs. and that certain adhesives, paints, inks and labels can cause contamination in and avoid these materials. ‘a product can be a small fraction of the waste generated by the ct. Since the selection of a ial for a part is “man |, consider as part of this decision of reducing