CHAPTER - 4

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Occurrence
of carbon
 Carbon is found in the
atmosphere, inside the
earth’s crust and in all living
organisms.
 Carbon is present in fuels
like wood, coal, charcoal,
coke, petroleum, natural
gas, biogas, marsh gas etc.
 Carbon is present in
compounds like carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates etc.
 Carbon is found in the free
state as diamond, graphite,
fullerenes etc.
 Bonding in carbon – Covalent bond

 The atomic number of carbon is 6, its electronic arrangement is 2,4, it has 4

valence electrons. It can attain stability by gaining 4 electrons, losing 4 electrons
or sharing 4 electrons with other atoms.
 It does not gain 4 electrons because it is difficult for the 6 protons to hold 10
electrons.
 It does not lose 4 electrons because it needs a large amount of energy to lose 4
electrons. So it shares 4 electrons with other atoms to attain stability resulting in
the formation of covalent bonds.
 Since carbon atom needs 4 electrons to attain stability, its valency is 4 and it is
tetravalent.

X I
_ _
X C X C
X I
Formation of covalent bonds :-
Covalent bond is chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

The sharing of one pair of electrons results in the formation of single covalent
bond, sharing of two pairs of electrons results in the formation of double covalent
bond and sharing of three pairs of electrons results in the formation of triple
covalent bond.
E.g. :- Formation of single covalent bond in Hydrogen - molecule - H2

The atomic number of hydrogen is 1, its electronic arrangement is 1, it has 1

valence electron. It needs 1 electron more to attain stability. So two hydrogen
atoms share 1 pair of electrons resulting in the formation of a single covalent bond
in hydrogen molecule H2.

Hx + x H H XX H H–H H2
Formation of double covalent bond in oxygen
molecule - O2
The atomic number of oxygen is 8, its EC is 2,6, it has 6 VE, it needs 2 electrons more to
attain stability. So two oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons resulting in the formation
of a double covalent bond in oxygen molecule O2.

X X XX XX XX
X
O X
X + X O O XX
XX O O=O O2
XX XX XX XX

Formation of triple covalent bond in Nitrogen molecule - N2

The atomic number of nitrogen is 7, its EC is 2,5, it has 5 VE, it needs 3 electrons more to
attain stability. So two nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons resulting in the
formation of a triple covalent bond in nitrogen molecule N2

X X X X

NΞN N2
X X XX
N X + XN
X X
N XX
XX
N
X X X X
 Properties of Covalent Compounds

•The covalent compounds exist as

gases or liquids or soft solids.

•The melting and boiling points of

covalent compounds are generally
low.

•Covalent compound are insoluble in

water but dissolve in organic
solvents.
As the molecular mass increases in any
•They are non-conductors of homologous series, a gradation in physical
electricity in solid, molten or aqueous properties is seen. This is because the
state. melting and boiling points increase with
increasing molecular mass. Other physical
properties such as solubility in a particular
solvent also show a similar gradation.
Electron dot structures

Methane molecule – CH4 Ethane molecule – C2H6

H H H

X X X
H X
C X
H H X
C X C X
H
X
X X X

H H H

H H H
I I I
H–C–H H –C –C –H
I I I
H H H
1. Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has
(a) 6 covalent bonds
(b) 7 covalent bonds
(c) 8 covalent bonds
(d) 9 covalent bonds

2. Draw the electron dot structures for

(a) H2S (b) F2
1. What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane, carbon dioxide and
sulphur which is made up of eight atoms of sulphur ?
Formation of a very large number
of carbon compounds :-
Carbon forms a very large number of compounds. The number of carbon compounds is
more than three million. It is more than the number of compounds formed by all other
elements. This is because :-

Carbon atom can form bonds with other carbon atoms to form long chains, branched
chains and closed rings. This property is called catenation.

Since the valency of carbon is 4, it can form bonds with other carbon atoms or with atoms
of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens etc.
I
_ _
C
I I I I I I I I I I C
_ C – C – C – C – C – C_ _ _
C–C–C–C C C
I I I I I I I I I I C C
_ C_ C
I
Long chain Branched chain Closed ring
Hydrocarbons, Saturated and
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons :- are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Saturated hydrocarbons :- are hydrocarbons having all single covalent bonds between the
carbon atoms.

E.g. : Alkanes :- have all single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms and their names end
with – ane.
H
I
Methane – CH4 H–C–H
I
H

H H
I I
Ethane – C2H6 H–C–C–H
I I
H H
Hydrocarbons, Saturated and
Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons :- are hydrocarbons having a double or triple
covalent bond between two carbon atoms. Eg : Alkenes and Alkynes.

Alkenes :- have a double covalent bond between two carbon atoms. Their names end with –
ene.
H H H
I I I
Ethene - C2H4 C=C Propene – C3H6 H – C=C– C–H
I I I I I
H H H H H

Alkynes :- have a triple covalent bond between two carbon atoms and their names end with –
yne.

Ethyne – Ethyne – C2H2 H–C≡C–H

H
I
Propyne - C3H4 H–C ≡ C–C–H
I
H
Isomerism
Carbon compounds having the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae
are called isomers. This property is called isomerism.

Butane – C4H10 has 2 isomers. They are Normal butane and Iso butane.

Pentane – C5H12 has 3 isomers. They are Normal pentane, Iso pentane and Neo-
pentane.
 CYCLIC CARBON COMPOUNDS

In addition to straight and branched carbon chains, some compounds

have carbon atoms arranged in the form of a ring.
For example,

Cyclohexane- C6H12 Cyclobutane- C4H8

Cyclopentane- C6H12
Straight chain, branched chain and cyclic carbon compounds, all may be
saturated or unsaturated. For example, benzene
Functional groups
An atom or a group of atoms which decides the properties of a carbon
compound is called a functional group.
i) Halide ( Halo group) :- - Cl, - Br, etc. ( Names end with – ane )
Eg :- CH3Cl – Chloro methane, C2H5Br – Bromo ethane

ii) Alcohol :- - OH ( Names end with – ol )

Eg :- CH3OH – Methanol, C2H5OH – Ethanol

H
iii) Aldehyde :- - CHO -C ( Names end with – al )
O
Eg :- HCHO – Methanal, CH3CHO – Ethanal
O
II
iv) Carboxylic acid :- - COOH - C - OH (Names end with – oic acid )
Eg :- HCOOH – Methanoic acid, CH3COOH – Ethanoic acid
v) Ketone :- - CO - C - (Names end with – one )
II
O
Eg :- CH3COCH3 – Propanone , CH3COC2H5 - Butanone
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

Homologous series is a group of carbon

compounds having similar structures, similar
chemical properties and whose successive
members differ by a – CH2 group. Eg :- Alkanes,
Alkenes, Alkynes etc.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES - ALKANES

Alkanes :- have general molecular formula CnH2n+2 . Their

names end with – ane and the members are as follows :-
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES - ALKENES

Alkenes :- Have general molecular formula CnH2n their names end

with – ene and the members are as follows :-
 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES - ALKYNES
Alkynes :- have general molecular formula CnH2n– 2.
Their names end with – yne and the members are as follows
1.Give reasons.
a) Element Carbon forms compounds mainly by covalent bonding.
b) Diamond has a high melting point
c) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

2. A, B, C are the members of homologous series, then melting points are : 183°C, -138°C and
130°C respectively. Among these,
a) Which member will have least number of carbon atoms.
b) Which will have the maximum number of carbon atoms.
3. State two characteristic features of carbon which when put together give rise to large number
of carbon compounds..
4. Draw the electron dot structures of ethene (C2H4), CH4, H2, F2 , N2, O2, HCl, CH4, CF4.
5. Which of the following is not observed in homologous series? Give reason for your choice.
a) Change in chemical properties
b) Difference in -CH2 and 14u molecular mass
c) Gradation in physical properties
d) Same functional group
6. Give a test that can be used to confirm the presence of carbon in a compound. With a valency
of 4, how is carbon able to attain noble gas configuration in its compounds?
7. The number of carbon compounds is more than those formed by all elements put together.
Justify the statement by giving two reasons.
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. Draw the structures for the following compounds :
(i) Ethanoic acid
(ii) Bromo pentane
(iii) Butanone
(iv) Hexanal
Name the following compounds ?

Answer:
(i) Bromo ethane
(ii) Methanal
(iii) 1 – Hexyne
(3) C2H5OH + 3O2 3H2O + 2CO2 heat + light
OXIDATION

Carbon compounds like alcohols are oxidized to

carboxylic acids on heating with oxidizing agents like
alkaline Potassium permanganate KMnO4 or acidic
potassium dichromate - K2Cr2O7.

Eg:- Alcohols are oxidized to Carboxylic acids.

ADDITION REACTION
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction with hydrogen in the
presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst to form saturated
hydrocarbons.
Eg:- Ethene undergoes addition reaction with hydrogen to form ethane in
the
presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst.

The addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons to form saturated

hydrocarbons is called hydrogenation. Hydrogenation is used to convert
unsaturated oils and fats to saturated oils and fats.
Substitution reaction
Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction with halogens to
form substitution products.

Eg :- Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the

presence of sunlight to form substitution products.
 Some important carbon compounds :-

a) ETHANOL :- C2H5OH (OR Ethyl

alcohol)

Properties :-

i) Ethanol is a colourless liquid

with a pleasant smell and burning
taste.

ii) It is soluble in water.

Uses :-
iii) Ethanol reacts with sodium to i) Ethanol is used for making
form sodium ethoxide and alcoholic drinks.
hydrogen. ii) It is used as a solvent.
iii) It is used for making medicines
iv) Ethanol reacts with hot conc. like tincture iodine, cough syrups,
H2SO4 to form ethene and water. tonics etc.
Conc. H2SO4 is a dehydrating
agent and removes water from
ethanol.
b) ETHANOIC ACID :- CH3COOH – Acetic acid

Properties :-
i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste.
ii) It is soluble in water.
iii) A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
iv) Esterification :-
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ester ethyl ethanoate in the presence
of conc. H2SO4 (H2SO4act as a dehydrating agent)
conc.H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester is called
esterification.
v) Saponification :-
When an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, the sodium salt of the
carboxylic acid and the parent alcohol are formed. This reaction is called
saponification.
Eg :-Ethyl ethanoate reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium acetate and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
vi) Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
vii) Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water
and carbon dioxide.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
12) Soaps and detergents :-
a) Soaps :- Soaps are long chain sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic
acids. Eg:- Sodium stearate – C17H35COONa
Structure of soap molecule :- A soap molecule has two parts. A long
hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) and soluble in oil and
grease and a short ionic part which is hydrophilic (water attracting) and
insoluble in oil and grease.
COO Na
+

Hydrocarbon part Ionic part

(Water repelling) (Water attracting)
Cleansing action of soap :- When soap is dissolved in water it forms
spherical structures called micelles. In each micelle the soap molecules are
arranged radially such that the HC part is towards the centre and the ionic part
is towards the outside. The HC part dissolves the dirt, oil and grease and forms
an emulsion at the centre of the micelles which can be washed away by water.
b) Detergents :-
Detergents are long chain sodium salts of sulphonic acids.
Soaps do not wash well with hard water because it forms insoluble
precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts in hard water.
Detergents wash well with hard water because it does not form insoluble
precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts in hard water.

c) Differences between soaps and detergents :-

Soaps Detergents

i) Soaps are sodium/potassium salts of Detergents are sodium/K salts of

fatty acids. sulphonic acids.
ii) Soaps clean well in soft water but Detergents clean well with both
do not clean well in hard water. hard and soft water.
iii) Soaps do not clean as well as Detergents clean better than soaps.
detergents.
iv) Soaps are biodegradable and Some detergents are non
biodegradable do not cause pollution. and cause pollution.