MODULE IN GEd 109

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Abegail L. Gonzales Erma D.

Maalihan
Sherryl M. Montalbo
 Table of Contents

TOPIC PAGE No.

PART I General Concepts and STS Historical Developments

Chapter 1 – Historical Antecedents

A. Historical Antecedents in Which Social
Considerations Changed the Course of Science and Technology
What is Science, Technology and Society 1
Historical Antecedents in the World 5
From Ancient Times to 600 BC 5
The Advent of Science 6
Islamic Golden Age 6
Ancient China 7
The Renaissance 8
The Enlightenment Period 9
Industrial Revolution 10
20th Century Science 11
Fourth Industrial Revolution 12
Activities 14

B. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines

Pre-Spanish Era 18
Spanish Colonial Era 19
American Period 20
Commonwealth Period 21
S&T Since Independence 21
S&T in the 60s to 90s 22
Hopes in Philippines S&T 25
Current Initiatives in Philippine S&T 26

C. Paradigm Shifts
What is a paradigm? 28
What is a paradigm shift? 29

Chapter 2 – Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

A. What is an Intellectual Revolution? 31
B. The Birth of Modern Science 31
C. Copernican Revolution 32
D. Darwinian Revolution 35
 E. Freudian Revolution 36
F. Scientific Revolution in MesoAmerica 38

G. Asian Scientific Revolution 39

H. Scientific Revolution in Middle East 39
I. Scientific Revolution in Africa 41
J. Information Revolution 43
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Chapter 3 - Science and Technology, and Nation Building

A. The Philippine Government S&T Agenda 48
B. In Focus: Batangas State University KIST Park 51
C. Major Development Programs in Science and Technology 52
D. Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines 54
E. Science Education in the Philippines 58

Part II Science and Technology and the Human Condition

Chapter 4 - The Human Person Flourishing in terms of Science and Technology

A. Technology as a Way of Revealing 62
B. Human Flourishing 64

Chapter 5 – The Good Life

A. What is a Good Life? 69
B. What is Human Existence? 72
C. What is a Public Good?
73

Chapter 6 - When Technology and Humanity Cross

A. The Ethical Dilemmas of Robotics 76
B. Human, Morals and Machines 79
C. Why the Future Does Not Need Us?
81
D. Activity 86
Part III Specific Issues in Science, Technology and Society

Chapter 7 - The Information Age

A. Pre-Gutenberg Period 89
B. Gutenberg Revolution 90
C. Printed Materials as Agents of Change
91
D. Post-Gutenberg Period
E. Activity 94

Chapter 8 – Biodiversity and Healthy Society

A. Biodiversity and Healthy Society 96

B. Threats to Biodiversity 97
C. GMOs 99
D. Risk Related to the Use of GMOs 104
E. Activity 106

Chapter 9 – The Nano World

A. What is Nanotechnology 108
B. Environmental Aspects of Nanotechnology 111
C. Nanotechnology in the Philippines 112
D. Nanotechnology and Education
113
E. Activity 115

Chapter 10 – Gene Therapy

A. Approaches to Gene Therapy 117
B. Stem Cell Therapy 118
C. Activity 119

Chapter 11 - Climate Change, Energy Crisis and Environmental Awareness

A. What is Climate Change
121
B. Causes of Climate Change 121
C. Impacts of Climate Change 122
D. Activity 125
 Chapter 1 Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations
Changed the Course of Science and Technology

Introduction
This section presents an overview of how science and technology evolved
from ancient times to the present. It shows how man was able to develop crude
technological tools and eventually improve them through time to make his way of
living more convenient and the society more progressive.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Discuss the interactions between science and technology and society

throughout history
2. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society
and the environment
3. Identify the paradigm shifts in history

A. General Concepts

What is Science, Technology and Society?

Science and Technology and Society is an interdisciplinary course designed

to examine the ways that science and technology shape, and are shaped by, our
society, politics, and culture. It explores the conditions under which production,
distribution and utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems
occur;; and the effects of these processes upon the entire society. History
and philosophy of science and technology, sociology and anthropology are
greatly interconnected to the discussion of STS because these are the very
factors that molded the development of science and technology as we know it
today.

Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is based on theoretical

expositions and experimental and empirical activities that generates universal
truths. Technology, on the other hand is the application of science and
creation of systems, processes and objects designed to help humans in their
daily activities. The development of science and technology has brought immense
progress in society and men. Scientific knowledge and technology influences
individuals and society. Better understanding of science and technology is
essential to know the unique attributes of each enterprise, then addressing their
implications for society.
 Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the
interactions that we engage in to understand the nature of things and to create
things. It is also defined as a group of individuals involved in persistent social
interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social
territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural
expectations (Science Daily).

Science, technology and society is important to the public because it helps

address issues and problems that are of concern to the general population.
Scientific and technological principles have been and continue to be applied
to solve problems that people experience in their day-to-day aspects of living.
But scientific findings must be applied at the right scales. The impact of
technological breakthroughs on people, society and the environment must be
critically assessed to preserve its value.

Figure 1 The Interrelationship of science, technology and society

Source: Ihueze et al., 2015. researchgate.net

A lot of our problems in modern society involve not only technology but
also human values, social organization, environmental concerns, economic
resources, political decisions, and a myriad of other factors. These things sits at
the interface between the three fields and can also be solved (if they can be
solved at all) by the application of scientific knowledge, technical expertise, social
understanding, and humane compassion.

In the past, science is learned as an independent study from other fields.

It focuses on the scientific methods, natural processes and understanding nature.
But in the current global scenario, science is studied holistically, often in an
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interdisciplinary method, emphasizing systems rather than processes, synthesis
more than analysis and predicting nature’s behavior in order to have useful
application in solving contemporary problems. The scientific data that have built
up a considerable base of knowledge led to a vast portfolio of useful
technologies, especially in the 21st century, to solve many of the problems
now facing humankind (UNESCO, 1999).

To solve our contemporary problems, science needs to become more

multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote cooperation
and integration between the social and natural sciences. A holistic approach also
demands that science draw on the contributions of the humanities (such as
history and philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the
wide variety of cultural values.

The influence of science and technology on people’s lives is

expanding. While recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled in the history of
the human species, in some instances the impact has been harmful or the long- -
term effects give causes for serious concerns. A considerable measure of public
mistrust of science and fear of technology exists today. In part, this stems from
the belief by some individuals and communities that they will be the ones to
suffer the indirect negative consequences of technical innovations introduced to
benefit only a privileged minority. The power of science to bring about
change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great caution both in what
they do and what they say. Scientists should reflect on the social consequences
of the technological applications or dissemination of partial information of their
work and explain to the public and policy makers alike the degree of scientific
uncertainty or incompleteness in their findings. At the same time, though, they
should not hesitate to fully exploit the predictive power of science, duly
qualified, to help people cope with environmental change, especially in cases
of direct threats like natural disasters or water shortages.

The Role of Science and Technology

1. alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with
profound effects on economic development;;
2. key drivers to development, because technological and scientific
revolutions underpin economic advances, improvements in health
systems, education and infrastructure;;
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely
new sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-communications, bio--
technology and nano-technology. Products are transforming business
practices across the economy, as well as the lives of all who have
access to their effects. The most remarkable breakthroughs will come
from the interaction of insights and applications arising when these
technologies converge.
4. have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries

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5. differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty
effectively by growing and developing their economies, and those that are
not.
6. engine of growth
7. interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and
genetic engineering

B. Historical Antecedents in the World

Just like with any other discipline, the best way to truly understand
where we are in science today is to look back at what happened in the
past. The history of science can teach us many lessons about the
way scientists think and understand the world around us. A historical
perspective will make us appreciate more what science really is.

From Ancient Times to 600 BC

Science during ancient times involved practical arts like healing

practices and metal tradition. Some of the earliest records from history
indicate that 3,000 years before Christ, the ancient Egyptians already had
reasonably sophisticated medical practices. Sometime around 2650 B.C.,
for example, a man named Imhotep was renowned for his knowledge of
medicine. Most historians agree that the heart of Egyptian medicine was
trial and error. Egyptian doctors would try one remedy, and if it worked,
they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried didn’t work, the
patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that next time they
should try a different remedy. Despite the fact that such practices sound
primitive, the results were, sometimes, surprisingly effective.

The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with

other ancient nations because of one of the early inventions of Egyptian
civilization – the papyrus. The papyrus is an ancient form of paper, made
from the papyrus plant, a reed which grows in the marshy areas around
the Nile river. As early as 3,000 years before Christ, Egyptians took thin
slices of the stem of the papyrus plant, laid them crosswise on top of
each other, moistened them, and then pressed and dried them. The result
was a form of paper that was reasonably easy to write on and store. The
invention of this ancient form of paper revolutionized the way
information was transmitted from person to person and generation to
generation. Before papyrus, Egyptians, Sumerians, and other races wrote
on clay tablets or smooth rocks. This was a time-consuming process,
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 and the products were not easy to store or transport. When Egyptians
began writing on papyrus, all of that changed. Papyrus was easy to roll
into scrolls. Thus, Egyptian writings became easy to store and transport.
As a result, the knowledge of one scholar could be easily transferred to
other scholars. As this accumulated knowledge was passed down from
generation to generation, Egyptian medicine became the most
respected form of medicine in the known world. Papyrus was used as a
writing material as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt, and continued to
be used to some extent until around 1100 AD.

Although the Egyptians were renowned for their medicine and for
papyrus, other cultures had impressive inventions of their own. Around the
time that papyrus was first being used in Egypt, the Mesopotamians were
making pottery using the first known potter’s wheel. Not long after, horse--
drawn chariots were being used. As early as 1,000 years before Christ,
the Chinese were using compasses to aid themselves in their travels. The
ancient world, then, was filled with inventions that, although they sound
commonplace today, revolutionized life during those times. These inventions
are history’s first inklings of science.

The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)

The ancient Greeks were the early thinkers and as far as historians
can tell, they were the first true scientists. They collected facts and
observations and then used those observations to explain the natural world.
Although many cultures like the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and
Chinese had collected observations and facts, they had not tried to use
those facts to develop explanations of the world around them.

Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from

the 6th century BC in pre-Socratic philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In
circa 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's student
Aristotle begins the "scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period
culminating in the 3rd to 2nd centuries with scholars such as
Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus and Archimedes.

This period produced substantial advances in scientific

knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography,
mathematics and astronomy;; an awareness of the importance of
certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of
change and its cause;; and a recognition of the methodological importance
of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical
research.

The scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier

Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical

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 research, in their scientific investigations. This was passed on from ancient
Greek philosophers to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the
European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the
modern day.

Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and

scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the
eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars
dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period
is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid
caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of
Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with
different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all
of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and
subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science
and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge
and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including
Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making
numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.

Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of

subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Scientific
inquiry was practiced in other subjects like alchemy and chemistry,
botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, ophthalmology,
pharmacology, physics and zoology.

Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes as

well as the goal of understanding. Astronomy was useful in determining the
Qibla, which is the direction in which to pray, botany is applied in
agriculture and geography enabled scientists to make accurate maps.
Mathematics also flourished during the Islamic Golden Age with the
works of Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al Kashi that led to
advanced in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic numerals.

There was also great progress in medicine during this period. Al--
Biruni, and Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of the
preparation of hundred of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical
compounds. Islamic doctors describe diseases like smallpox and
measles, and challenged classical Greek medical knowledge.

Likewise, Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Biruni and

others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticized
Aristotle’s view of motion.

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 The significance of medieval Islamic science has been debated
by historians. The traditionalist view holds that it lacked innovation, and
was mainly important for handing on ancient knowledge to medieval
Europe. The revisionist view holds that it constituted a scientific revolution.
Whatever the case, science flourished across a wide area around the
Mediterranean and further afield, for several centuries, in a wide range
of institutions.

Science and Technology in Ancient China

Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant

scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across various
scientific disciplines including the natural sciences, engineering,
medicine, military technology, mathematics, geology and astronomy.

Ancient China gave the world the Four Great Inventions that
include the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing. These were
considered as among the most important technological advances and were
only known to Europe 1000 years later or during the end of the Middle
ages. These four inventions had a profound impact on the development
of civilization throughout the world. However, some modern Chinese
scholars have opined that other Chinese inventions were perhaps more
sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese civilization – the Four
Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction
between East and West.

As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing

press were the three great inventions which ushered in bourgeois society.
Gunpowder blew up the knightly class, the compass discovered the world
market and found the colonies, and the printing press was the instrument
of Protestantism and the regeneration of science in general;; the most
powerful lever for creating the intellectual prerequisites.”

The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD)

The 14th century was the beginning of the cultural movement

of the Renaissance, which was considered by many as the Golden
Age of Science.
During the Renaissance period, great advances occurred in geography,
astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, anatomy, manufacturing, and
engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated
after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing
democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas.
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 Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate
the early phase of the Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. More recently,
Peter Dear has argued for a two-phase model of early modern
science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries,
focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients;;
and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from
recovery to innovation.

But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific

backwardness. There were no new developments in physics or astronomy,
and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian
and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Renaissance philosophy lost much
of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary
to intuition and emotion. At the same time, Renaissance humanism
stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual
creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Science would
only be revived later, with such figures as Copernicus, Gerolamo
Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.

The most important technological advance of all in this period

was the development of printing, with movable metal type, about the mid--
15th century in Germany. Johannes Gutenberg is usually called its
inventor, but in fact many people and many steps were involved. Block
printing on wood came to the West from China between 1250 and 1350,
papermaking came from China by way of the Arabs to 12th-century Spain,
whereas the Flemish technique of oil painting was the origin of the new
printers’ ink. Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his contemporaries
Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer—seem to have taken the final steps,
casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press. The invention
spread like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and Poland in
the 1470s, and Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of
Europe had produced some six million books. Without the printing
press it is impossible to conceive that the Reformation would have
ever been more than a monkish quarrel or that the rise of a new
science, which was a cooperative effort of an international community,
would have occurred at all. In short, the development of printing amounted
to a communications revolution of the order of the invention of writing;;
and, like that prehistoric discovery, it transformed the conditions of life.
The communications revolution immeasurably enhanced human
opportunities for enlightenment and pleasure on one hand and created
previously undreamed-of possibilities for manipulation and control on the
other. The consideration of such contradictory effects may guard us
against a ready acceptance of triumphalist conceptions of the Renaissance
or of historical change in general.

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 The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)

The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was

characterized by radical reorientation in science, which emphasized reason
over superstition and science over blind faith. This period produced
numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and
revolutions. The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired
by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence
and the beginning of its decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to
19th-century Romanticism.

The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included

the key natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including
Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Its
roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the span of
three years Isaac Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686)
and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1689)—
two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit
for the Enlightenment’s major advances.

In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the

natural sciences is regarded as the main exemplification of, and fuel for,
such progress. Isaac Newton’s epochal accomplishment in his Principia
Mathematica consists in the comprehension of a diversity of physical
phenomena – in particular the motions of heavenly bodies, together with
the motions of sublunary bodies – in few relatively simple, universally
applicable, mathematical laws, was a great stimulus to the intellectual
activity of the eighteenth century and served as a model and inspiration
for the researches of a number of Enlightenment thinkers. Newton’s system
strongly encourages the Enlightenment conception of nature as an orderly
domain governed by strict mathematical-dynamical laws and the
conception of ourselves as capable of knowing those laws and of
plumbing the secrets of nature through the exercise of our unaided
faculties. – The conception of nature, and of how we know it, changes
significantly with the rise of modern science. It belongs centrally to the
agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute to the new
knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical framework within which
to place and interpret this new knowledge.

Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1840)

The rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were

closely connected. It is difficult to show any direct effect of scientific
discoveries upon the rise of the textile or even the metallurgical industry in
Great Britain, the home of the Industrial Revolution, but there certainly was
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a similarity in attitude to be found in science and nascent industry.
Close observation and careful generalization leading to practical
utilization were characteristic of both industrialists and experimentalists
alike in the 18th century.

What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that
careful observation and experimentation might improve industrial
production significantly. The science of metallurgy permitted the tailoring
of alloy steels to industrial specifications, the science of chemistry
permitted the creation of new substances, like the aniline dyes, of
fundamental industrial importance, and that electricity and magnetism were
harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor. Until that period science
probably profited more from industry than the other way around. It
was the steam engine that posed the problems that led, by way of a
search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of
thermodynamics. Most importantly, as industry required ever more
complicated and intricate machinery, the machine tool industry developed
to provide it and, in the process, made possible the construction of
ever more delicate and refined instruments for science. As science turned
from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and molecules, electric
currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses, and nebulae and
galaxies, instruments increasingly provided the sole contact with
phenomena. A large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to
observe nebulae was as much a product of 19th-century heavy industry as
were the steam locomotive and the steamship.

The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on

the development of modern science. The prospect of applying science to
the problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science.
Governments, in varying degrees and at different rates, began supporting
science even more directly, by making financial grants to scientists, by
founding research institutes, and by bestowing honors and official
posts on great scientists. By the end of the 19th century the natural
philosopher following his private interests had given way to the professional
scientist with a public role. The main features involved in the Industrial
Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural. The
technological changes included the following: (1) the use of new basic
materials, chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of new energy sources,
including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam
engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine, (3) the
invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power
loom that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of
human energy, (4) a new organization of work known as the factory
system, which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of
function, (5) important developments in transportation and
communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile,
airplane, telegraph, and radio, and (6) the increasing application of
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 science to industry. These technological changes made possible a
tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production
of manufactured goods.

20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age

The 20th century was an important century in the history of the

sciences. It generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research
– often thanks to the introduction of novel research methods – and it
established an intimate connection between science and technology. With
this connection, science is dealing now with the complexity of the real
world. The scientific legacy of the 20th Century gave proof of the
revolutionary changes in many areas of the sciences – in particular,
physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and
environmental sciences – and how they contributed to these changes.

The epistemological and methodological questions as well as the

interdisciplinary aspects become ever more important in scientific research.
The common denominator of the sciences is the notion of discovery, and
discovery is an organised mode of observing nature. Twentieth century
cosmology greatly improved our knowledge of the place that man and
his planet occupy in the universe. The “wonder” that Plato and
Aristotle put at the origin of thought, today extends to science itself.
Questions now arise on the origin and on the whole, its history and its
laws.

The start of the 20th century was strongly marked by Einstein’s

formulation of the theory of relativity (1905) including the unifying concept
of energy related to mass and the speed of light: E = mc 2 . He made
many more contributions, notably to statistical mechanics, and he provided
a great inspiring influence for many other physicists.

In the second half of the 20th century several branches of science

continued to make great progress and we here list physics, chemistry,
biology, geology and astronomy. For example, there was the
development of the semi-conductor (transistor), followed by
developments in nanotechnology that led to great advances in
information technology. In nuclear physics the discovery of sub-atomic
particles provided a great leap forward.

Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline

contributing to all today’s basic natural sciences, astronomy, chemistry and
biology. Although it took a hundred years since Clausius’s time for it to be
fully recognized that all biological processes have also to obey the laws of
thermodynamics, the border between the origin of the living and the non--

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 living worlds has now at last been blurred. The year 1953 was an
important landmark for biology with the description by Crick and
Watson of the structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic information (Rosch,
2014).

Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of

matter and we are well on the way to an ever more consistent and
unitary understanding of the entire structure of natural reality, which we
discover as being made up not only of matter and energy but also of
information and forms. The latest developments in astrophysics are also
particularly surprising: they further confirm the great unity of physics that
manifests itself clearly at each new stage of the understanding of reality.

Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of

genetics, allows us to penetrate the fundamental processes of life and to
intervene in the gene pool of certain organisms by imitating some of these
natural mechanisms. Information technology and the digital processing of
information have transformed our lifestyle and our way of communicating in
the space of very few decades. The 20th century has seen medicine find
a cure for many life-threatening diseases and the beginning of organ
transplants.

It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results

that have broadened our knowledge and influenced our world outlook: from
progress in computational logic to the chemistry of materials, from the
neurosciences to robotics. Scientific research not only gives expression to
the strength of rationality in explaining the world and the way in which
this is done. The application of scientific knowledge can induce
changes of environmental and thus living conditions. It is these aspects,
the interrelations between scientific progress and social development, which
together with insights into the epistemological structure and the ethical
implications of science play an important role in the life and the work of
scientists.

Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the

blurring of boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological
worlds. It’s a fusion of advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics,
the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum
computing, and other technologies. It’s the collective force behind many
products and services that are fast becoming indispensable to modern
life. Think GPS systems that suggest the fastest route to a destination,
voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized Netflix
recommendations, and Facebook’s ability to recognize your face and tag

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you in a friend’s photo (https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what-is--
the-fourth-industrial-revolution-4IR.html).

As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth

Industrial Revolution is paving the way for transformative changes in the
way we live and radically disrupting almost every business sector. It’s
all happening at an unprecedented, whirlwind pace.

The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on

the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can
“think” like humans — recognizing complex patterns, processing information, drawing
conclusions, and making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting
patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect on your
phone.
New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They enable
computers to process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the advent
of the “cloud” has allowed businesses to safely store and access their information
from anywhere with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing technologies
now in development will eventually make computers millions of times more powerful.
These computers will have the potential to supercharge AI, create highly complex
data models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of new materials.
Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset)
that simulate the real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical
worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally
experiment with makeup products before buying them, and the Google Translate
phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus,
and other text.
Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new
technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new
pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing processes,
and cleaner, more efficient energy sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example,
are working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced.
Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal
and commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home,
technological advances have made robots increasingly complex and sophisticated.
They are used in fields as wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and
human assistance.
3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less
tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can
be customized to ensure a perfect fit.
Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials,
promise to shake up sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy,
construction, and healthcare.

13
 The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that
monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels —
being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for
businesses is that they can collect customer data from constantly connected
products, allowing them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor
marketing campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, such
as farmers putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes and inform
decisions such as when to fertilize.
Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector,
spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy technologies and improvements in
battery storage capacity.

C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines

The current state of science and technology in the country can be traced
back to its historical development and the latent events that helped shape it
since the pre-colonial period to contemporary time. What we have or lack
today in terms of science and technology is very much an effect of the
government policies that had been enacted by past public officials in trying to
develop a technological society that is responsive to the needs of time.

Pre-Spanish Era.

There is not much written about the Philippines during pre-colonial time but
analysis from archeological artifacts revealed that the first inhabitants in the
14
archipelago who settled in Palawan and Batangas around 40 000 years ago
have made simple tools or weapons of stone which eventually developed
techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. This very primitive
technology was brought by primal needs of survival by hunting wild animals
and gathering fruits and vegetables in the forest. They learned that by polishing
hard stones, they can develop sharp objects that are useful in their day to day
activities. From this early, we can see that technology was developed because of
a great necessity.

Still on its primitive state, the first inhabitants in the country are learning
what can be harnessed from the environment. They have come to understand
that when clay is mixed with 2 water and then shaped into something before
sun drying, it hardens to an object that can also be useful to them. And
because clay is moldable, it can be shaped into various objects.

As the early Filipinos flourished, they have learned how to extract, smelt
and refine metals like copper, gold, bronze and iron from nature and
consequently fashion them into tools and implements. At this point, the
inhabitants of the country are showing a deeper understanding of their nature
because they were able to obtain valuable resources from nature.
As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to another and
learned to settle in areas near the water source, they also learned how to
weave cotton, engaged themselves in agriculture and are knowledgeable on
building boats for coastal trade.

From the above mentioned facts, it can be concluded that primitive Filipinos
are practicing science and technology in their everyday lives. The ancient
crafts of stone carving, pottery and smelting of metals involves a lot of science,
which is understanding the nature of matter involved. The ingenuity of the
Ifugaos in building the Banaue Rice Terraces The smelting of metals exhibited
the primitive Filipino’s knowledge on the composition of alloy and the
optimum temperature that will produce the metal with acceptable tensile
strength. All in all, the primitive Filipinos were living in perfect harmony with
nature and they obtain from it what is just needed in their everyday life through
a very simple science of understanding how mother nature operates

Spanish Colonial Era.

As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and

technology in the country can be traced back to the Spanish regime because
they established schools, hospitals and started scientific research that had
important consequences in the development of the country. These schools,
which are mostly run by Spanish friars, formed the first Filipino professionals.
The The 3 highest institution of learning during this time was the Royal and
Pontifical University of Santo Tomas.

15
 But the very strict hold of the church among citizens and its
intervention and meddling to the government propelled by fear of intellectual
awakening among Filipinos have greatly hindered the progress of these
professionals to further enhance their knowledge, conduct scientific
investigations and contribute to the advancement of society. But a few of
persistent Filipino scientists succeeded by educating themselves abroad. One
notable example of course is our national hero, the great Dr. Jose P. Rizal. Dr.
Jose Rizal is the epitome of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He
is a scientist, a doctor, an engineer (he designed and built a water system
in Dapitan), a journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero. Being a
doctor and scientist, he had extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to
operate his mother’s blinding eye. When he was deported in Dapitan, his
knowledge on science and engineering was translated into technology by
creating a water system that improved the sanitation of households in the
area. Dr. Jose

Dr. Jose Rizal was a brilliant man and his life stood out among his
contemporaries. But it cannot be said that there is no contribution to science and
technology among the Filipino men and women during the Spanish era. The
charity hospitals became the breeding ground for scientific researches on
pharmacy and medicine, with great focus on problems of infectious diseases,
their causes and possible remedies. And in 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de
Ciudad de Manila was created and whose functions were to conduct biochemical
analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical
and medico-legal cases. Its publication, probably the first scientific journal in the
country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showed the
studies undertaken during that time.

As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to exploit the

natural resources of the country through agriculture, mining of metals and
minerals and establishing various kinds of industries to further promote
economic growth. As such, scientific research on these fields were encouraged
by the government. By the nineteenth century, Manila has become a
cosmopolitan center and modern amenities were introduced to the city.
However, little is known about the accomplishments of scientific bodies
commissioned by the Spanish government during this time. Because of limited
scientific research and its consequent translation to technology during the
Spanish regime, none of the industries prosper. The Philippines had evolved
into a primary agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the
researches undertaken on this field, but was largely because of the influx of
foreign capital and technology which brought modernization of some sectors,
notably sugar and hemp production.

American Period

If the development in science and technology was very slow during the
Spanish regime, the Philippines saw a rapid growth during the American
16
occupation and was made possible by the government’s extensive public
education system from elementary to tertiary schools. The establishment of
various public tertiary schools like the Philippine Normal School and University of
the Philippines provided the needs for professionally trained Filipinos in building
the government’s organization and programs. The growth and application of
science were still concentrated on the health sector in the form of
biochemical analyses in hospitals. The government supported basic and applied
research in the medical, agricultural and related sciences. The University of the
Philippines Los Baños opened the College of Agriculture in 1909 while the
University of the Philippines – Diliman opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering
and Veterinary Medicine in 1910. The College of Medicine was opened four
years later.

During this time, there were already quite a number of qualified Filipino
physicians who held teaching positions in the College of Medicine, whereas
most of the early instructors and professors in other colleges such as in the
sciences and engineering were Americans and foreigners. Capacity building
programs that include sending qualified Filipinos abroad for advanced training
were conducted to eventually fill up the teaching positions in Philippine
universities. Moreover, the American colonial government sent Filipino youths
to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers in
American colleges to further capacitate the Filipinos in various fields.

However, there was difficulty in recruiting students for science and

technology courses like veterinary medicine, engineering, agriculture, applied
sciences and industrial-vocational courses. The enrollment in these courses
were dismal that the government had to offer scholarships to attract
students. The unpopularity of these courses stemmed from the Filipinos’ disdain
toward manual work that developed from the 400 years under Spanish
colonization. The Filipinos then prefer prestigious professions at that time like
priesthood, law and medicine.

The government provided more support for the development of science and
created the Bureau of Government Laboratories in and was later changed to
Bureau of Science. It was composed of a biological laboratory, chemical
laboratory, serum laboratory for the production of virus vaccine, serums and
prophylactics, and a library. The bureau was initially managed by American senior
scientists but as more Filipinos were trained and acquire the necessary
knowledge and skills, they eventually took over their positions. The Bureau of
Science served as the primary training ground for Filipino scientists and paved
the way for pioneering scientific research, most especially on the study of various
tropical diseases that were prevalent during those times like leprosy,
tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Another great
contribution of the Bureau of Science to the development of science and
technology in the country was the publication of the Philippine Journal of
Science. This scientific journal published researches done in local laboratories
and reported global scientific developments that had relevance to the
17
Philippine society. The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of
the Philippines until World War II. Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the
National Research Council of the Philippines was established.

Commonwealth Period

When the Americans granted independence and the Commonwealth

government was established, the Filipinos were busy in working towards
economic reliance but acknowledge the importance and vital role of science and
technology for the economic development of the country by declaring that “The
State shall promote scientific research and invention…” The short-lived
Commonwealth Government was succeeded by the Japanese occupation when
the Pacific war broke out in 1941. The prevailing situations during the time of
Commonwealth period to the Japanese regime had made developments in
science and technology practically impossible. This is also true when World War
II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital, in ruins. The government had to
rebuild again and normalize the operations in the whole country.

Science and Technology since Independence

In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science and
was placed under the Office of the President of the Philippines. However, the
agency faced lack of financial support from the government and experienced
planning and coordination problems. In a report by the US Economic Survey to
the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of basic information which were
necessities to the country's industries, lack of support of experimental work and
minimal budget for scientific research and low salaries of scientists employed
by the government. In 1958, during the regime of President Carlos P. Garcia, the
Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which established the
National Science Development Board (NSDB).

The Philippine government focused on science and technology

institutional capacity-building which were undertaken by establishing infrastructure--
support facilities such as new research agencies and development trainings.
However good these projects were, it produced insignificant effects because of
lack of coordination and planning, specifically technology planning, between
concerned agencies which hindered them from performing their assigned functions
effectively. This was aptly illustrated in the unplanned activities of the researchers
within the agencies. Most areas of research were naively left to the discretion of
the researchers under the assumption that they were working for the interests of
the country. They were instructed to look for technologies and scientific
studies with good commercialization potential. Without clear research policy
guidelines, researches were done for their own sake, leaving to chance the

18
commercialization of the results. Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country
involved establishing more state funded manual and trading schools which
would eventually become the current state universities and colleges. The
trade schools produced craftsmen, tradesmen and technicians that helped in
shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an agricultural based
nation. Eventually, when these trade schools were elevated to college and
university status, they produced much of the country’s professionals, although
there was a great disparity on the low proportion of those in agriculture, medical
and natural sciences with those from teacher training and commerce/business
administration courses which had higher number of graduates. The increase in
the number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of scientists
and engineers. These organizations were formed to promote professional interests
and create and monitor the standards of practice.

As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education

and training of scientists and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in
part due to the conservative nature of self-regulation by the professional
associations. Because of specialized training, vertical organizations by
disciplines and lack of liaison between professions, professional associations
have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science,
technology and society and the relevance of their training to Philippine
conditions.

Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s

During these years, the government gave greater importance to science

and technology. The government declared in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine
Constitution that the “advancement of science and technology shall have
priority in the national development.”

On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in

Bicutan, Taguig as the site of the Philippine Science Community. Then in 1969,
the government provided funds to private universities to encourage them to
conduct research and create courses in science and technology. The government
also conducted seminars for public and private high school and college science
teachers, training programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate
science scholars, and workshops on fisheries and oceanography.

In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to applied

research and the main objective was to generate products and processes that
were supposed to have a greater beneficial impact to the society. Relative to
this, several research institutes were established under the National Science
Development Board (NSDB) which includes the Philippine Coconut Research
Institute and Philippine Textile Research Institute. Moreover, the Philippine
Atomic Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB, explored the uses

19
of atomic energy for economic development. To prepare the pool of scientists
who will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres. Marcos assisted 107
institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad
to study nuclear science and technology, and providing basic training to 482
scientists, doctors, engineers and technicians. Then in 1972, by virtue of
Presidential Decree No. 4, the National Grains Authority was created and it
was tasked to improve the rice and corn industry and thereby help in the
economic development of the country. This was followed by the creation of
Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the progressive
development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country. The
Marcos administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical
and Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of
National Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific
knowledge to ensure the safety of the people through Presidential Decree No.
78, s. 1972. On the following year, the Philippine National Oil Company was
created by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 334, s. 1973, to promote industrial
and economic development through effective and efficient use of energy sources.
To strengthen the scientific culture in the country, the National Academy of
Science and Technology was established under Presidential Decree No. 1003- A,
s. 1976. The National Academy of Science and Technology was composed of
scientists with “innovative achievement in the basic and applied sciences” who
will serve as the reservoir of scientific and technological expertise for the country.

In the 1980s, science and technology was still focused on applied research.
In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology
Authority (NSTA) composed of four research and development Councils;;
Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development
(PCARRD);; Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development
(PCIERD);; Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD)
and the National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP). NSTA has
also eight research and development institutes and support agencies under it.
These are actually the former organic and attached agencies of NSDB which
have themselves been reorganized.

The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for
high calibre scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff universities
and colleges. Hence, measures have also been taken towards the
improvement of the country’s science and manpower. In March 1983,
Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the President which provided for
the establishment of a national network of centers of excellence in basic
sciences. As a consequence, six new institutes were created: The National
Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences Research,
Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was
the establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by
Presidential Decree No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more
qualified scientists to work in government and encourage young people to pursue
science degrees and careers.
20
 In 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science and
Technology Authority was replaced by the Department of Science and
Technology, giving science and technology a representation in the cabinet.
Under the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for the years 1987- 1992,
science and technology's role in economic recovery and sustained economic
growth was highlighted. In this period, science and technology was one of
the top three priorities of the government towards economic recovery.

With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of Executive

Order 128 signed on 30 January 1987, the functions and responsibilities of
DOST expanded correspondingly to include the following: (1) Pursue the declared
state policy of supporting local scientific and technological effort;; (2) Develop
local capability to achieve technological self-reliance;; (3) Encourage greater
private sector participation in research and development. moreover, funding for
the science and technology sector was tripled from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7
billion in 1992.

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science

and technology body in the country charged with the twin mandate of
providing central direction, leadership and coordination of all scientific and
technological activities, and of formulating policies, programs and projects to
support national development. The Science and Technology Master Plan was
formulated which aimed at the modernization of the production sector, upgrading
research activities, and development of infrastructure for science and
technological purposes. A Research and Development Plan was also
formulated to examine and determine which areas of research needed attention
and must be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be pursued
were, development of local materials, probability of success, potential of product
in the export market, and the its strategic nature. The grants for the
research and development programs was included in the Omnibus Investment
Law.

During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant increase in

personnel specializing in the science and technology field. In 1998, there was an
estimated 3,000 competent scientists and engineers in the Philippines. Adding to
the increase of scientists would be the result of the two newly built Philippine
Science High Schools in Visayas and Mindanao which promotes further
development of young kids through advance S&T curriculum. The government
provided 3,500 scholarships for students who were taking up professions related
to S&T. Priority for S&T personnel increased when Magna Carta for Science and
Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was established. The award was
published in order to give incentives and rewards for people who have been
influential in the field of S&T.

Still under the Ramos administration, DOST established the “Science

and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)”, a program that was
21
significant to the field of S&T. It identified seven export products, 11 domestic
needs, three other supporting industries, and the coconut industry as priority
investment areas. The seven identified export products were computer software;;
fashion accessories;; gifts, toys, and houseware;; marine products;; metal
fabrications;; furniture;; and dried fruits. The domestic needs identified were
food, housing, health, clothing, transportation, communication, disaster
mitigation, defense, environment, manpower development, and energy. Three
additional support industries were included in the list of priority sectors,
namely, packaging, chemicals, and metals because of their linkages with the
above sectors. In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, numerous laws
and projects were implemented which concerns both the environment and science
to push technology as a tool to increase the country’s economic level. This is to
help increase the productivity from Science, Technology and Innovations (STI)
and help benefit the poor people. Moreover, the term “Filipinnovation” was the
coined term used in helping the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia.

The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education
system such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which focuses
in science, technology and mathematics in their curriculum. This helps schools
produce get more involve in this sector. Private sectors were also encouraged to
participate in developing the schools through organizing events and sponsorships.
Future Filipino scientists and innovators can be produced through this system.

Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in terms of

Science and Technology and Innovation (STI) index, citing the country’s
strength in research and commercialization of STI ideas (DOST, 2018).
However, a study by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies highlighted
the weak ties between innovation-driven firms and the government, and it also
identified the country’s low expenditure in research and development (R&D).
This is the reason the government is now extending all its efforts to reach out
with the private sector, explaining that STI plays an important role in economic
and social progress and is a key driver for a long-term growth of an economy.
Technology adoption allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit from
innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap--
frog obsolete technologies. Technology adoption, the official said, allows a
country’s firms and citizens to benefit from innovations created in other
countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap- frog obsolete
technologies.

Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology

Despite the many inadequacies, from funding to human capital, there are
some science and technology-intensive research and capacity-building projects
which resulted in products which are currently being used successfully and
benefits the society.

22
 One of these is the micro-satellite. In April 2016, the country launched into
space its first micro-satellite called Diwata-1. It was designed, developed and
assembled by Filipino researchers and engineers under the guidance of
Japanese experts. The Diwata (deity in English) satellite provides real- time,
high-resolution and multi-color infrared images for various applications,
including meteorological imaging, crop and ocean productivity measurement
and high-resolution imaging of natural and man-made features. It enables a
more precise estimate of the country’s agricultural production, provides
images of watersheds and floodplains for a better understanding of water
available for irrigation, power and domestic consumption. The satellite also
provides accurate information on any disturbance and degradation of forest and
upland areas.
The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards
(NOAH)
which uses the Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology. Project NOAH was
initiated in June 2012 to help manage risks associated with natural hazards and
disasters. The project developed hydromet sensors and high-resolution geo-hazard
maps, which were generated by light detection and ranging technology for flood
modeling. Noah helps the government in providing timely warning with a lead
time of at least six hours in the wake of impending floods. The country is now
training the Cambodians on this technology, as part of the partnerships among
ASEAN countries, just like in the case of Japan which assisted the country’s
scientists and engineers in building its first micro-satellite.

Another hope lies in the so-called Intelligent Operation Center

Platform.
Established through a collaboration between the local government of Davao City
and IBM Philippines Inc., the center resulted in the creation of a dashboard that
allows authorized government agencies, such as police, fire and anti-terrorism
task force, to use analytics software for monitoring events and operations in real
time.

Current Initiatives in Science and Technology in the Country

DOST, in cooperation with HEIs and research institutions, established

advanced
facilities that seek to spur R&D activities and provide MSMEs access to testing
services needed to increase their productivity and competitive advantage.

One is the Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories. The

center
houses advanced equipment for failure analysis and materials characterization to
address advanced analytical needs for quality control, materials identification and
R&D. Closely related to this facility is the Electronics Products Development
Center, used to design, develop and test hardware and software for electronic
products.

23
 There are also high-performance computing facilities that perform tests and
run computationally intensive applications for numerical weather
prediction, climate modeling, as well as analytics and data modeling and
archiving.

The Philippines could also boast of its Genome Center, a core

facility that combines basic and applied research for the development of
health diagnostics, therapeutics, DNA forensics and preventive products, and
improved crop varieties.

The country also has drug-discovery facilities, which address the

requirements for
producing high-quality and globally acceptable drug candidates. She said the
Philippines also has nanotechnology centers, which provide technical services
and enabling environment for interdisciplinary and collaborative R&D in
various nanotechnology applications.

There are also radiation processing facilities that are used to degrade,
graft, or crosslink polymers, monomers, or chemical compounds for industrial,
agricultural, environmental and medical applications. The Philippines could also
boast of its Die and
Mold Solutions Center, which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool
and die sector through the localization of currently imported dies and molds.

These are reflections that we are advancing, albeit slowly, to a

culture that embraces STI as a sure path to growth.

D. Paradigm Shift

What is a paradigm?

24
 A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly
accepted views about a subject, conventions about what direction research should
take and how it should be performed.

The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the

practices that define a scientific discipline at a certain point in time."
Paradigms contain all the distinct, established patterns, theories, common
methods and standards that allow us to recognize an experimental result as
belonging to a field or not.

Science proceeds by accumulating support for hypotheses which in time

become models and theories. But those models and theories themselves
exist within a larger theoretical framework. The vocabulary and concepts in
Newton’s three laws or the central dogma in biology are examples of scientific
“open resources" that scientists have adopted and which now form part of the
scientific paradigm.

Paradigms are historically and culturally bound. For example, a modern

Chinese medical researcher with a background in eastern medicine, will operate
within a different paradigm than a western doctor from the 1800s.

A paradigm dictates:

what is observed and measured

the questions we ask about those observations how the
questions are formulated how the results are
interpreted how research is carried out what
equipment is appropriate

Many students who opt to study science do so with the belief that
they are undertaking the most rational path to learning about objective reality.
But science, much like any other discipline, is subject to ideological
idiosyncrasies, preconceptions and hidden assumptions.

In fact, Kuhn strongly suggested that research in a deeply entrenched

paradigm invariably ends up reinforcing that paradigm, since anything that
contradicts it is ignored or else pressed through the preset methods until it
conforms to already established dogma.

The body of pre-existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes the

collection and interpretation of all subsequent evidence. The certainty that the
current paradigm is reality itself is precisely what makes it so difficult to accept
alternatives. What is a Paradigm Shift?

25
 "The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is
the usual developmental pattern of mature science" - Kuhn, The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions.

Figure 1 Paradigm shift. Source: https://thesaurus.plus/

The shift from one paradigm to another occurs when enough anomalies to
the current paradigm build up, causing scientists to question the foundational
principles upon which their worldview rests. During “normal science,” when the
current paradigm is in place, these anomalies are discounted as acceptable levels
of error. However, during “revolutionary science” or a paradigm shift, these
anomalies become the center of attention as scientists attempt to construct
a new world view that incorporates and explains them. This period of intense
focus on explaining anomalies and developing a new paradigm is considered
“revolutionary science,” and it is sparked by a “crisis” where the old
paradigm fails explain key anomalies or outliers. Once a new paradigm is
developed, however, there is a return to “normal science” under the new
worldview.

Figure 2 Paradigm Shift

Source: https://edtosavetheworld.com
26
 An Example of a Paradigm Shift

Many physicists in the 19th century were convinced that the Newtonian
paradigm that had reigned for 200 years was the pinnacle of discovery and that
scientific progress was more or less a question of refinement. When
Einstein published his theories on General Relativity, it was not just another
idea that could fit comfortably into the existing paradigm. Instead, Newtonian
Physics itself was relegated to being a special subclass of the greater paradigm
ushered in by General Relativity. Newton’s three laws are still faithfully
taught in schools, however we now operate within a paradigm that puts those
laws into a much broader context.

Interestingly, Kuhn’s theory itself was something of a game changer at the

time, since scientists were not accustomed to thinking of what they were
doing in such metaphysical terms. Kuhn’s theories are today understood to
be part of a greater paradigm shift in the social sciences, and have also been
modified since their original publication.

Kuhn later conceded that the process of scientific advancement might be

more gradual. For example, Relativity did not completely prove Newton
wrong, but merely reframed his theory. Even the Copernican revolution was a
little more gradual in replacing Ptolemy's beliefs.

The concept of paradigm is closely related to the Platonic and Aristotelian

views of knowledge. Aristotle believed that knowledge could only be based upon
what is already known, the basis of the scientific method. Plato believed that
knowledge should be judged by what something could become, the end result, or
final purpose. Plato's philosophy is more like the intuitive leaps that cause
scientific revolution;; Aristotle's the patient gathering of data.

Chapter 2 Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

Introduction

27
 This section provides students with background on the different intellectuals
who made great contributions to science that propelled scientific and technological
revolutions. Emphasis is given on how these intellectual revolutions shape and
transform society.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.

What is an Intellectual Revolution?

An intellectual revolution is a period where paradigm shifts occurred and

where scientific beliefs that have been widely embraced and accepted by
the people were challenged and opposed. Historically, this intellectual revolution
can be summed up as the “replacement of Aristotelian ethics and Christian
morality by a new type of decision making which may be termed instrumental
reasoning or cost-benefit analysis” (Wootton as cited by McCarthy, 2019).

The Birth of Modern Science

Western science, like so many other aspects of Western Civilization, was

born with the ancient Greeks. They were the first to explain the world in terms
of natural laws rather than myths about gods and heroes. They also passed on
the idea of the value of math and experiment in science, although they
usually thought only in terms of one to the exclusion of the other.

The most influential figure in Western science until the 1600's, was
the philosopher, Aristotle, who created a body of scientific theory that towered
like a colossus over Western Civilization for some 2000 years. Given the
limitations under which the Greeks were working compared to now, Aristotle's
theories made sense when taken in a logical order.

However, there were several factors that worked both to overthrow

Aristotle's theories and to preserve it. First of all, Aristotle's theories relied very
little on experiment, which left them vulnerable to anyone who chose to
perform such experiments. But attacking one part of Aristotle's system involved
attacking the whole thing, which made it a daunting task for even the
greatest thinkers of the day. Secondly, the Church had grafted Aristotle's
theories onto its theology, thus making any attack on Aristotle an attack on the
tradition and the Church itself. Finally, there were the Renaissance scholars who
were uncovering other Greek authors who contradicted Aristotle. This was
unsettling, since these scholars had a reverence for all ancient knowledge
as being nearly infallible. However, finding contradicting authorities forced the
Renaissance scholars to try to figure out which ones were right. When their
28
findings showed that neither theory was right, they had to think for themselves
and find a new theory that worked. This encouraged skepticism, freethinking, and
experimentation, all of which are essential parts of modern science.

Pattern of development

The combination of these factors generated a cycle that undermined

Aristotle, but also slowed down the creation of a new set of theories. New
observations would be made that seemed to contradict Aristotle's theories. This
would lead to new explanations, but always framed in the context of the old
beliefs, thus patching up the Aristotelian system. However, more observations
would take place, leading to more patching of the old system, and so on.
The first person who started this slow process of dismantling Aristotle's
cosmology was Copernicus. His findings would reinforce the process of finding
new explanations, which would lead to the work of Kepler and Galileo. The work
of these three men would lead to many new questions and theories about the
universe until Isaac Newton would take the new data and synthesize it into a
new set of theories that more accurately explained the universe.

A. Copernican Revolution

Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish scholar working at the University of

Padua in northern Italy. The problem he wrestled with was the paths of
planetary orbits. Through the centuries close observations had shown that the
heavens do not always appear to move in perfect, uninterrupted circles.
Rather, they sometimes seem to move backwards in what are known as
retrogradations. In order to account for these irregularities, astronomers did
not do away with Aristotle's theory of perfectly circular orbits around the
earth. Instead, they expanded upon it, adding smaller circular orbits
(epicycles) that spun off the main orbits. These more or less
accounted for the retrogradations seen in orbits. Each time a new
irregularity was observed, a new epicycle was added. By the 1500's, the
model of the universe had some 80 epicycles attached to ten crystalline
spheres (one for the moon, sun, each of the five known planets, the totality
of the stars, a sphere to move the other spheres, and heaven). The second
century Greek astronomer, Ptolemy was the main authority who put order to
and passed this cumbersome system of epicycles to posterity.

Copernicus' solution was basically geometric. By placing the sun at the

center of the universe and having the earth orbit it, he reduced the
unwieldy number of epicycles from 80 to 34. His book, Concerning the
Revolutions of the Celestial Worlds, published in 1543, laid the foundations for a
revolution in how Europeans would view the world and its place in the
universe. However, Copernicus' intention was not to create a radically new
theory, but to get back to even older ideas by such Greeks as Plato and
Pythagoras who believed in a heliocentric (sun centered) universe. Once

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again, ancient authorities were set against one another, leaving it for
others to develop their own theories.

It took some 150 years after Copernicus' death in 1543 to achieve a

new model of the universe that worked. The first step was compiling more
data that tarnished the perfection of the Ptolemaic universe and forced men
to re-evaluate their beliefs.

Johannes Kepler

At this time, Tycho Brahe, using only the naked eye, tracked the entire
orbits of various stars and planets. Previously, astronomers would only track
part of an orbit at a time and assume that orbit was in a perfect circle.
Brahe kept extensive records of his observations, but did not really know
what to do with them. That task was left to his successor, Johannes Kepler.

Kepler was a brilliant mathematician who had a mystical vision of

the mathematical perfection of the universe that owed a great deal to the
ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras. Despite these preoccupations, Kepler
was open minded enough to realize that Brahe's data showed the planetary
orbits were not circular. Finally, his calculations showed that those orbits were
elliptical.

Galileo

As important as Kepler's conclusions was his method of arriving at it.

He was the first to successfully use math to define the workings of the
cosmos. Although such a conclusion as elliptical orbits inevitably met with
fierce opposition, the combination of Brahe's observations and Kepler's
math helped break the perfection of the Aristotelian universe. However,
it was the work of an Italian astronomer, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642),
armed with a new invention, the telescope, which would further shatter the
old theory and lead the way to a new one.

Using his telescope, Galileo saw the sun's perfection marred by

sunspots and the moon's perfection marred by craters. He also saw four
moons orbiting Jupiter. In his book, The Starry Messenger (1611), he reported
these disturbing findings and spread the news across Europe. Most people
could not understand Kepler's math, but anyone could look through a
telescope and see for himself the moon's craters and Jupiter's moons.

The Church tried to preserve the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic view

of the universe by clamping down on Galileo and his book and made
him promise not to preach his views. However, in 1632, Galileo published
his next book, Dialogue on the Great World Systems, which technically did not
preach the Copernican theory (which Galileo believed in), but was only a

30
dialogue presenting both views "equally". Galileo got his point across by
having the advocate of the Church and Aristotelian view named
Simplicius (Simpleton). He was quickly faced with the Inquisition and
the threat of torture. Being an old man of 70, he recanted his views.
However, it was too late. Word was out, and the heliocentric heresy was
gaining new followers daily.

Galileo's work was the first comprehensive attack on the

Aristotelian/Ptolemaic cosmic model. He treated celestial objects as being
subject to the same laws as terrestrial objects. However, Galileo was still
enthralled with perfect circular motion and, as a result, did not come up with
the synthesis of all these new bits of information into a new comprehensive
model of the universe. This was left to the last, and probably greatest,
giant of the age, Isaac Newton.

Isaac Newton

The story of Newton being hit on the head by an apple may very well
be true. However, the significance of this popular tale is usually lost. People
had seen apples fall out of trees for thousands of years, but Newton
realized, in a way no one else had realized, that the same force pulling the
apples to earth was keeping the moon in its orbit. In order to prove this
mathematically, Newton had to invent a whole new branch of math, calculus,
for figuring out rates of motion and change. The genius of Newton in
physics, as well as William Harvey in medicine and Mendeleev in chemistry,
was not so much in his new discoveries, as in his ability to take the isolated
bits and pieces of the puzzle collected by his predecessors and fit them
together. In retrospect, his synthesis seems so simple, but it took tremendous
imagination and creativity to break the bonds of the old way of thinking and
see a radically different picture.

The implications of Newton's theory of gravity can easily escape us,

since we now take it for granted that physical laws apply the same
throughout the universe. To the mentality of the 1600’s, which saw a clear
distinction between the laws governing the terrestrial and celestial elements, it
was a staggering revelation. His three laws of motion were simple, could be
applied everywhere, and could be used with calculus to solve any problems
of motion that came up.

The universe that emerged was radically different from that of Aristotle.
Thanks to Newton, it was within our grasp to understand, predict, and
increasingly manipulate the laws of the universe in ways no one had been
able to do before. Newton's work also completed the fusion of math
promoted by Renaissance humanists, Aristotelian logic pushed by medieval
university professors, and experiment to test a hypothesis pioneered by such
men as Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo into what we call the scientific

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method. This fusion had gradually been taking place since the Renaissance,
but the invention of calculus made math a much more dynamic tool in
predicting and manipulating the laws of nature.

The printing of Newton's book, Principia Mathematica, in 1687 is often

seen as the start of the Enlightenment (1687-1789). It was a significant
turning point in history, for, armed with the tools of Newton's laws and
calculus, scientists had an unprecedented faith in their ability to understand,
predict, and manipulate the laws of nature for their own purposes. This sense
of power popularized science for other intellectuals and rulers in Europe,
turning it into virtual religion for some in the Enlightenment. Even the
geometrically trimmed shrubbery of Versailles offers testimony to that faith
in our power over nature. Not until this century has that faith been seriously
undermined or put into a more realistic perspective.

B. The Darwinian Revolution

The publication in 1859 of The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin

ushered in a new era in the intellectual history of humanity. Darwin is
deservedly given credit for the theory of biological evolution: he accumulated
evidence demonstrating that organisms evolve and discovered the process,
natural selection, by which they evolve. But the importance of Darwin's
achievement is that it completed the Copernican revolution initiated three
centuries earlier, and thereby radically changed our conception of the
universe and the place of humanity in it.

The discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton in the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had gradually ushered in the notion that
the workings of the universe could be explained by human reason. It was
shown that the earth is not the center of the universe, but a small planet
rotating around an average star;; that the universe is immense in space and
in time;; and that the motions of the planets around the sun can be
explained by the same simple laws that account for the motion of physical
objects on our planet. These and other discoveries greatly expanded human
knowledge, but the intellectual revolution these scientists brought about was
more fundamental: a commitment to the postulate that the universe obeys
immanent laws that account for natural phenomena. The workings of the
universe were brought into the realm of science: explanation through natural
laws. Physical phenomena could be accounted for whenever the causes were
adequately known.

Darwin completed the Copernican revolution by drawing out for biology

the notion of nature as a lawful system of matter in motion. The adaptations
and diversity of organisms, the origin of novel and highly organized
forms, even the origin of humanity itself could now be explained by an
orderly process of change governed by natural laws.

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 The origin of organisms and their marvelous adaptations were,
however, either left unexplained or attributed to the design of an omniscient
Creator. God had created the birds and bees, the fish and corals, the trees
in the forest, and best of all, man. God had given us eyes so that we might
see, and He had provided fish with gills to breathe in water. Philosophers
and theologians argued that the functional design of organisms manifests the
existence of an all-wise Creator. Wherever there is design, there is a
designer;; the existence of a watch evinces the existence of a watchmaker.
The English theologian William Paley in his Natural Theology (1802)
elaborated the argument-from-design as forceful demonstration of the
existence of the Creator. The functional design of the human eye,
argued Paley, provided conclusive evidence of an all-wise Creator. It would
be absurd to suppose, he wrote, that the human eye by mere chance
"should have consisted, first, of a series of transparent lenses ...
secondly of a black cloth or canvas spread out behind these lenses so as to
receive the image formed by pencils of light transmitted through them, and
placed at the precise geometrical distance at which, and at which alone, a
distinct image could be formed ... thirdly of a large nerve
communicating between this membrane and the brain." The Bridgewater
Treatises, published between 1833 and 1840, were written by eminent
scientists and philosophers to set forth "the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness
of God as manifested in the Creation." The structure and mechanisms of
man's hand were, for example, cited as incontrovertible evidence that the
hand had been designed by the same omniscient Power that had created the
world.

The advances of physical science had thus driven humanity's

conception of the universe to a split-personality state of affairs, which
persisted well into the mid-nineteenth century. Scientific explanations, derived
from natural laws, dominated the world of nonliving matter, on the earth
as well as in the heavens. Supernatural explanations, depending on the
unfathomable deeds of the Creator, accounted for the origin and configuration
of living creatures—the most diversified, complex, and interesting realities of
the world. It was Darwin's genius to resolve this conceptual schizophrenia
(Ayala, no date).

C. Freudian Revolution

Sigmund Freud was born in 1856, before the advent of telephones,

radios, automobiles, airplanes, and a host of other material and cultural
changes that had taken place by the time of his death in 1939. Freud saw
the entirety of the first World War–a war that destroyed the empire whose
capital city was his home for more than seventy years–and the beginning
of the next. He began his career as an ambitious but isolated neurologist;;
by the end of it, he described himself, not inaccurately, as someone who

33
had had as great an impact on humanity's conception of itself as had
Copernicus and Darwin.

Freud's most obvious impact was to change the way society thought
about and dealt with mental illness. Before psychoanalysis, which Freud
invented, mental illness was almost universally considered 'organic';; that is,
it was thought to come from some kind of deterioration or disease of
the brain. Research on treating mental illness was primarily
concerned–at least theoretically–with discovering exactly which kinds of
changes in the brain led to insanity. Many diseases did not manifest
obvious signs of physical difference between healthy and diseased
brains, but it was assumed that this was simply because the techniques
for finding the differences were not yet sufficient.

The conviction that physical diseases of the brain caused

mental illness meant that psychological causes–the kinds that Freud would
insist on studying– were ignored. It also meant that people drew a sharp
dividing line between the "insane" and the "sane." Insane people were
those with physical diseases of the brain. Sane people were those without
diseased brains.

Freud changed all of this. Despite his background in physicalism

(learned during his stay in Ernst Brücke's laboratory), his theories
explicitly rejected the purely organic explanations of his predecessors. One
of Freud's biggest influences during his early days as a neurologist was
Jean-Martin Charcot, the famous French psychiatrist. Charcot claimed that
hysteria had primarily organic causes, and that it had a regular,
comprehensible pattern of symptoms. Freud agreed with Charcot on the
latter point, but he disagreed entirely on the former. In essence,
Freud claimed that neurotic people had working hardware, but faulty
software. Earlier psychiatrists like Charcot, in contrast, had claimed that the
problems were entirely in the hardware. As psychoanalysis became
increasingly popular, psychology and psychiatry turned away from the
search for organic causes and toward the search for inner psychic conflicts
and early childhood traumas. As a consequence, the line between sane
and insane was blurred: everyone, according to Freud, had an
Oedipal crisis, and everyone could potentially become mentally ill.

Psychoanalysis has had an enormous impact on the practice of

psychiatry, particularly within the United States, but today it is regarded by
most sources– medical, academic, governmental, and others–as almost
entirely incorrect in its conception of the mind. This judgment is based
on the crucial test of psychoanalysis: whether or not it really helps
patients with behavioral or psychological problems. The consensus is that
is does not. Psychoanalysis in its many varieties appears to have little or
no efficacy in treating mental illness. In contrast, psychopharmacology and
cognitive- behavioral therapies (therapies that simply try to change what the

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 patient thinks and does rather than analyzing the causes of the behavior),
while far from perfect, do appear to help.

If this is true–and we have a great deal of evidence that it is–why

is Freud still so important? Why do we generally speak of him as a great
figure in Western thought, instead of as a strange and misguided
figure of turn-of-the- century Europe?

There are at least two reasons. The first is purely practical:

psychoanalysis has enormous historical significance. Mental illness affects
an large proportion of the population, either directly or indirectly, so
any curative scheme as widely accepted as was Freud's is important to
our history in general. The second, more important, reason is that Freud
gave people a new way of thinking about why they acted the way they
did. He created a whole new way of interpreting behaviors: one could now
claim that a person had motives, desires, and beliefs–all buried in the
unconscious–which they knew nothing about but which nonetheless
directly controlled and motivated their conscious thought and behavior. This
hypothesis, derived from but independent of Freud's psychiatric work, was
the truly radical part of his system of thought.

D. Scientific Revolution in Mesoamerica

Meso-America is the region from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize and

parts of Honduras and El Salvador. There were no major ancient
civilization that developed in North America. The Mesoamerican
civilization were isolated from the accumulated scientific knowledge of
Africa, Asia and Europe. They were confronted with much harder
conditions than the ancient civilizations of the Indus valley, Mesopotamia,
and Egypt which developed in parallel with each other and established
contacts between each other at a very early stage. This exchange of
knowledge between these ancient civilizations was critical in the
development of their scientific knowledge. Because of this isolation,
Mesoamerican civilization developed on their own and became much more
self-reliant.

The most advanced Mesoamerican civilization was the Maya civilization

that was well on its way to develop true science. They knew how to make
paper and had pictorial script called Maya hieroglyphs that allowed
them to record all knowledge on long strips of paper folded harmonica- -
style into books. One of the three books recovered called The Dresden
Codex contains predictions of solar eclipses for centuries and a table
of predicted positions of Venus. Unlike the European scientists who
used astronomical instruments like telescopes, the Maya made predictions
by aligning stars with two objects that were separated by a large distance,
a technique that achieved great accuracy of angular measurement. As a
result, the Maya developed the most accurate calendar ever designed.
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 The Aztec followed the same road. They kept their own script and
languages but assimilated all they could learn from Maya society. Their
manuscripts describe how the Maya performed their astronomical
observations.

Several outstanding achievements can be reported in the area of

technology and invention. The manufacture of rubber was one of the
earliest inventions, documented by the use of a rubber ball in the ball
game tlachtli, a game played by Meso-American civilizations from earliest
times. In architecture the Maya were the first to use pitched ceilings in
their buildings after the invention of the corbelled vault. Aztec city
builders also understood the need for public sanitation;; public latrines
were found along all highways, and to prevent pollution of Lake Texcoco
canoes transported the sewage from Tenochtitlán to the mainland every
morning. (von Hagen, 1957)

American people were gifted horticulturalists and cultivated crop plants

from the earliest times. Among the plants that originated in Meso- -
America are corn (maize), papaya, avocado and cocoa. Maize is the only
cultivated plant that was developed so early in human history that its wild
ancestor is no longer known. It can, however, still be crossed with two
other plants found only on the Yucatan Peninsula.

Finally, several sculptures found at Meso-American sites in 1975, 1979

and 1983 and dating back to 2000 - 1500 BC have clear magnetic
properties. In some of these sculptures the north and south poles are in
most conspicuous positions, for example at the snout and at the back of
the head of a frog or turtle. Another magnetic object found in 1966 was
shaped as if it was to be used to indicate direction. These finds
strongly suggest that the early Meso-American civilizations knew about and
used magnetism. (Malmström, 1976, 1979)

E. Asian Scientific Revolution

Aside from China, there were other Asian countries that contributed to
the development of science and technology in the world, although it varied
depending on country and time, specially in the present times. Currently,
Japan is probably the most notable country in Asia in terms of
scientific and technological achievement, particularly in terms of its
electronics and automobile products. Other countries are also notable in
other scientific fields such as chemical and physical achievements.
The general conception is that many of the cutting-edge
technological developments, and to a lesser extent scientific advancements,
emanate from Asia. For instance, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and
China together produce a staggering 90% of the world’s digital gadgets.
36
 Aside from the region’s hardware dominance, nations across Asia are
becoming increasingly important to the global supply of digital content and
services, something which will only increase as the continent develops over
the coming decades.
South Korea’s cultural popularity around the world has caused a
number of startup’s to emerge working within the digital and technology
sectors, including website viki.com.
Taiwan is following a similar path to Japan meanwhile, moving away
from hardware production, instead turning to software and content
development.
Together, the points raised throughout this article proves Asia is
truly a crucible of innovative technological development;; a continent
that will play an incredibly important role in the evolution of our digital
age.

F. Scientific Revolution in Middle East

During the 3,000 years of urbanized life in Mesopotamia and Egypt

tremendous strides were made in various branches of science and
technology. The greatest advances were made in Mesopotamia—very
possibly because of its constant shift of population and openness to foreign
influence, in contrast to the relative isolation of Egypt and the consequent
stability of its population. The Egyptians excelled in such applied sciences as
medicine, engineering, and surveying;; in Mesopotamia greater progress was
made in astronomy and mathematics. The development of astronomy seems
to have been greatly accelerated by that of astrology, which took the lead
among the quasi-sciences involved in divination. The Egyptians remained far
behind the Babylonians in developing astronomy, while Babylonian medicine,
because of its chiefly magical character, was less advanced than that of
Egypt. In engineering and architecture Egyptians took an early lead, owing
largely to the stress they laid on the construction of such elaborate
monuments as vast pyramids and temples of granite and sandstone. On the
other hand, the Babylonians led in the development of such practical arts as
irrigation (Albright, 2014).

Both sciences and pseudosciences spread from Egypt and

Mesopotamia to Phoenicia and Anatolia. The Phoenicians in particular
transmitted much of this knowledge to the various lands of the
Mediterranean, especially to the Greeks. The direction taken by these
influences can be followed from Egypt to Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus,
thanks to a combination of excavated art forms that prove the direction of
movement, as well as to Greek tradition, which lays great stress on what the
early Greek philosophers learned from Egypt. Mesopotamian influence can
be traced especially through the partial borrowing of Babylonian science and
divination by the Hittites and later by the transmission of information through
37
Phoenicia. The Egyptians and Mesopotamians wrote no theoretical treatises;;
information had to be transmitted piecemeal through personal contacts.

Of all the accomplishments of the ancient Middle East, the invention

of the alphabet is probably the greatest. While pre-alphabetic systems of
writing in the Old World became steadily more phonetic, they were still
exceedingly cumbersome, and the syllabic systems that gradually replaced
them remained complex and difficult. In the early Hyksos period (17th century
BC) the Northwestern Semites living in Egypt adapted hieroglyphic characters
—in at least two slightly differing forms of letters—to their own purposes.
Thus was developed the earliest known purely consonantal alphabet,
imitated in northern Syria, with the addition of two letters to designate
vowels used with the glottal catch.

This alphabet spread rapidly and was in quite common use among
the Northwestern Semites (Canaanites, Hebrews, Aramaeans, and
especially the Phoenicians) soon after its invention. By the 9th century BC
the Phoenicians were using it in the western Mediterranean, and the Greeks
and Phrygians adopted it in the 8th. The alphabet contributed vastly to the
Greek cultural and literary revolution in the immediately following period.
From the Greeks it was transmitted to other Western peoples. Since
language must always remain the chief mode of communication for
people, its union with hearing and vision in a uniquely simple phonetic
structure has probably revolutionized civilization more than any other
invention in history.

G. Scientific Revolution in Africa

The history of the sciences in Africa is rich and diverse. The applied
sciences of agronomy, metallurgy, engineering and textile production, as
well as medicine, dominated the field of activity across Africa. So advanced
was the culture of farming within West Africa, that ‘New World‘ agricultural
growth was spawned by the use of captives from these African societies that
had already made enormous strides in the field of agronomy. In her work
Black Rice, Judith Carnoy demonstrates the legacy of enslaved Africans to
the Americas in the sphere of rice cultivation. We know also that a variety of
African plants were adopted in Asia, including coffee, the oil palm, fonio or
acha (digitaria exilis), African rice (oryza glabberima), and sorghum
(sorghum bicolor). Plants, whether in terms of legumes, grain, vegetables,
tubers, or, wild or cultivated fruits, also had medicinal implications for
Africans and were used as anesthetics or pain killers, analgesics for the
control of fever, antidotes to counter poisons, and anthelmints aimed at
deworming. They were used also in cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, and
dermatological contexts. Some of these such as hoodia gordonii and

38
combrettum caffrum are being integrated within contemporary pharmaceutical
systems (Emeagwali, n.d.).

Africa’s areas of scientific investigation include the fields of astronomy,

physics, and mathematics. Laird Scranton, making use of the extensive
collections of Marcel Griaule, has deepened our understanding of Malian
cosmological myths and their perceptions of the structure of matter and
the physical world. Dogon knowledge systems have also been explored in
terms of their perceptions on astronomy. Dogon propositions about Sirius B
have been discussed by Charles Finch in The Star of Deep Beginnings. The
solar calendar that we use today evolved from the Egyptian calendar of
twelve months, calibrated according to the day on which the star Sirius rose
on the horizon with the Sun. Scranton suggests major interconnections
between the thought of the ancient Egyptians and that of the Malians of
West Africa.

In the field of Mathematics, Nubian builders calculated the volumes of

masonry and building materials, as well as the slopes of pyramids, for
construction purposes. Bianchi points to a Nubian engraving at Meroe, in
ancient Sudan, dated to the first century B.C.E., which reflects “a
sophisticated understanding of mathematics.” Included in the engraving were
several lines, inclined at a 72-degree angle, running diagonally from the
base of a pyramid. Bianchi suggests that the Nubian King Amanikhabale
of the first century BCE was the owner of that pyramid. Interestingly, the
Nubians of Meroe, who constructed more pyramids than the Egyptians,
built steep, flat-topped pyramids.

In the field of medicine, common patterns and trends emerged

across the continent. These included scientifically proven methods, as well as
techniques and strategies which were culturally specific and psychologically
significant. Among the common principles and procedures were
hydrotherapy, heat therapy, spinal manipulation, quarantine, bone-setting
and surgery. Incantations and other psychotherapeutic devices sometimes
accompanied other techniques. The knowledge of specific medicinal plants
was quite extensive in some kingdoms, empires, and city states such
as Aksum, and Borgu (in Hausaland). The latter continues to be well
known for orthopedics (bone-setting), as is the case of Funtua in Northern
Nigeria. Many traditional techniques are still utilized in some areas. Others
have undergone change over time, have been revived in more recent periods,
or have fallen into oblivion.

Various types of metal products have been used over time by Africans,
ranging from gold, tin, silver, bronze, brass, and iron/steel. The Sudanic
empires of West Africa emerged in the context of various commercial routes
and activities involving the gold trade. In the North and East, Ethiopia and
Sudan were the major suppliers of gold, with Egypt a major importer. In
Southern Africa, the kingdom of Monomotapa (Munhumutapa) reigned supreme
39
as a major gold producer. In the various spheres of metal production, specific
techniques and scientific principles included: excavation and ore identification;;
separation of ore from non-ore bearing rock;; smelting by the use of bellows
and heated furnaces;; and smithing and further refinement.
The use of multishaft and open-shaft systems facilitated circulation of
air in intense heating processes, while the bellows principle produced strong
currents of air in a chamber expanded to draw in or expel air through a
valve. The various metal products served a wide range of purposes,
including: armor (as in some northern Nigerian city-states), jewelry (of gold,
silver, iron, copper and brass), cooking utensils, cloth dyeing, sculpture, and
agricultural tools. The technical know-how and expertise of blacksmiths
helped to enhance their status, although they were also often associated
with supernatural and psychic powers, as well.

In various parts of ancient, medieval, and contemporary Africa,

building constructions of various dimensions, shapes, and types emerged,
reflecting various concepts, techniques, raw material preferences, and
decorative principles. Builders integrated the concepts of the arch, the
dome, and columns and aisles in their constructions. The underground
vaults and passages, as well as the rock-hewn churches, of Axum are
matched in Nubia and Egypt with pyramids of various dimensions. In the
Sahelian region, adobe, or dried clay, was preferred in the context of
moulded contours, at times integrated with overall moulded sculpture.
Permanent scaffolding made of protruding planks characterized the Malian
region. The principle of evaporative cooling was integrated into building
design. Mats were used as part of the decor and also to be saturated
repeatedly in order to cool the room. Derelict ruins from walled cities—
such as Kano, Zazzau, and other city-states of Hausaland in the central
Sudanic region of West Africa—complement structures such as the rock--
hewn and moulded churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia or the Zimbabwe
enclosures. The structures of ancient Nubia, as well as those of Egypt, are
parallel structures in the northeast.

H. Information Revolution

Information revolution is a period of change that describes

current economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial
Revolution. The information revolution was fueled by advances in
semiconductor technology, particularly the metal-oxide-semiconductor field--
effect transistor (MOSFET) and the integrated circuit (IC) chip, leading
to the Information Age in the early 21 st century (Lukasiak, 2010;;
Orton, 2009).

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 Information revolution might prove as significant to the lives of
people. Computer technology is at the root of this change, and continuing
advancements in that technology seem to ensure that this revolution
would touch the lives of people. Computers are unique machines;;
they help to extend the brain power. Computerized robots have been
replacing blue-collar workers;; they might soon be replacing white collar
workers as well. Computers are merely devices that follow sets of
instructions called computer programs, or software, that have been written
by people called computer programmers. Computers offer many benefits,
but there are also many dangers. They could help others invade one's
privacy or wage war. They might turn one into button pusher and cause
massive unemployment. User-friendly systems can be easily used by
untrained people. The key development that made personal computers
possible was the invention of the microprocessor chip at Intel in 1971.

The information revolution led us to the age of the internet,

where optical communication networks play a key role in delivering massive
amounts of data. The world has experienced phenomenal network
growth during the last decade, and further growth is imminent. The
internet will continue to expand due to user population growth and
internet penetration: previously inaccessible geographical regions in
Africa and Asia will come online. Network growth will only be
accelerated by improvements in integrated circuits. Transistor size has
been halved every two years since the middle of the last century. The
new internet-based global economy requires a worldwide network with high
capacity and availability, which is currently limited by submarine optical
communication cables.

New ideas keep coming from the information transport community.

Since the first edition of Undersea Fiber Communication Systems in 2002,
the optical fiber communication industry moved into the “coherent” era. We
transport an order of magnitude more bits than just five years ago. We
encode information into phase, polarization, and amplitude of
electromagnetic waves. Michael Faraday would be proud, knowing that we
send over 10,000,000,000,000 bits every second across the Atlantic Ocean
in a single strand of fiber. We would leave in awe Sir William Thomson
(known as Lord Kelvin), who was the scientific leader of an 1858
endeavor that built the first submarine cable with a transmission speed of
one word per minute. Sir Thomson and Cyrus Field, an American
businessman and telecommunications pioneer, would be surprised to find
out how many tools developed during their first transatlantic expedition are
still in use today. At first glance, the modern cable looks similar to the
1858 cable, which was copper based with a gutta-percha (trans-poly
isoprene) isolator. In modern day cables, gutta-percha has been
replaced with polyethylene. We still use copper to power submarine
repeaters, and have added optical fibers during the last decade of the last
century.
41
 The uniqueness of this engineering marvel is a combination of
information science, nonlinear optics, electrical engineering, material
science, engineering practices, project management, marine expertise,
and high reliability standard. Undersea fiber communication systems will
continue to serve society.

Impact of Information Revolution

The truly revolutionary impact of the Information Revolution is just

beginning to be felt. But it is not "information" that fuels this impact.
It is not "artificial intelligence." It is not the effect of computers and data
processing on decision-making, policymaking, or strategy. It is something
that practically no one foresaw or, indeed, even talked about ten or fifteen
years ago: e-commerce—that is, the explosive emergence of the Internet
as a major, perhaps eventually the major, worldwide distribution
channel for goods, for services, and, surprisingly, for managerial and
professional jobs. This is profoundly changing economies, markets, and
industry structures;; products and services and their flow;; consumer
segmentation, consumer values, and consumer behavior;; jobs and labor
markets. But the impact may be even greater on societies and politics
and, above all, on the way we see the world and ourselves in it.
At the same time, new and unexpected industries will no doubt
emerge, and fast. One is already here: biotechnology. And another: fish
farming. Within the next fifty years fish farming may change us from
hunters and gatherers on the seas into "marine pastoralists"—just as a
similar innovation some 10,000 years ago changed our ancestors from
hunters and gatherers on the land into agriculturists and pastoralists.
It is likely that other new technologies will appear suddenly, leading
to major new industries. What they may be is impossible even to guess
at. But it is highly probable—indeed, nearly certain—that they will emerge,
and fairly soon. And it is nearly certain that few of them—and few
industries based on them—will come out of computer and information
technology. Like biotechnology and fish farming, each will emerge from its
own unique and unexpected technology.
Of course, these are only predictions. But they are made on the
assumption that the Information Revolution will evolve as several
earlier technology-based "revolutions" have evolved over the past 500
years, since Gutenberg's printing revolution, around 1455. In particular,
the assumption is that the Information Revolution will be like the
Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
And that is indeed exactly how the Information Revolution has been during
its first fifty years.

42
43
 Chapter 3 Science, Technology and Nation Building

Introduction

This section presents the policies of the government regarding science

and technology, how it is being implemented through its various departments and
agencies, and its role in nation building. It also includes a list of Filipino
inventors and their inventions.

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss the role of science and technology in Philippine nation building.
2. Evaluate government policies on science and technology in terms
of their contributions to nation building.
3. Identify actual science and technology government policies and appraise
their impact on the development of the Filipino nation.

A. The Philippine Government Science and Technology Agenda

Scientists and technologists are the backbone of an industrialized nation

that propels socioeconomic gain and national progress. They are the key
players and lifeblood of research and innovation and plays an important role
in the industry and manufacturing sector. As such, it can be said that
scientists and technologists are essential players in nation building.

In the Philippines, the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is

tasked to oversee and manage national technology development and
acquisition, undertake technological and scientific research and promote public
consciousness of science and technology. DOST is responsible for formulating
and adopting a comprehensive National Science and Technology plan for
the Philippines and subsequently, to monitor and coordinate its funding and
implementation. It undertakes policy research, technology assessment,
feasibility and technical studies, and maintains a national information
system and databank on science and technology.

In 2017, DOST launched the Science for the People thru Administrative
Order No. 003 s. 2017. This is in response to the government’s call to
address inequity in developments within and among countries and is aligned
with the national goals and plans. It aims to make science and technology
more relevant to the conditions, needs and opportunities for contributing to
regional development while keeping abreast with the trends and development in
the country and in the world. Likewise, the program intends to maximize the
use of science, enhance innovation and the creative capacity of the Filipinos
towards the achievement of inclusive and sustainable growth. Stipulated in the
strategic plan are the seven outcomes that the agency strives to achieve.
These are as follows:
44
 1. Innovation and stimulus
2. Technology and adoption promoted and accelerated
3. Critical mass of globally competitive STI human resources developed
4. Productivity and efficiency of communities and the production sector,
particularly MSMEs improved
5. Resiliency to disaster risks and climate change ensured
6. Inequality in STI capacities and opportunities reduced
7. Effective STI governance achieved

The strategies to attain these outcomes are embodied in the DOST

Eleven Point
Agenda as follows:

1. Pursue R&D to address pressing national problems.

2. Conduct R&D to enhance productivity and improve management
of resources.
3. Engage in R&D to generate and apply new knowledge and
technologies across sectors.
4. Strengthen and utilize regional R&D capabilities.
5. Maximize utilization of R&D results through technology transfer
and commercialization.
6. Develop STI human resources and build a strong STI culture.
7. Upgrade STI facilities and capacities to advance R&D activities and
expand S&T services.
8. Expand STI assistance to communities and the production
sector, particularly MSMEs.
9. Provide STI-based solutions for disaster risks and climate change
adaptation and mitigation.
10. Strengthen industry-academe-government and international
STI collaboration.
11. Enhance effectiveness of STI governance.

Agenda 1 highlights the latest advancements in research and

development geared towards the shared goal of improved nutrition and health
for all. Focused on health technology development, drug discovery and
development remains to be the high-impact and big ticket program supported
by the Department in the area of health. Central to this R&D program is
the study of endemic resources, partnered with documentation of traditional
knowledge and practices in health, that could eventually lead to decreased
cost of medicines and health interventions for diseases that affect the quality
of lives of many Filipinos.

Agenda 2 presents how R&D can be utilized to make key traditional

industries steadfast and competitive through technological innovations that can
address gaps in productivity and increase production yield. Enhancing the
45
capacity of marginalized sub-sectors and people groups to use better and
new technologies can expand their access to participate in economic activities
and progress. The primary industries that will benefit from the featured major
R&D programs include the agriculture, specifically coconut and rice production,
non-wood forest products, i.e., bamboo processing and utilization, and natural
textile among others.

Agenda 3 engages R&D in emerging scientific and technological

platforms which lay the inroads to the development of new products, services,
and industries. Promising new technologies may potentially disrupt and change
the way things are done. Recognizing this, the Department anticipates
impact of new technologies in existing industries in the country by supporting
local capability programs in the areas of artificial intelligence for new
industry development and supporting research in nanotechnology for new
materials development.

Agenda 4 focuses in strengthening institutional capacity to undertake

research and development and contribute to regional development. Utilizing
local researchers equalize opportunities in generating new knowledge and
technologies suited for the specific need of the region. The Department
partners with Higher Education Institutions in the regions in establishing niche
R&D centers which may also serve as hubs for developing R&D capability of
adjacent localities.

Agenda 5 includes mechanisms to encourage technology transfer and

avenues where R&D results are promoted in the bid to maximize its utilization.
The Department provided support in bringing R&D results to its final
stage of development up to commercialization.

Agenda 6 aims to build a critical mass of competitive researchers,

scientists, and engineers (RSEs) and promoting a culture of STI. Towards
this goal, the Department continues to provide scholarship programs to
scale up the number of
RSEs.

Agenda 7 features various S&T facilities that offer technical services for
carrying out research and development, as well as addressing the needs of
the industry in terms of quality assurance, adherence to standards, product
development, and innovation. The electronics, semi-conductor, automotive
parts, gear assembly manufacturing, agriculture produce, and food
manufacturing industries can benefit from the various S&T facilities and
technical services.

Agenda 8 focuses on S&T assistance provided to upgrade the

technological capabilities and improve the productivity and efficiency of Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). The Department has continued to
46
 provide technological interventions such as process and system
improvement, technical consultancy, packaging and labelling, training, testing
and calibration, and product development to empower MSMEs to innovate,
move up the technology scale and become more competitive. Agenda 9
highlights the role of the Department in building a disaster- resilient community
through the provision of accurate and timely information. Specifically,
progress was made by establishing and upgrading observation and
monitoring systems, efforts in hazard and risk assessment, and researches
for disaster risk management, as well as climate change adaptation and
mitigation.

Agenda 10 focuses on the linkages and networks being pursued

by the Department in terms of S&T collaboration. In 2017, the Department
took part in 24 bilateral engagements and participated in a number of
activities which involved 14 international organizations.

Agenda 11 (Enhance effectiveness of STI governance) provides the

policy framework that governs the implementation of the programs, projects and
activities of the Department in contribution to national development and
progress. Taking off from the National 0+10 Socioeconomic Agenda and
Philippine Development Plan, the Department crafted the Science for the
People 11-point Agenda, Harmonized R&D Agenda, and Regional Offices
Strategy Map.

In Focus: Batangas State University KIST Park

Batangas State University made history as it officially launched the

country’s first Knowledge, Innovation and Science Technology (KIST) Park on
July 20, 2020. This milestone placed Batangas State University at the forefront
of national development. BatStateU KIST Park was designated as a Special
Economic Zone under Presidential Proclamation No. 947, s. 2020. The theme
of the launching event was “Towards a New Frontier of Knowledge-building
and Innovation in Science and Technology.”

BatStateU headed by Dr. Tirso A. Ronquillo became a key partner of

the government in fostering industry-academe linkages, knowledge and
technology transfer, and promoting the commercialization of innovations. The
KIST Park will serve as a catalyst for industrial productivity and increased
economic growth in CaLaBaRZon. This manifestation of the strong
collaboration between government, industry and academe is central to
inclusive innovation strategy.

BatStateU KIST Park is now open and spearheads a long-term vision for
“state universities and colleges in the country to expand their programs
for industry, academe, market synergy, technopreneurship, [innovation-based]

47
 business incubation and acceleration, and knowledge co-creation in science
and technology.” (http://batstateukistpark.com.ph/#/main/home)

Question: Which of the 11-point Agenda relates to the launching and

operation of BatStateU KIST Park? Expound your answer.

B. Major Development Programs and Personalities in Science and

Technology in the Philippines

Major Development Programs in Science and Technology

The Science for Change Program (S4CP) was created by the

Department of Science and Technology (DOST) to accelerate STI in the country
in order to keep up with the developments in our time wherein technology and
innovation are game changers. Through the Science for Change Program (S4CP),
the DOST can significantly accelerate STI in the country and create a massive

S4CP focuses on Accelerated R&D Program for Capacity Building of

R&D Institutions and Industrial Competitiveness which is composed of four
(4) programs namely: (1) Niche Centers in the Regions for R&D (NICER)
Program, (2) R&D Leadership (RDLead) Program, (3) Collaborative R&D to
Leverage PH Economy (CRADLE) for RDIs and Industry Program, (4) Business
Innovation through S&T (BIST) for Industry Program.

The NICER Program capacitates Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in

the regions to make significant improvement in regional research by
integrating its development needs with the existing R&D capabilities and
resources. It provides institutional grants for HEIs in the regions for R&D
capacity building to improve their S&T infrastructure. The NICER Program was
established in consultation with the academe and industry;; and endorsed by
the Regional Development Council (RDC). Hence, a NICER is a unique
center for collaborative R&D to address specific S&T needs of local communities
and industries, thereby accelerating regional development. It caters to the specific
needs of the Regions, which include upgrading, development, and acquisition of
R&D equipment to undertake collaborative R&D activities. Currently, there are 18
existing NICERs across 14 regions for a total funding of P641M.

The R&D Leadership Program complements the establishment of R&D

Centers thru the NICER Program. RDLead provides the mechanism to bring in
experts and highly skilled professionals with strong leadership, management and
innovative policy-making proficiencies to be in charge of strengthening the
research capabilities of the HEIs, National Government Agencies (NGAs) and
Research Development Institutions (RDIs) in the regions. Together, the RDLead
48
and NICER Programs will capacitate HEIs to help improve and hasten the use of
research results that will contribute to the socio-economic development of the
country and help address pressing challenges. The NRCP is the
implementing agency for this program.

The Collaborative Research and Development to Leverage Philippine

Economy (CRADLE) Program is specifically designed to foster collaboration
between academe and local companies to improve competitiveness and catalyze
innovation. It aims to improve the country’s innovation ecosystem by
facilitating the smooth transition of new technologies from universities and
research and development institutes (RDI) to industries - from lab to
market. The framework of CRADLE is a trihelix partnership between the
government, the industry and the academe wherein the government finances the
collaboration of the private company and the partner university or RDI. The
Program aims to address a problem of a Filipino company using R&D to
develop innovative solutions. To date, the DOST has already provided almost
Php 125 M of funding to 29 academe-industry collaborations all over the country.

The Business Innovation through S&T (BIST) for Industry Program aims to
level-up the innovation capacity of the Philippine Industrial Sector through
R&D by helping private companies and industries acquire novel and strategic
technologies, such as state-of-the-art equipment and machinery, technology
licenses and patent rights among others. The program will cover up to 70% of
the total eligible cost of the needed technology at zero percent interest. To date,
the BIST Program has approved one project from an herbal company, Herbanext
Laboratories Inc., providing a total financial assistance of Php11.7M.

A Steering committee for CRADLE and BIST Programs was created

through the DOST Special Order No. 0276 which was approved on 02
April 2018. The Steering Committee is headed by Dr. Rowena Cristina L.
Guevara, Undersecretary for R&D, and the members include the Department of
Trade and Industry (DTI), Federation of Philippine Industries (FPI), Philippine
Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PCCI), Philippine Council for
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development
(PCAARRD), Philippine Council for Health Research and Development
(PCHRD) and Philippine Council for Industry, Energy and Emerging
Technology
Research and Development (PCIEERD)

The committee performs the following functions: (1) Review/formulate

policies relating to the implementation of CRADLE and BIST Program;; (2)
Provide advice and guidance in the management and administration of the
projects;; and (3) Other functions necessary for the successful implementation of
CRADLE and BIST Programs. Since the implementation of the S4CP in 2017,
the DOST has spent a total of Php 407,585,946.60 to the four programs.

49
Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines Aisa
Mijeno

To light up the rest

of the Philippines sustainably was
the vision of Filipina scientist Aisa
Mijeno when she made the
Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt)
lamp. The product concept was
formed after living with the Butbut
tribe for weeks relying only on
kerosene lamps and moonlight to do
evening chores. Her mission and
advocacy is to address the light https://www.asianscientist.com/2015/05/features
inequality gap and end the use of /asias
-rising
-scientists
-ais -mijeno/
combustion based light a
sources
(kerosene lamps and candles) for the 16 Million Filipinos and 1.4 Billion
people across the world.
The SALt Lamp is an environment-friendly and sustainable alternative light
source that runs on saltwater, making it suitable to those who live in coastal
areas. It can also function well in remote barrios. With just two table spoons of
salt and one glass of tap water, this ecologically designed lamp can run for
eight hours.

The idea behind the SALt lamp is the chemical conversion of energy. It
utilizes the scientific process behind the Galvanic cell, but instead of electrolytes,
the SALt lamp uses saline solution, making it harmless and non- toxic. Compared
with kerosene lamp, the SALt lamp is also a lot safer since it does not have
components and compounds that may spark fire. Moreover, it does not emit toxic
gases and leaves minimal carbon footprint. Because of its inspiring vision and
50
ground-breaking innovation, the SALt lamp has received various awards and
recognition from organizations in the Philippines, Singapore, Japan, and South
Korea. SALt have won several awards including KOTRA Top 5 Best Global
Startup at Startup Nations Summit 2014, People's Choice at Startup Nations
Summit 2014 and recognized by the ASEAN Corporate Sustainability Summit
and Awards 2015 giving them the SME Sustainability Commitment Category.

One of Mijano’s career highlights was when she was invited as an APEC
CEO Summit panel member together with ex-President Barack Obama and
Alibaba CEO Jack Ma. Looking forward, she wishes to distribute more lanterns to
communities across the Philippines and possibly throughout South East Asia.

Ramon C. Barba

He
is
a
Filipino

https://joinpase.weebly.com/pases-of-
success/ramon-cabanos-barba

scientist, inventor and horticulturist

who is known for his successful experiment
on the inducement of flowering of mango
trees by spraying them with ethrel and
potassium nitrate. He developed a process
that caused the flowering and fruiting of
mango trees three times a year, instead
on once a year, so dramatically improving
yields. Since his discovery, the mango
industry in the Philippines expanded. Apart
from the mango producers themselves,
other business sectors such as the
producers of the pest control chemicals,
harvesters, sellers, and all the other smaller
groups of workers related to mango industry
have benefitted from his invention. This
technology has also been
successfully applied on other fruit trees including cashew.

51
 Barba also developed a tissue culture procedure for the banana plant and
sugar cane which enabled production of large quantities of planting materials that
were robust and disease-free. With his research team, Barba devised micro
propagation protocols for more than 40 important species of fruit crops,
ornamental plants, plantation crops, aquarium plants, and forest trees. In 2013,
Ramon C. Barba was conferred the rank and title of National Scientist in the
Philippines for his distinguished achievements in the field of plant physiology.

Fe V. del Mundo
She is known as the Mother of
Philippine Pediatrics, a very great scientist
and a symbol of female empowerment in
medicine, both in the Philippines and
abroad. The first Asian woman admitted
into Harvard, she pursued graduate degrees
in America after receiving her medical
degree from the University of the Philippines.
Del Mundo pioneered numerous inventions
throughout her more than 70-year medical
career. She revolutionized Philippine medicine,
making major breakthroughs in immunization
and in the treatment of jaundice, and https://www.thefamouspeople.com/pro
providing healthcare to thousands of poor files/fe-del-mundo-25104.php
families. She is credited with studies that
led to the invention of the incubator and a jaundice relieving device. Her
methods, like the BRAT diet for curing diarrhea, have spread throughout the
world and saved millions. Del Mundo’s field of natural science and the field of
public health was something she was actively involved in. When she was not
busy treating and taking care of children, she did some pioneering work on
infectious diseases in Philippine communities and authored the Textbook of
Pediatrics, as well as hundreds of articles and medical reports on diseases such
as dengue, polio and measles.
During her lifetime, del Mundo won numerous awards and recognition
for her outstanding work. Among these was the Ramon Magsaysay Award for
Public Service, which she received in 1977. She became the Philippines’ first
female National Scientist in 1980, in recognition of her work in Pediatrics. The
rank of National Scientist is awarded to science practitioners with “distinguished
individual or collaborative achievement in science and technology.” In 2010, del
Mundo was awarded the Order of Lakandula, rank of Bayani, as a Filipina who
lived a life “worthy of emulation.” Posthumously, she was conferred the Grand
Collar of the Order of the Golden Heart Award in 2011, by President Benigno
Aquino III.

Maria Y. Orosa
Advances in modern
Filipino food technology owe a

52
great deal to the creative researches and salutary inventiveness of a
woman chemist and pharmacist from Batangas – Maria Y.
Orosa. The now-commercially available thirst quencher, the calamansi
juice, is just one of the popular native food products in whose preparation
and preservation she had a hand. She produced the “calamansi nip,” the
desiccated and powdered form of the fruit which could be made into
juice. The most notable of her food inventions, is “Soyalac,” a
powdered preparation of soya-beans, which helped save the lives of
thousands of Filipinos, Americans, and other nationals who ever held prisoners
in
different Japanese concentration camps
during World War II. It became known to them as the “magic food.”
She is also credited with the making of the banana ketchup;; wines from
native fruits, like casuy and guava;; vinegar from pineapples;; banana starch;;
soyamilk;; banana flour;; cassava flour;; jelly from guava, santol, mango, and
other fruits, as well as the invention of rice cookies, known as ricebran or
darak, which is effective in the treatment of patients with beri- beri. Aside from
making food preparations, Miss Orosa taught Filipinos how to preserve such
native delicacies as the adobo, dinuguan, kilawen and escabeche. Together with
her associates in the Bureau of Plant Industry, she invented “Oroval” and
“Clarosa.”
In 1923, she helped organize the food preservation division under the
Bureau of Science. On June 3, 1927, she became the acting division head.
Orosa also tried her hand in improving household wares. She invented the
“Orosa Palayok Oven” for cooking various dishes. In 1928, the government,
recognizing her dynamism and strong leadership, sent her to various
countries as a state scholar to specialize in food processing and canning.
To perpetuate her memory, the government has named after her a street
stretching from T.M. Kalaw to Padre Faura in Ermita, Manila, as well as a
building in the Bureau of Plants and Industry. She was one of the 19 scientists
who were conferred awards on the occasion of the 65th anniversary of the
Institute of Science and Technology. On November 29, 1983, the National
Historical Institute installed a marker in her honor at the Bureau of Plant Industry
in San Andres, Manila.

Angel Alcala
He is a Filipino scientist
whose biological contributions
to the environment and
ecosystems have made him a hero
for natural sciences. During his 30
years of experience as a biologist,
Alcala made major
contributions to marine biology
research efforts in the Philippines
and authored over 160 scientific
53

http://heroes.aseanbiodiversity.org/2017/09/
0 /asean-biodiversity
-hero-d -angel
-c-
papers as well as books. Alcala was the first Filipino scientist to engage in
comprehensive studies concerning Philippine reptiles and amphibians
and minor studies on mammals and birds. From the 400 already known
species of reptiles and amphibians, 50 more species were identified due to
his efforts. Because of his work, conservation programs in the
Philippines are now well established.
Alcala also made a highly valuable and groundbreaking contribution to
marine ecosystems when he established the first artificial reef around the
coastline of the Philippines, greatly boosting the ecosystem's health and viability.
. In 1994, he was given the Field Museum Founders’ Council Award of
Merit for contributions to environmental biology. He is a recipient of the
Magsaysay Award for Public Service. In September 2011 he received the
Gregorio Y. Zara Award for Basic Science from the Philippine Association for the
Advancement of Science Inc. In 2014, he was proclaimed National Scientist by
President Benigno S. Aquino III through Presidential Decree 782 on June 6,
2014.

.
C. Science Education in the Philippines
The role and goal of science in education should always be the
same. Since science is considered both knowledge and method, operating
independent of time and place, the benefits of science anywhere can only be the
same. The value of science lies not only in the knowledge that it imparts
and bequeaths to the learner but also in its methods and techniques that
inculcate in the learner’s scientific habits, skills, and attitudes. Science, even
as it is considered a body of knowledge, it is also taken as methodology.
It has given a tangible method and system to what would otherwise be by
chance and accident. From the utilization of scientific methods and techniques,
one is able to very possibly explain the past and predict what the future holds.
The general benefits of science have greatly challenged education of
the Philippines. While the country might have been a beneficiary of the methods
of science even before the program of formal education, it was during the
American period that brought about a most significant and essential change in
the nature of education. There has been a corresponding increase in knowledge
and understanding of natural and social phenomena covered by all the disciplines
of science available now. It is this education that has been largely credited for
the development of science in the Philippines.
54
Early Efforts to Improve Science Education

As early as the decade of the 1950s, scientists were concerned with the state
of science education in the schools. Leading scientists made Philippine authorities
aware that the teaching of science from grade school level to college levels in
both public and private schools was very inadequate. The inadequacies and
weaknesses of science teaching were recognized as those relating to
undertrained teachers, the inadequate science curriculum in schools and
colleges, the minimum allotted to science, the lack of books, equipment and
teaching aids. In 1957, the Philippine government made the teaching of
science compulsory in all elementary and secondary schools. A National
Committee for Science Education was set up in 1958 to formulate
objectives for the teaching of science education at all levels and to recommend
steps that would upgrade the teaching of science. The committee identified the
areas to which improvement efforts were needed such as integration of
science with classroom instruction, acquisition of more science equipment
and tools, coordination of efforts with other agencies, negotiations for a
science institute for teachers, national science talent search and fellowships,
higher salaries of science and mathematics teachers and promotion of
science teachers competence.

The BSCS Adaptation Project

In1959, biological sciences curriculum study (BSCS) project was

launched by American Institute of Biological Science, university of Colorado in
order to improve biology education in secondary schools. A steering committee of
biological scientists, teachers and educators was constituted. The project was
financed by National Science Foundation, USA.
The BSCS project was started to design high school biology course
with the objectives to: provide recent and latest knowledge in biological
sciences;; develop understanding of the conceptual structure of biological
sciences;; develop skills and processes of biology among the students;; create
an opportunity to use inquiry approach in teaching and learning of biology;;
prepare rich supplementary or support materials to enrich learning experiences in
biological sciences and present current status of biological sciences The
organization of the BSCS project necessitated because of the inadequacies and
defects felt in the ongoing or conventional biological sciences teaching. Defects
were observed in conventional biological science teaching such as inclusion of
dead or useless contents in syllabus, little practical work, no correlation of
biological sciences and physical science, lack of integrated approach and no
proper consideration of psychological aspects of teaching learning.

55
The Science Education Project

These were the total efforts of SEP TO improve science education in

the Philippines. First, the dissemination of improved curricula, teaching
techniques and approaches in science and mathematics on basic levels of
education through the introduction of new curriculum and the application of
new teaching techniques and approaches by the returned Master of Arts in
Teaching trainees and the teachers that they teach. On the other hand, these
institutions disseminated many of the curriculum materials by the UP Science
Education Center. Second, quality science and math education programs in
the recipient-sponsor institutions through new and/or improved course offerings
and a generally improved teacher education program.

56
 PART II SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND THE HUMAN CONDITION

Introduction
Society applauds the recent advancements of scientific technology in
fields such as medicine, energy, and communication. While humankind profits
in many ways from this technology, a few voices are heard cautioning
society to consider the implications of this developments.
This section provides students deeper appreciation of man’s existence
and his purpose in a world of technology. It also discusses the concept of a
good life and how it can be attained. Moreover, it also focuses on the ethical
and moral dilemma brought about by the emergence of the robotic industry.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, the students are expected to:
1. Examine the human condition to deeply reflect and express
philosophical ramifications that are meaningful to the student as a
part of society.
2. Critique human flourishing vis-a vis the progress of Science and
Technology to define the meaning of the good life.
3. Examine shared concerns that make up the good life in order to
come up with innovative and creative solutions to the contemporary
issues guided by ethical standards
4. Examine human rights in order to uphold such rights in
technological dilemnas.
 CHAPTER 4 The Human Person Flourishing in terms of Science and
Technology

A. Technology as a Way of Revealing

A German philosopher Martin Heidegger wrote an essay entitled “The

Question Concerning Technology” which addresses modern technology and its
essence as an instrumental way of revealing the world. He goes beyond
the traditional view of technology as machines and technical procedures.
Moreover, he tries to think through the essence of technology as a way in which
humans encounter entities such as nature, self, and, indeed, everything. That is
to say, that modern technology is conceived as means to achieve ends. As
instrumental, the essence of technology concerns causality. A deeper look into
causality reveals that the end is the beginning;; a cause is that to which
something is indebted and the purpose for which an instrument is designed is the
primary cause of its coming into being.

Heidegger’s understanding of technology was based on its essence.

First, the essence of technology is not something we make;; it is a mode of
being, or of revealing. This means that technological things have their own novel
kind of presence, endurance, and connections among parts and wholes. They
have their own way of presenting themselves and the world in which they
operate. The essence of technology is, for Heidegger, not the best or most
characteristic instance of technology, nor is it a nebulous generality, a form or
idea. Rather, to consider technology essentially is to see it as an event to which
we belong: the structuring, ordering, and “requisitioning” of everything around
us, and of ourselves. The second point is that technology even holds sway over
beings that we do not normally think of as technological, such as gods and
history. Third, the essence of technology as Heidegger discusses it is primarily a
matter of modern and industrial technology. He is less concerned with the ancient
and old tools and techniques that antedate modernity;; the essence of technology
is revealed in factories and industrial processes, not in hammers and plows. And
fourth, for Heidegger, technology is not simply the practical application of
natural science. Instead, modern natural science can understand nature in
the characteristically scientific manner only because nature has already, in
advance, come to light as a set of calculable, orderable forces — that is to say,
technologically.

According to him there are two characteristics of modern technology as a

revealing process. First, the mode of revealing of modern technology is a
challenging. Things are revealed or brought forth by challenging or demanding
them. It is putting to nature the unreasonable demand that it supply energy that
can be extracted and stored. The mining technology today is a good example for
this mode of revealing things. Tracks of land reveal as something challenged

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because man sees them as objects where coal and ore can be demanded. Man
sees them as source of energy. These energies can be stored so that man can
summon them at his bidding. Shortly, nature reveals itself in modern technology
as things of manipulation, as things that yield energy whenever man demands
them to do so. “Challenging” as a mode of revealing nature could be sharply
contrasted “Physis” which is the arising of something from itself, a bringing-forth
or poieses. A flower blossoming or fading in the changes of the season is an
example of this form of revealing. The revelation has its own autonomy and, at
best, man can only witness. This is a natural way of revealing.

The mode of revealing in modern technology brought about new world

ordering. This kind of ordering is best described as “artificial” in contrast to
“natural ordering. It sees nature as an object of manipulation and not
anymore as an autonomous reality demanding respect and admiration. The
network of things is now reduced into the network of manipulation. The second
characteristic of modern technology as a revealing process is that the challenging
that brings forth the energy of nature is an “expediting”. In the modern use of
word, expediting means to hasten the movement of something. However, in its
original sense, expediting is also a process of revealing inasmuch as it “unlocks”
and “exposes” something. But what is exposed is still directed towards something
else, i.e. toward the maximum yield at the minimum expense. In short, things that
are revealed in an expedited manner are brought forth as resources that must be
used efficiently. In mining for example, man digs coal not simply to know what
coals are. Yes, man “exposes” these coals but not simply to know them. They
uncover them because he wants to use them. Coals are mined from track loads
of land so as to use their energy. This is the characteristic of the things
revealed in modern technology. They are there “for” something.

Heidegger uses a technical word to name the things that are revealed in
modern technology as “standing in reserve”. Things as standing in reserve
are not “objects”. Objects on the other hand, are things that “stand against us”
as things with autonomy. They are revealed mainly in human thinking and do
not allow further manipulations. Things as standing in reserve, on the other
hand, are called to come forth in challenging and expediting. They are reduced
into the objectlessness of modern technology. Nothing anymore “stands against
us” as objects of autonomy and wonder. Everything is regressed into an
interlocking of things that yield what man wants whenever he demands them to
do so. Even nature is now revealed as standing in reserve and not anymore
objects of autonomy.

Unlike the modern technologies, the old technology still respects nature
as an object of autonomy. The modern and the old technologies are of
different modes of revealing, the former artificial and the latter natural. Take
for example, the contrast between how the modern technology of the
hydropower plant and the old technology of a wooden bridge reveal the presence

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of a river. However, the hydropower plant reveals the river that supplies it energy
simply as another thing standing in reserve. It is a source of energy which
completes the interlocking of things in the system of hydropower generation.
The river is not anymore seen as an object with autonomy but an object on call
to be used. Conversely, the technology of building a wooden bridge reveals the
river not as a key link in completing the bridge.it rather respects it as a
part of nature, a “landscape” using Heidegger’s own term, that is somewhat
permanent and stand against us as another entity. We move “around” it so to
say and we only see what we can do to overcome its dominating presence, in
other words, we do not manipulate it, but rather, we act according to its rules.
For Heidegger enframing is the “essence” of modern technology. Enframing simply
means putting into the frame of modern technology everything in nature. This
“frame” of modern technology is the network or interlocking things standing in
reserve. It is the world centered on man’s caprices and demands. It is a
world of manipulation and demystification. In here nothing is mysterious
anymore. This is what Heidegger was afraid of, that the process of truth will
revert back into the realm of erring. It must be remembered that for truth to be,
it must retain its sense of mystery. Truth is for the most part untruth. To
disregard this essentially limited process of revelation is also to disregard the
entirety of its essence. We cannot have absolute knowledge of reality, more so,
we cannot have full dominion over it. As they say, we are only “guardians” of
creation. To disregard this nature of reality is also putting ourselves into the brink
of danger.

Because of man’s arrogance, nature is in the verge of destruction. He

thinks he knows how nature works and tends to hasten or “expedite” its
processes. He demands too much from it and in turn disrupts its natural flow.
Nature is beyond our control. Its truth is beyond our grips. For all we know,
it is the one that controls us. If we ever try to dominate it, nature will
surely revolt against us in a very humbling manner.

B. Human Flourishing

Human flourishing is said to be the best translation for the Greek word
Eudaimonia, which for both Plato and Aristotle, means not only good fortune and
material prosperity but a situation achieved through virtue, knowledge and
excellence. Learning to be human is central to Confucian humanism and its
“creative transformation” of the self through an “ever-expanding network of
relationships encompassing the family, community, nation, world and beyond. It is
thus inseparable from self-awareness and self-cultivation, and this “self” far from
being an isolated individual, is experientially and practically a center of

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relationships. The affirmation that human flourishing implies development of the
individual in his intellectual, affective, moral and spiritual dimensions obviously
needs elaboration. Plato in the Republic, contends that the soul, or mind, has
three motivating parts: rational, spirited or emotional and appetitive. Each of these
have their own desired ends, and Eudomenia or human flourishing requires an
ordering of this tripartite structure of the soul: the rational and spirited parts.
Virtue ensues. In the same vein, Aristotle, in the Nicomachean Ethics, states
that Eudaimonia is constituted not by honor, or wealth power, but by rational
activity in accordance with excellence in the virtues of character including
courage, honesty, pride, friendliness and wittiness, the intellectual virtues
notably rationality and judgment, as well as mutually beneficial friendships and
scientific knowledge, particularly of things that are fundamental and unchanging.

According to Aristotle, all humans seek to flourish. It’s the proper and
desired end of all of our actions. Flourishing, however, is a functional
definition. To understand something’s function, you have to understand its nature.
In Aristotle’s schema, there are four aspects of human nature: physical, emotional,
social and rational. As physical beings, we require nourishment, exercise, rest and
all the other things that it takes to keep our bodies functioning properly. As
emotional beings, we have wants, desires, urges and reactions. We perceive
something in the world that we want and we have the power of volition to get
it;; likewise, we have the power to avoid the things we don’t want. For
humans, these wants can get pretty complex, but at rock bottom we all have
emotional needs and wants that spring from rather basic sources. As social
beings, we must live and function in particular societies. Our social nature
stacks on top of our emotional nature, such that we have wants and needs
that we would not have were we not social creatures. As rational beings, we are
creative, expressive, knowledge-seeking and able to obey reason. We might not
always obey reason and we may sometimes not want to exercise our minds, but
a large part of our existence relate to our being rational animals. An individual
cannot truly flourish if he is not flourishing in one of the four aspects of human
nature.

Human flourishing also known as personal flourishing involves the rational

use of one’s individual potentialities, including talents, abilities and virtues in the
pursuit of his freely and rationally chosen values and goals. An action is
considered to be proper if it leads to the flourishing of the person performing the
action. Human flourishing is, at the same time, a moral accomplishment and a
fulfillment of human capacities, and it is one through being the other. Self--
actualization is moral growth and vice-versa.

Not an abstraction, human flourishing is real and highly personal by

nature, consists in the fulfillment of both a man’s human nature and unique
potentialities, and is concerned with choices and actions that necessarily deal
with the particular and the contingent. One man’s self –realization is not the

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same as another’s. What is called for in terms of concrete actions such as
choice of career, education, friends, home and others, varies from person to
person. Human flourishing becomes an actuality when one uses his practical
reason to consider his unique needs, circumstances and capabilities, and so on,
to determine which concrete instantiations of human values and virtues will
comprise his well-being. The idea of human flourishing is inclusive and can
encompass a wide variety of constitutive ends such as knowledge, the
development of character traits, productive work, religious pursuits, community
building, love, charitable activities, allegiance to persons and causes, self--
efficacy, material well-being, pleasurable sensations, etc.

To flourish, a man must pursue goals that are both rational for him
individually and also as a human being. Whereas the former will vary depending
upon one’s particular circumstances, the latter are common to man’s distinctive
nature – man has the unique capacity to live rationally. The use of reason is a
necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for human flourishing. Living rationally
( i.e., consciously ) means dealing with the world conceptually. Living consciously
implies respect for the facts of reality. The principle of living consciously is not
affected by the degree of one’s intelligence not the extent of one’s knowledge;;
rather, it is the acceptance of use of one’s reason in the recognition and
perception of reality and in his choice of values and actions to the best
of his ability, whatever that ability may be. To pursue rational goals through
rational means is the only way to cope successfully with reality and achieve one’s
goals. Although rationality is not always rewarded, the fact remains that it is
through the use of one’s mind that a man not only discovers the values required
for personal flourishing, he attains them. Values can be achieved in reality if a
man recognizes and adheres to the reality of his unique personal endowments
and contingent circumstances. Human flourishing is positively related to a rational
man’s attempts to externalize his values and actualize his internal views of how
things ought to be in the outside world. Practical reason can be used to choose,
create, and integrate all the values and virtues that comprise personal flourishing.

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 CHAPTER 5 The Good Life

A. What is a Good Life?

This is one of the oldest philosophical questions. It has been posed in

different ways—How should one live? What does it mean to “live well”?—but
these are really just the same question. After all, everyone wants to live well,
and no one wants “the bad life.” But the question isn’t as simple as it sounds.
Philosophers specialize in unpacking hidden complexities, and the concept of the
good life is one of those that needs quite a bit of unpacking.

One basic way we use the word “good” is to express moral approval. So
when we say someone is living well or that they have lived a good life, we may
simply mean that they are a good person, someone who is courageous, honest,
trustworthy, kind, selfless, generous, helpful, loyal, principled, and so on. They
possess and practice many of the most important virtues. And they don’t
spend all their time merely pursuing their own pleasure;; they devote a
certain amount of time to activities that benefit others, perhaps through their
engagement with family and friends, or through their work, or through
various voluntary activities. This moral conception of the good life has had
plenty of champions. Socrates and Plato both gave absolute priority to being a
virtuous person over all other supposedly good things such as pleasure, wealth,
or power.

In Plato’s dialogue Gorgias, Socrates takes this position to an extreme. He

argues that it is much better to suffer wrong than to do it;; that a good man
who has his eyes gouged out and is tortured to death is more fortunate than a
corrupt person who has used wealth and power dishonorably. In his
masterpiece, the Republic, Plato develops this argument in greater detail. The
morally good person, he claims, enjoys a sort of inner harmony, whereas the
wicked person, no matter how rich and powerful he may be or how many
pleasure he enjoys, is disharmonious, fundamentally at odds with himself and the
world.

It is worth noting, though, that in both the Gorgias and the Republic, Plato
bolsters his argument with a speculative account of an afterlife in which
virtuous people are rewarded and wicked people are punished. Many religions
also conceive of the good life in moral terms as a life lived according to God’s
laws. A person who lives this way— obeying the commandments and performing
the proper rituals—is pious. And in most religions, such piety will be rewarded.
Obviously, many people do not receive their reward in this life. But devout
believers are confident that their piety will not be in vain. Christian martyrs went
singing to their deaths confident that they would soon be in heaven. Hindus

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expect that the law of karma will ensure that their good deeds and
intentions will be rewarded, while evil actions and desires will be punished,
either in this life or in future lives.

The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus was one of the first to declare,
bluntly, that what makes life worth living is that we can experience
pleasure. Pleasure is enjoyable, it’s fun, it’s...well...pleasant! The view that
pleasure is the good, or, to put I another way, that pleasure is what makes life
worth living, is known as hedonism. The word “hedonist,” when applied to a
person, has slightly negative connotations. It suggests that they are devoted to
what some have called the “lower” pleasures such as sex, food, drink, and
sensual indulgence in general.

Epicurus was thought by some of his contemporaries to be

advocating and practicing this sort of lifestyle, and even today an “epicure” is
someone who is especially appreciative of food and drink. But this is a
misrepresentation of Epicureanism. Epicurus certainly praised all kinds of
pleasures. The good life has to be virtuous. Although Epicurus disagreed
with Plato about the value of pleasure, he fully agreed with him on this point.

Today, this hedonistic conception of the good life is arguably dominant in

Western culture. Even in everyday speech, if we say someone is “living the good
life,” we probably mean that they enjoying lots of recreational pleasures: good
food, good wine, skiing, scuba diving, lounging by the pool in the sun with a
cocktail and a beautiful partner.

What is key to this hedonistic conception of the good life is that it

emphasizes subjective experiences. On this view, to describe a person as “happy”
means that they “feel good,” and a happy life is one that contains many “feel
good” experiences.

If Socrates emphasizes virtue and Epicurus emphasizes pleasure, another

great Greek thinker, Aristotle, views the good life in a more comprehensive way.
According to Aristotle, we all want to be happy. We value many things because
they are a means to other things. For instance, we value money because it
enables us to buy things we want;; we value leisure because it gives us time
to pursue our interests. But happiness is something we value not as a means
to some other end but for its own sake. It has intrinsic value rather than
instrumental value.

So for Aristotle, the good life is a happy life. But what does that mean?
Today, many people automatically think of happiness in subjectivist terms: To
them, a person is happy if they are enjoying a positive state of mind, and their
life is happy if this is true for them most of the time.

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 Aristotle agrees with Socrates that to live the good life one must be a
morally good person. He also agrees with Epicurus that a happy life will
involve many and varied pleasurable experiences. We can’t really say someone
is living the good life if they are often miserable or constantly suffering.

Michael Soupios and Panos Mourdoukoutas wrote a book entitled The Ten
Golden Rules on Living a Good Life where they extracted “ancient wisdom
from the Greek philosophers on living the good life” and mapped it into modern
times. Here is a summary of what they wrote, extracted from a Forbes article
written by Dr. Mourdoukoutas:

1. Examine life, engage life with a vengeance;; always search for new
pleasures and new destinies to reach with your mind.
2. Worry only about the things that are in your control, the things
that can be influenced and changed by your actions, not about the things
that are beyond your capacity to direct or alter.

3. Treasure Friendship, the reciprocal attachment that fills the need for
affiliation. Friendship cannot be acquired in the market place, but must be
nurtured and treasured in relations imbued with trust and amity.

4. Experience True Pleasure. Avoid shallow and transient pleasures.

Keep your life simple. Seek calming pleasures that contribute to peace of mind.
True pleasure is disciplined and restrained.

5. Master Yourself. Resist any external force that might delimit thought
and action;; stop deceiving yourself, believing only what is personally useful and
convenient;; complete liberty necessitates a struggle within, a battle to subdue
negative psychological and spiritual forces that preclude a healthy existence;;
self-mastery requires ruthless candor.

6. Avoid Excess. Live life in harmony and balance. Avoid excesses.

Even good things, pursued or attained without moderation, can become a
source of misery and suffering.

7. Be a Responsible Human Being. Approach yourself with honesty

and thoroughness;; maintain a kind of spiritual hygiene;; stop the blame-shifting
for your errors and shortcomings.

8. Don’t Be a Prosperous Fool. Prosperity by itself is not a cure-all

against an ill-led life and may be a source of dangerous foolishness. Money is a
necessary but not a sufficient condition for the good life, for happiness and
wisdom.

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 9. Don’t Do Evil to Others. Evildoing is a dangerous habit, a kind
of reflex too quickly resorted to and too easily justified that has a lasting and
damaging effect upon the quest for the good life. Harming others claims two
victims—the receiver of the harm, and the victimizer, the one who does harm.

10. Kindness towards others tends to be rewarded. Kindness to others is

a good habit that supports and reinforces the quest for the good life. Helping
others bestows a sense of satisfaction that has two beneficiaries—the beneficiary,
the receiver of the help, and the benefactor, the one who provides the help.

A. What is Human Existence?

The meaning of existence is derived from philosophical and religious

contemplation and scientific inquiries about, social ties, consciousness and
happiness. Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning,
ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of
one and multiple Gods, conceptions of God, the soul and the afterlife.

Philosophers have tried to find the secret of existence, the meaning

of it all. Aristotle teaches that each man's life has a purpose and that the
function of one's life is to attain that purpose. He explains that the purpose
of life is earthly happiness or flourishing that can be achieved via reason and
the acquisition of virtue. Articulating an explicit and clear understanding of the end
toward which a person's life aims, Aristotle states that each human being should
use his abilities to their fullest potential and should obtain happiness and
enjoyment through the exercise of their realized capacities. He contends that
human achievements are animated by purpose and autonomy and that people
should take pride in being excellent at what they do. According to Aristotle,
human beings have a natural desire and capacity to know and understand the
truth, to pursue moral excellence, and to instantiate their ideals in the world
through action.

Plato’s reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the

existence of universalis. His Theory of Forms proposes that universals do not
physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the dialogue of Republic,
the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good. His theory on justice
in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the

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meaning of life. In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form
of knowledge, which is the Idea of the Good, from which all good and just things
derive utility and value.

B. What is a Public Good?

Rolando Gripaldo, a Filipino philosopher, argues that the concept

of the public good carries largely the politico-ethical sense, which
subsumes the politico-ethical senses. The public good is public in the
sense that the beneficiaries are the general public. The government or
state pursues it with a service orientation while private corporations pursue
it with a profit orientation. He also cites mixed public goods which are
pursued by private organizations with a service motivation. Government
corporations are basically motivated by service through having profit is not
precluded. He also talks about public bads, such as corruption, pollution
and crimes.

A public good is that which benefits by its use, the communal or

national public. This can be perceived in two levels. The first level comes
from the people themselves. They perceive the public good to be beneficial
to most if not to all of them. This utilitarian consideration is important in
that, on the other hand, it serves as the ethical standard by which the
public-through a civil society-unify themselves in consideration of their
individual and social benefits. As individuals, they may of course think in
terms of their own selfish benefits from a public good, but there is also a
recognition that unless they work together for their common welfare, the
public good aspired for may not materialistic. They as individuals may
suffer as beneficiaries from its nonrealization. In this regard, then elements
of unity (bonding together for individual interests) and subsidiarity (working
together for the common good) are significant aspects of a national
public good from the communal or national people’s point of view. The
second level comes from the local or national government, which believes
or assumes with the utilitarian perspective that a particular project or
service is desired by the populace as necessary for their common
welfare. As such, the local or national government views it as a public
good. Examples of these assumed necessary public services or public
goods are national defense, education, public health, public ports/airports
and highways, social services, postal services, and the like.

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CHAPTER 6
When Technology and Humanity Cross

A. The Ethical Dilemmas of Robotics

The rapid advancements in technology that the world has witnessed over
the past century have made a reality of many of mankind’s wildest dreams. From
being able to cross the earth, air, and sea at extreme speeds to being
able to send and receive information instantly via the Internet, the
technological advancements in recent years have become cornerstones of
modern society. One dream that is still yet to be perfectly fulfilled by
advancements in technology is the development of human-like and self-aware
robots, often referred to as androids. While robotic technology has come a long
way since its initial attempts, the robot which is largely indistinguishable from a
human is still far from a reality. However, as technology continues to develop and
evolve exponentially, many people believe it is only a matter of time. If and when
truly "living" robots were to come about, one can foresee a slew of ethical
dilemmas developing.

A complete consensus on the definition of the word “robot” has yet to be

reached. However, it is commonly accepted that robots contain some combination
of the following attributes such as mobility, intelligent behavior, sense and
manipulation of environment. The term “robot” truly extends to more than just
androids. The commonly accepted first use of the word was in 1920 in the form
of a play written by Karel Capek. The play was entitled R.U.R. (Rossum's
Universal Robots) and involves the development of artificial people. These people
are referred to as robots and while they are given the ability to think, they are
designed to be happy as servants. The use of the word “robot” in Capek's play
comes from the Slavic languages‟ word for “work,” which is robota.
While the word “robot” was not used until 1920, the idea of mechanical
humans has been around as far back as Greek mythology. One example that
closely relates to the servant robots seen in Capek's play is the servants of the
Greek god Hephaestus, the god of fire and the forge. It is recorded that
Hephaestus had built robots out of gold which were “his helpers, including a
complete set of life-size golden handmaidens who helped around the house”.
Another example of robots in Greek mythology comes from the stories of
Pygmalion, who is said to have crafted a statue of Galatea that would come to
life.

Beyond the ancient myths which speak of humanoid robots, one of the
milestones in the design and development of such robots came with the discovery
of Leonardo Da Vinci's journals which contained detailed plans for the construction
of a humanoid robot. Inspired by the ancient myths, the robot was designed in
the form of an armored knight and was to possess the ability to sit up, wave its
arms, move its head, and open its mouth. The journals in which the plans were

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found date back to 1495. It is unknown if this robot was ever built by Da Vinci,
but merely conceiving it was a milestone in the timeline of robotic history. The
Modern State of Robots From Da Vinci to the current day the development
of humanoid robots has continued to approach the goal of a robot that is
indistinguishable from a human. However, despite the massive recent
advancements in technology and even the exponential growth of computing power
of the past decades, this dream is still far from a reality. In a comprehensive
article in the New York Times, Robin Marantz Henig discusses her experiences
with what are often labeled “social robots.” These robots are by no means what
the servant robots of Greek mythology have led many people to hope for;; rather
they are infant versions, at best, of the long-hoped-for androids. Henig said
these machines are not the docile companions of the collective dreams, robots
designed to flawlessly serve dinners, fold clothes and do the dull or dangerous
jobs that human do not want to do. Nor are they the villains of the collective
nightmares, poised for robotic rebellion against humans whose machine
creations have become smarter than the humans themselves. They are,
instead, hunks of metal tethered to computers, which need their human
designers to get them going and to smooth the hiccups along the way.

Despite the disappointment that many people feel when they are given the
chance to interact with the latest robots, some major players in the robotic
industry are quite optimistic. Rodney Brooks is an expert in robotics and artificial
intelligence. In an article written in 2008, Brooks explains that it is no longer a
question of whether human-level artificial intelligence will be developed, but
rather how and when. While it is true that androids are not the only
robots which have a great impact on man’s lives, their development
introduces a set of unique ethical issues which industrial robots do not
evoke. Working under the assumption that it is only a matter of time until
androids are an everyday reality, it is proper to begin thinking about what these
ethical issues are and how they may be dealt with in the coming years. The
overarching question that results is what exactly these robots are. Are they
simply piles of electronics running advanced algorithms, or are they a new
form of life? What Is Life? The question of what constitutes life is one on which
the world may never come to a consensus.

From the ancient philosophers to the common man on the street, it seems
that everyone has an opinion on what a living organism consists of. One of the
more prevailing views throughout history has been that of Aristotle. The basic
tenets of Aristotle’s view are that an organism has both “matter” and “form.” This
differs from the philosophical position known as materialism, which has become
popular in modern times and finds its roots among the ancient Indians.
Materialism does not entertain any notion of organisms having a “form” or “soul”;;
rather, organisms are made simply of various types of “matter.” These two views
are at odds with one another and the philosophical position society adopts
will inevitably have a huge impact on how humans interact with robots. Aristotle

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The view articulated by Aristotle and his modern-day followers describes life in
terms of unity, a composite of both “matter” and “form.” One type of “matter”
which Aristotle speaks of could be biological material such as what plants,
animals, and humans consist of. Another type of “matter” could also be the
mechanical and electronic components which make up modern-day robots.
Clearly it is not the “matter” alone which distinguishes whether an object is a
living organism, for if it were, Aristotle‟s view would differ little from materialism.
The distinguishing characteristic of Aristotle is his inclusion of “form.” The term
simply means whatever it is that makes a human a human, a plant a plant, and
an animal an animal. Each of these have a specific “form” which is not
the same as its “matter,” but is a functioning unity which is essential to each
living organism in order for it to be just that, living. The word used to
describe the “form” of a living organism is “psyche” or “soul.”
Unlike Aristotle's philosophical view, which was embraced by various
religions, perhaps most notably by the Roman Catholic Church and more
specifically by St. Thomas Aquinas, materialism often finds itself at odds with
most religious views in the world. Catholicism being a prime example of this,
one will not find a favorable description of materialism when looking at the
opening lines of its definition in the Catholic Encyclopedia. The
encyclopedia's entry begins by defining materialism as “a philosophical system
which regards matter as the only reality in the world, which undertakes to
explain every event in the universe as resulting from the conditions and activity of
matter, and which thus denies the existence of God and the soul.” Why does it
matter that materialism is at odds with Catholicism and most other
religions? More specifically, what does this have to do with robots and androids?
It is relevant because if materialism is correct, then humans should have the
power to develop new forms of life. If it is true that everything in the universe is
simply material and the result of material interactions, then nothing should be
stopping us from creating androids and recognizing them as just as valid a life
form as humans.

The decision of what level of life robots are to be considered is an

essential one. In 1942 Isaac 7 Asimov introduced to the world of science fiction
what are known as the Three Laws of Robotics, which were published in his
short story “Runaround.” The laws Asimov formulated are: First, a robot may not
injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
Second, a robot must obey any orders given to it by human beings, except
where such orders would conflict with the First Law. Third, a robot must protect
its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or
Second Law. While these laws are part of science fiction history, the current state
of robotic technology demands that they be considered in a new light. As with
many ideas once confined to the world of science fiction, Asimov‟s laws are now
able to make the transition into reality. At first glance these three laws seem to
be an excellent way to ensure the safe development of this supposed new life
form. However, Asimov‟s laws presuppose that human life is of greater value than

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that of the androids being developed. If we work under the assumption that
androids should be considered just below humans, Asimov‟s laws may hold true.
But what if we hold to the conclusion materialism reaches, that androids should
be placed at or above the level of humans? If this is the case, Asimov‟s
laws will not be able to be applied. The main reason is that we could not see
androids as equal forms of life and implement Asimov‟s laws, which place
androids in direct submission to humans. How can it be that an android should
give its life for a human if an android has a right to life equal to that of a
human? Imagine an army made up of both androids and humans. Should the
android always give its life to save a human‟s life? Would human soldiers be
willing to die for an android? As much as people may believe in materialism and
come to conclusions that robots will one day be a life form equal to humans, I
find it hard to believe that many people would actually die for a robot. Robot
Code of Ethics While it remains true that robotics technology is not at a place
where ethical codes for robots are necessary, it is not stopping some
countries from being proactive and taking the beginning steps in the development
of a robot code of ethics.

South Korea is considered one of the most high-tech countries in the world
and they are leading the way in the development of such a code. Known
officially as the Robot Ethics Charter, it is being drawn up “to prevent human
abuse of robots—and vice versa”. The main focus of the charter is said to be on
the social problems the mass integration of robots into society is bound to create.
In particular it aims to define how people are to properly interact with robots, in
Stefan Lovgren‟s words, “human control over robots and humans becoming
addicted to robot interaction”. Beyond the social problems robots may bring with
them, there also is an array of legal issues, the primary one in the charter being
what and how information is collected and distributed by robots. To many it
seems as though South Korea‟s Robot Ethics Charter is the beginning of a
modern-day implementation of Asimov‟s Three Laws of Robotics. However, many
robot designers such as Mark Tilden think this is all a bit premature. Tilden
claims that we are simply not at a point where robots can be given morals and
compares it to “teaching an ant to yodel”. Tilden goes on to claim that when we
do reach that point, the interactions will be less than pleasant, stating that “as
many of Asimov's stories show, the conundrums robots and humans would face
would result in more tragedy than utility”. Despite Tilden‟s and others‟ pessimistic
view of what the future holds for the human-robot relationship, technology will
slow down for no one. It is only a matter of time before other countries will
follow in South Korea’s footsteps and create their own code of ethics for robots
and their interactions with humans.

B. Human, Morals and Machines

Technology has begun to change our species’long- standing experiences with

nature. Now,we have technological nature—technologies that in various ways

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mediate, augment, or simulate the natural world. Entire television networks, such
as the Discovery Channel and Animal Planet, provide us with mediated digital
experiences of nature: the lion’s hunt, the Monarch’s migration, or a climb high
into the Himalayan peaks. Video games, like Zoo Tycoon, engage children with
animal life. Zoos themselves are bringing technologies, such as webcams into
their exhibits so that we can, for example, watch animals from the leisure of our
home or a cafe. Inexpensive robot pets have been big sellers in the Wal-Marts
and Targets of the world. Sony’s higher-end robot dog AIBO sold well. Real
people now spend substantial time in virtual environments (e.g., Second Life). In
terms of the physical and psychological wellbeing of our species, does it matter
that we are replacing actual nature with technological nature? To support
our provisional answer that it does matter, we draw on evolutionary and cross- -
cultural developmental accounts of the human relation with the natural world and
then consider some recent psychological research on the effects of technological
nature.

Scientists are already beginning to think seriously about the new ethical
problems posed by current developments in robotics. Experts in South Korea were
drawing up an ethical code to prevent humans abusing robots, and vice
versa. A group of leading roboticists called the Chapter 2 81 European
Robotics Network (Euron) has even started lobbying governments for legislation.
At the top of their list of concerns is safety. Robots were once confined to
specialist applications in industry and the military, where users received extensive
training on their use, but they are increasingly being used by ordinary people.
Robot vacuum cleaners and lawn mowers are already in many homes, and
robotic toys are increasingly popular with children. As these robots become
more intelligent, it will become harder to decide who is responsible if they injure
someone. Is the designer to blame, or the user, or the robot itself? The ethical
or moral sense for machines canbe built on a utilitarian base. There are
special cases that will require modifications of the core rules that are based on
the circumstances of their use. Doctors, for example, don not euthanize patients
to spread the wealth of their organs, even if it means that there is a net positive
with regard to survivors. They have to conform to a separate code of ethics
designed around the needs of patients and their rights that restricts their
actions. The same holds for lawyers, religious leaders, and military personnel
who establish special relationships with individuals who are protected by
specific ethical codes. The simple utilitarian model will certainly have overlays
depending on the role that these robots play. They will act in accord with
whatever moral or ethical code we provide them and the value determinations
that we set. They will run the numbers and do the right thing. In emergency
situations, our autonomous cars will sacrifice the few to protect the many.
When faced with dilemmas, they will seek the best outcomes independent of
whether they themselves are comfortable with the actions. So, as with all other
aspects of machine intelligence, it is crucial that these systems are able to
explain their moral decisions to us. They will need to be able to reach into their
silicon souls and explain the reasoning that supports their actions. We need them

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to be able to explain themselves in all aspects of their reasoning and actions.
Their moral reasoning will be subject to the same explanatory requirements that
we would demand of explaining any action they take.

Today’s emerging technologies, like Artificial Intelligence (AI), augmented

and virtual reality, home robots, and cloud computing, to name only a few of the
sophisticated technologies in development today, are capturing the
imaginations of many. The advanced capabilities of today’s emerging
technologies are driving many academics, entrepreneurs, and enterprises to
envision futures in which their impacts on society will be nothing short of
transformative. Whether these emerging technologies will realize these
ambitious possibilities is uncertain. What is certain is that they will intersect and
interact with powerful demographic, economic, and cultural forces to upend the
conditions of everyday life.

The article “Is Google Making Us Stupid?” by Nicholas Carrs discusses the
effects that the Internet may be having on our ability to focus, the difference in
knowledge that we now have, and our reliance on the Internet. The points that
are made throughout Carrs’ article are very thought-provoking, but his sources
make them seem invaluable. Carr discusses the effects that the Internet has on
our minds. He feels that the Internet is bad for the brain. Nicholas Carr writes
that he spends much of his leisure time from the Net. Carr feels like he cannot
concentrate on the long passages of reading because his brain is used to the
fast millisecond flow of the Net. “For more than a decade now, I’ve been
spending a lot of time online, searching and surfing.” The supporting idea is that
his mind now “expects to take in information the way the Net distributes
it--in a swiftly moving streams of particles.” His brain wants to think as fast as
the Internet goes. In summary, the article is split into two pieces. The first is
Nicholas Carr’s longing for his brain to be one with the Internet, a man-made
machine. The second part of the article is Google’s standpoint on how our brains
should be replaced by artificial intelligence.
C. Why the Future Does Not Need Us?

With the accelerating improvements of technology, computer scientists

succeed in developing intelligent machines that can do all things better than
human beings. In that case presumably all work will be done by vast, highly
organized systems of machines, and no human effort will be necessary. Either of
two cases might occur. The machines might be permitted to make all of their
own decisions without human oversight, or else human control over the machines
might be retained.

If the machines are permitted to make all their own decisions, we cannot
make any conjectures about the results because it is impossible to guess how
such machines might behave. We only point out that the fate of the human race
would be at the mercy of the machines. It might be argued that the human race

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would never be foolish enough to hand over all the power to the machines. But
human race would voluntarily turn power over to the machines or the machines
would willfully seize power. Human race might easily permit itself to drift into a
position of such dependence on the machines that it would have no practical
choice but to accept all of the machines’ decisions.

As society and the problems that it faces become more and more complex
and machines become more and more intelligent, people will let machines make
more of their decisions for them, simply because machine-made decisions will
bring better results than man-made ones. Eventually a stage may be reached at
which the decisions necessary to keep the system running will be so complex
that human beings will be incapable of making them intelligently. At that stage
the machines will be in effective control. People will not be able to just turn the
machines off because they will be so dependent on them that turning them off
would amount to suicide.

On the other hand, it is possible that human control over the machines
may be retained. In that case the average man may have control over certain
private machines of his own, such as his car or his personal computer, but
control over large systems of machines will be in the hands of the tiny elite -
just as it is today, but with two differences. Because of improved techniques the
elite will have a greater control over the masses and because human work will
no longer be necessary, the masses will be superfluous, a useless burden
on the system. If the elite are ruthless, they may simply decide to
exterminate the mass of humanity. If they are humane they may use propaganda
or any other psychological or biological techniques to reduce the birth rate
until the mass of humanity becomes extinct, leaving the world to the elite. Or, if
the elite consist of soft-hearted liberals, they may decide to play the role of good
shepherds to the rest of the human race. They will see to it that everyone’s
physical needs are satisfied, that all children are raised under psychologically
hygienic conditions, that everyone has a wholesome hobby to keep him
busy, and that anyone who may become dissatisfied undergoes “treatment” to
cure his “problem.” Life will be so purposeless that people will have to be
biologically or psychologically engineered either to remove their need for the
power process or make them “sublimate” their drive for power into some harmless
hobby. These engineered human beings may be happy in such a society,
but they will most certainly not be free. They will have been reduced to the
status of domestic animals. Theodore Kaczynskian American domestic
terrorist,also known as the Unabomber, killed three people during a nationwide
bombing campaign targeting those involved with modern technology and wounded
many others. One of his bombs gravely injured David Gelernter, one of the most
brilliant and visionary computer scientists. His actions were murderous and
criminally insane, but his vision describes unintended consequences, a well--
known problem with the design and use of technology, and one that is clearly
related to Murphy’s law–“Anything that can go wrong, will.” Our overuse of

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antibiotics has led to what may be the biggest such problem so far: the
emergence of antibiotic-resistant and much more dangerous bacteria. Similar things
happened when attempts to eliminate malarial mosquitoes using DDT caused
them to acquire DDT resistance;; malarial parasites, likewise, acquired multi--
drug-resistant genes.

The cause of many such surprises seems clear: The systems

involved are complex, involving interaction among and feedback between many
parts. Any changes to such a system will cascade in ways that are difficult to
predict;; this is especially true when human actions are involved. Biological
species almost never survive encounters with superior competitors. Ten million
years ago, South and North America were separated by a sunken Panama
isthmus. South America, like Australia today, was populated by marsupial
mammals, including pouched equivalents of rats, deers, and tigers. When the
isthmus connecting North and South America rose, it took only a few thousand
years for the northern placental species, with slightly more effective
metabolisms and reproductive and nervous systems, to displace and eliminate
almost all the southern marsupials.

In a completely free marketplace, superior robots would surely affect

humans as North American placentals affected South American marsupials (and
as humans have affected countless species). Robotic industries would compete
vigorously among themselves for matter, energy, and space, incidentally driving
their price beyond human reach. Unable to afford the necessities of life, biological
humans would be squeezed out of existence.

A textbook on dystopia and Moravec discuss how our main job in the 21st
century will be “ensuring continued cooperation from the robot industries” by
passing laws decreeing that they be “nice,” and describing how seriously
dangerous a human can be once transformed into an unbounded superintelligent
robot. Moravec’s view is that the robots will eventually succeed us that humans
clearly face extinction.

Accustomed to living with almost routine scientific breakthroughs, we have

yet to come to terms with the fact that the most compelling 21st-century
technologies–robotics, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology–pose a threat
different from the technologies that have come before. Specifically, robots,
engineered organisms, and nanobots share a dangerous amplifying factor: They
can self-replicate. A bomb is blown up only once– but one bot can become many,
and quickly get out of control. For instance, the sending and receiving of
messages through computer networking creates the opportunity for out-of-control
replication. But while replication in a computer or a computer network can be a
nuisance, at worst it disables a machine or takes down a network or network
service. Uncontrolled self-replication in these newer technologies runs a much
greater risk: a risk of substantial damage in the physical world. Each of these

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technologies also offers untold promise: The vision of near immortality that
Kurzweil sees in his robot dreams drives us forward;; genetic engineering may
soon provide treatments, if not outright cures, for most diseases;; and
nanotechnology and nanomedicine can address more ills. Together, they could
significantly extend our average life span and improve the quality of our lives.
With each of these technologies, a sequence of small, individually sensible
advances leads to an accumulation of great power and, concomitantly, great
danger. What was different in the 20th century? Certainly, the technologies
underlying the weapons of mass destruction (WMD)–nuclear, biological, and
chemical (NBC)–were powerful, and the weapons an enormous threat. But
building nuclear weapons required, at least for a time, access to both rare–
indeed, effectively unavailable–raw materials and highly protected information;;
biological and chemical weapons programs also tended to require large-scale
activities. The 21st-century technologies–genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics
(GNR)–are so powerful that they can spawn whole new classes of accidents
and abuses. Most dangerously, for the first time, these accidents and abuses
are widely within the reach of individuals or small groups. They will not require
large facilities or rare raw materials. Knowledge alone will enable their use;; thus,
we have the possibility not just of weapons of mass destruction but of
knowledge-enabled mass destruction (KMD), this destructiveness hugely amplified
by the power of self-replication. Failing to understand the consequences of our
inventions while we are in the rapture of discovery and innovation seems to
be a common fault of scientists and technologists;; we have long been driven by
the overarching desire to know that is the nature of science’s quest, not stopping
to notice that the progress to newer and more powerful technologies can take on
a life of its own. Because of the recent rapid and radical progress in
molecular electronics–where individual atoms and molecules replace
lithographically drawn transistors–and related nanoscale technologies, we should
be able to meet or exceed the Moore’s law rate of progress for another 30
years. By 2030, we are likely to be able to build machines, in quantity, a
million times as powerful as the personal computers of today. As this
enormous computing power is combined with the manipulative advances of the
physical sciences and the new, deep understandings in genetics, enormous
transformative power is being unleashed. These combinations open up the
opportunity to completely redesign the world, for better or worse: The replicating
and evolving processes that have been confined to the natural world are
about to become realms of human endeavor. Given the incredible power of
these new technologies, should we not be asking how we can best coexist with
them? And if our own extinction is a likely, or even possible, outcome of our
technological development, should we not proceed with great caution? How soon
could such an intelligent robot be built? The coming advances in computing
power seem to make it possible by 2030. Once an intelligent robot exists, it is
only a small step to a robot species–to an intelligent robot that can make
evolved copies of itself. Genetic engineering promises to revolutionize agriculture

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by increasing crop yields while reducing the use of pesticides;; to create tens of
thousands of novel species of bacteria, plants, viruses, and animals;; to replace
reproduction, or supplement it, with cloning;; to create cures for many diseases,
increasing our life span and our quality of life;; and much, much more. We now
know with certainty that these profound changes in the biological sciences are
imminent and will challenge all our notions of what life is. Technologies, such as
human cloning, have in particular raised our awareness of the profound ethical
and moral issues we face. If, for example, we were to reengineer ourselves into
several separate and unequal species using the power of genetic engineering,
then we would threaten the notion of equality that is the very cornerstone of our
democracy. Awareness of the dangers inherent in genetic engineering is beginning
to grow, as reflected in the Lovins’ editorial. The general public is aware of, and
uneasy about, genetically modified foods, and seems to be rejecting the notion
that such foods should be permitted to be unlabeled. But genetic engineering
technology is already very far along. As the Lovins’ note, the USDA has already
approved about 50 genetically engineered crops for unlimited release;; more than
half of the world’s soybeans and a third of its corn now contain genes spliced in
from some other forms of life. Unfortunately, as with nuclear technology, it is far
easier to create destructive uses for nanotechnology than constructive ones.
Nanotechnology has clear military and terrorist uses, and you need not be
suicidal to release a massively destructive nanotechnological device–such devices
can be built to be selectively destructive, affecting, for example, only a certain
geographical area or a group of people who are genetically distinct. The effort to
build the first atomic bomb was led by the brilliant physicist J. Robert
Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer was not naturally interested in politics but became
painfully aware of what he perceived as the grave threat to Western civilization
from the Third Reich, a threat surely grave because of the possibility that
Hitler might obtain nuclear weapons. Energized by this concern, he brought
his strong intellect, passion for physics, and charismatic leadership skills to Los
Alamos and led a rapid and successful effort by an incredible collection of great
minds to quickly invent the bomb. Physicists proceeded with the preparation of
the first atomic test called Trinity despite a large number of possible dangers.
They were initially worried, based on a calculation by Edward Teller, that an
atomic explosion might set fire to the atmosphere. A revised calculation reduced
the danger of destroying the world to a three-ina-million chance. Oppenheimer,
though, was sufficiently concerned about the result of Trinity that he arranged for
a possible evacuation of the southwest part of the state of New Mexico. There
was the clear danger of starting a nuclear arms race. Within a month of that
first, successful test, two atomic bombs destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Some
scientists had suggested that the bomb simply be demonstrated rather than
dropped on Japanese cities–saying that this would greatly improve the chances
for arms control after the war–but to no avail. With the tragedy of Pearl Harbor
still fresh in Americans’ minds, it would have been very difficult for President
Truman to order a demonstration of the weapons rather than use them as he

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did–the desire to quickly end the war and save the lives that would have been
lost in any invasion of Japan was very strong. The overriding truth was probably
very simple: As the physicist Freeman Dyson later said, “The reason that it was
dropped was just that nobody had the courage or the foresight to say no.” It is
important to realize how shocked the physicists were in the aftermath of the
bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. They described a series of waves of
emotion: first, a sense of fulfillment that the bomb worked, then horror at all the
people that had been killed, and then a convincing feeling that on no account
should another bomb be dropped. Another bomb was dropped, on Nagasaki, only
three days after the bombing of Hiroshima. In November 1945, three months
after the atomic bombings, Oppenheimer stood firmly behind the scientific
attitude, saying, “It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that the
knowledge of the world, and the power which this gives, is a thing which is of
intrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to help in the spread of
knowledge and are willing to take the consequences.” In our time, how much
danger do we face not just from nuclear weapons but from all of these
technologies? How high are the extinction risks? The philosopher John Leslie has
studied this question and concluded that the risk of human extinction is at least
30 percent while Ray Kurzweil believes we have a better than even chance of
making it through, with the caveat that he has always been accused of being an
optimist. Not only are these estimates not encouraging, but they do not include
the probability of many horrid outcomes that lie short of extinction. Faced
with such assessments, some serious people are already suggesting that we
simply move beyond the Earth as quickly as possible. We would colonize
the galaxy using von Neumann probes, which hop from star system to star
system, replicating as they go. This step will almost certainly be necessary billion
years from now (or sooner if our solar system is disastrously impacted by the
impending collision of our galaxy with the Andromeda galaxy within the next three
billion years), but if we take Kurzweil and Moravec at their word, it might be
necessary by the middle of this century. What are the moral implications here? If
we must move beyond Earth this quickly for the species to survive, who accepts
the responsibility for the fate of those who are left behind? And even if we
scatter to the stars, is it not likely that we may take our problems with us or
find, later, that they have followed us? The fate of our species on earth and our
fate in the galaxy seem inextricably linked. Another idea is to erect a series
of shields to defend against each of the dangerous technologies. The
Strategic Defense Initiative, proposed by the Reagan administration, was anattempt
to design such a shield against the threat of a nuclear attack from the Soviet
Union. But as Arthur C. Clarke, who was privy to discussions about the project,
observed: “Though it might be possible, at vast expense, to construct local
defense systems that would only let through a few percent of ballistic missiles,
the much-touted idea of a national umbrella was nonsense.” Luis Alvarez,
the greatest experimental physicist, remarked that the advocates of such
schemes were very bright guys with no common sense. Similar difficulties apply

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to the construction of shields against robotics and genetic engineering. These
technologies are too powerful to be shielded against in the time frame of
interest;; even if it were possible to implement defensive shields, the side effects
of their development would be at least as dangerous as the technologies we are
trying to protect against. These possibilities are all, thus, either undesirable
or unachievable or both. The only realistic alternative to limit the
development of the technologies that are too dangerous is by limiting our
pursuit of certain kinds of knowledge. We have been seeking knowledge since
ancient times. Aristotle opened his Metaphysics with the simple statement: “All
men by nature desire to know.” We have, as a bedrock value in our society,
long agreed on the value of open access to information and recognize the
problems that arise with attempts to restrict access to and development of
knowledge. In recent times, we have come to revere scientific knowledge.
It was Nietzsche who warned us, at the end of the 19th century, not only that
God is dead but that “faith in science, which after all exists undeniably, cannot
owe its origin to a calculus of utility;; it must have originated in spite of the fact
that the disutility and dangerousness of the ‘will to truth,’ of ‘truth at any price’ is
proved to it constantly.” It is this further danger that we now fully face the
consequences of our truth-seeking. The truth that science seeks can certainly be
considered a dangerous substitute for God if it is likely to lead to our extinction.
Our Western notion of happiness seems to come from the Greeks, who defined it
as “the exercise of vital powers along lines of excellence in a life affording them
scope.” Clearly, we need to find meaningful challenges and sufficient scope in our
lives if we are to be happy in whatever is to come. We must find
alternative outlets for our creative forces, beyond the culture of perpetual
economic growth;; this growth has largely been a blessing for several hundred
years, but it has not brought us unalloyed happiness, and we must now choose
between the pursuit of unrestricted and undirected growth through science and
technology and the clear accompanying dangers

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 PART III.
SPECIFIC ISSUES IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Introduction

This section provides overview on how writing evolved through time and
internet came into being. Discussion on how information became accessible and
inexpensive thru the discovery of printing press by Johannes Gutenburg is also
presented on this part. Emphasis is given on the influence of social media to
people’s lives.

Further, this section of the module discusses different issues that concern
society’s health and well-being. Basic concepts and ideas on biodiversity, climate
change, use of gene therapy and nanotechnology are also presented here.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, the students are expected to:

1. illustrate how information age and social media have made an impact to our
lives.
2. explain the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health.
3. discuss the costs and benefits (both potential and realized) of nanotechnology to
society.
4. describe gene therapy, its various forms and potential benefits and detriments to
global health.
5. identify the causes of climate change and discuss how to apply concepts of STS
in this specific environmental issue.
 Chapter 7 The Information Age

The Information Age began around the 1970s and still going on today. It is
also known as the Computer Age, Digital Age, or New Media Age. This era
brought about a time period in which people could access information and
knowledge easily.

Pre-Gutenberg Period

During the Middle Ages in Europe, most people lived in small, isolated
villages. If people travelled at all, they typically ventured only a few miles from
where they were born. For most people, the only source of both religious and
worldly information was the village Catholic priest in the pulpit. News passed from
one person to another, often in the form of rumor.

Written documents were rare and often doubted by the common people
as forgeries. What counted in important matters was oral testimony based on oaths
taken in the name of God to tell the truth.

Almost no one could read or write the language they spoke. Those few who
were literate usually went on to master Latin, the universal language of scholarship,
the law, and the Roman Catholic Church. Books, all hand-copied, were rare,
expensive, and almost always in Latin. They were so valuable that universities
chained them to reading tables. Most people passed their lifetime without ever
gazing at a book, a calendar, a map, or written work of any sort.

Memory and memorization ruled daily life and learning. Poets, actors and
story tellers relied on rhyming lines to remember vast amounts of material.
Craftsmen memorized the secrets of their trades to pass on orally to apprentices.
Mechanics kept their accounts in their heads. Even scholars literate in Latin
used memory devices to remember what they had learned. One device involved
visualizing a building with various rooms and architectural features, each
representing different store of knowledge. A university scholar imagined walking
through this virtual building along a certain pathway to recall the contents of entire
books for his lectures.

Scribes, often monks living in monasteries, each labored for up to a year to

copy a single book, usually in Latin. The scribes copied books on processed
calfskin called velum and later on paper. Specialists or the scribes themselves

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“illuminated’ (painted0 large capital letters and the margins of many books with
colorful designs were very costly.

Before the discovery of printing press, books in Europe were typically

handwritten manuscripts while paper money, playing cards, posters, and the like
were block-printed from hand-carved wooden blocks, inked and transferred to paper.
This earlier method of reproduction was expensive and time consuming.

Gutenberg Revolution

Johannes Gutenberg turned the printing world upside down and brought on a
new era of print with his revolutionary innovation of movable type in 1445.
Movable type printing used metal stamps of single letters that could be arranged
into words, sentences and pages of text. Using a large manually operated, the
stamps would be arranged to read a page of text so that when covered with
ink, it would print out a page of text. Before Gutenberg, all texts had been
printed with woodblocks or fixed text stamps, both of which were complex and
time-consuming processes. Movable type kept the metal stamp letters separate,
which allowed printers to reuse the letters quickly on succeeding pages. As a
result, more pages could be efficiently printed in a shorter amount of time with
much less effort. From here, the opportunity to share ideas and knowledge
brought on a new era of change and enlightenment never seen before.

Gutenberg’s amazing invention made books the internet of the time. The
printing press made it possible to produce books much more quickly and
cheaper than ever before. By 1463, printed Bibles cost one-tenth of hand-copied
Bibles. The demand for books exploded. By 1500, Europe had more than 1,000
printers and 7,000 books in print.

Like the internet, books spread new ideas quickly and sped up the
process of change. For example, as a young sailor in Genoa, Christopher
Columbus read Marco Polo’s famous Travels, in which he described his
journeys to China. Columbus was thrilled by Polo’s descriptions. Books also
planted the seeds of democracy and human rights in the next generation of
thinkers. Newspapers and pamphlets generated information and ideas even
faster.

The impact of the printing press is, almost, impossible to really quantify. On
the surface it allowed for the much more rapid spread of accurate
information but, more elusively, it had an enormous impact on the nations and
population in Europe at large. Literacy began to rise as well as the types of
information people could be exposed to.

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 When Europe was recovering from the devastating impact of the Black
Death, the impact of printing press decimated the population and had led to the
decline in the rise of the church, the rise of the money economy, and subsequent
birth of the Renaissance.

As it became easier to produce books and pamphlets, information started

to spread. Previously, only religious leaders and royalty had access to
books, and few people were literate. The printing Renaissance opened the realm
of learning and reading to the local populations as schools were built and books
about education were written and print published. The printing press had dramatic
effects on European civilization and its more immediate effect was to spread
information quickly and accurately and this gradually helped to create a much
wider literate reading public.

The arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of

mass communication, which permanently altered the structure of society. The
relatively unrestricted circulation of information and revolutionary ideas
transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation, and
threatened the power of political and religious authorities;; the sharp increase
in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and
bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self--
awareness of its people led to the rise of proto- nationalism, accelerated by
the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin’s
status as lingua franca.

The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a

community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through
widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution.
Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It
was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise
formulation and time of information. Before, the author was less important, since a
copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in
Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has
been entirely lost.

Printed Materials as Agents of Change

Gutenberg’s movable type printing press was a disruptive innovation in more

ways than one. In addition to making printed materials more accessible, it
allowed for the spread of knowledge both within elite communities, like the
Catholic Church and the scientific community, and also to the rest of the
general population. It brought about new innovations and ideas that lead to
changes in power and standards in both religious and scientific areas of
European culture. These included a shift in religious power from the church

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authority to the general population, standardization of scientific reporting, and an
influx of new scientific discoveries. Although it may seem like the printing press
affected the European science and religious community differently, the changes
between the two are actually intricately intertwined. Both scientific and religious
works were subject to a language change from Latin to vernacular languages. All
of these changes were possible because of the printing press. Even more, it
allowed for greater accessibility and spread of all kinds of knowledge throughout
a wider population never before seen, bringing about several new social
dynamics that will lead to several social revolutions.

Post-Gutenberg Period

The impact of the Gutenberg printing press was immeasurable. It caused

nothing less than a dramatic social and cultural revolution. The sudden widespread
dissemination of printed works – books, tracts, posters and papers – gave direct
rise to the European Renaissance.

While Gutenberg’s famous Bible was printed in Latin, his invention of the
movable type press meant that Protestant tracts and the arguments between Martin
Luther and the Catholic Church which led to the Reformation could be widely
disseminated. The Reformation that began in Germany in the early 16 th century, led
to the Bible being printed in the languages common to people. Gutenberg’s
invention led inevitably to the Protestant revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, the
development of Modern Science and Universal Education. In other words, everything
that has led to human progress and the advancement of the modern world.

At present, people are beginning to look for secure and accurate and
believable news portals but, the traditional trusted publishing outlets have less
public beliefs as many people believe governments are manipulating them.
The local press are in sharp circulation decline, and the online advertising
businesses have moved to Google and Facebook and others. The result
has caused newspaper closures and large-scale downsizings and
redundancies. Many people now prefer to believe people from their social
environment, instead of turning to “the media”. The collateral damage caused by
the digitization is increasing amounts of information and currently this is not going
to stop.

The emergence of the internet and the World Wide Web in the 1990s was
initially hailed by many as ushering in new democratic age, driven by much greater
access to information. In reality, while the internet had a dramatic impact, the
revolutionary shifts predicted did not occur. This is because, in its earliest days, the
World Wide Web still conformed to the Gutenberg principle. Building a website,
accessing server space and publishing information required both money and
technical expertise and was therefore still the preserve of institutions rather than

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individuals. The reality of much greater access to information was not matched by
a greater ability to publish it.

Paradoxes of Technology

New technologies allow us to be connected to and

reachable by everyone. However, as a result, our privacy is
threatened and technology starts controlling us. Whether we
Empowerment vs Enslavement
want or not, we feel socially obliged to take phone calls,
answer emails, and send responses to messages on
Facebook.

New gadgets such as cell phones allow us to do many things on our own. However, this
situation creates dependency, as we can’t go even
Independent vs Dependence one day without our phones and we feel helpless when the Internet is
down.

Technology resolves some problems but also introduces new

ones, e.g. we need devices with longer battery life, we
Fulfills needs vs Creates needs
need antivirus software to be safe, we need to learn new skills,
etc.

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 We can get any information we want and reach anyone we
want with
Competence vs Incompetence the help of new technologies. However, we lose our ability
to remember phone numbers and our ability to articulate
thoughts.

When we are engaged in an activity that involves the use

of new technology, we need to disengage from whatever we
Engaging vs Disengaging are doing. We directly interact with our family and loved ones
less frequently because we tend to engage more in new
portable technology tools.

New technologies blur the line between what is public and

what is
Public vs Private private. People may talk on the phone or message someone
among a circle of acquaintances, which may be disturbing.

We tend to think new communication technologies make

our lives better. However, the more we communicate, the
Illusion vs Disillusion
more trivial our conversations become. In other words, more
communication does not always equal better communication.

Source: Sirkka L. Jarvenpaa and Karl R. Lang as cited by Acar, 2014

Speed of access also limited the ability of the internet to be a channel for
all forms of media, restricting its use to text based and transactional forms. As a
result, much of the initial investment in the web went into servicing and creating
institutional opportunities, with e-commerce emerging as the major new web-based
phenomena.

This changed with two developments. First, the spread of broadband

internet access made it possible to easily both upload and download all forms of
media: video, images and audio as well as just text and transactions. Second,
tools emerged which made it simple for people to publish or spread information.
Blogging was the first example, followed by social networking and distribution and
sharing sites like YouTube and Flickr. There has been a third trend which is
gathering significance, based around attaching relevance and content to all of the
otherwise random pieces of information now being published. This concerns
practices such as tagging, rating and commenting, as well as services such as
social bookmarking and news-sharing sites which allow individuals to store and
share information. This trend is responsible for creating forms of collective
intelligence and what has been called ‘crowd wisdom’ and is probably the most
important area to watch going forwards because of its ability to allow individuals to
create the trust and connections necessary to transact and communicate amongst
themselves without any institutionalized intervention.

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Chapter 8
Biodiversity and Healthy Society

What is Biodiversity?

Biological diversity or biodiversity is the variety of life, and refers collectively

to variation at all levels of biological organization. The term biodiversity refers to
the full abundance or variety of life – plant, animal and microbial. This variety of
life occurs at all levels of ecological organization, but biodiversity generally refers to
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. This is the diversity of life upon which
the health of the environment depends. Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
are convenient terms but because the universe is a continuum, some practical
difficulties exist in precisely defining each of them.

Biodiversity and Healthy Society

Biodiversity is the foundation of human health. By securing the life--

sustaining goods and services which biodiversity provides to us, the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity can provide significant benefits for human
health. In contrast, the continuing loss of biodiversity on a global scale represents
a direct threat to our health and well-being. Without a global environment that is
healthy and capable of supporting a diversity of life, no human population can
exist.

• Biodiversity supports food security, dietary health, livelihood sustainability

Genetic diversity in food systems provides the foundation of crop

development and food security, and promotes resistance and resilience
to environmental stresses including pests and diseases of crops and
livestock. Diets based on a diversity of food species promote health,
and can help to protect against disease by addressing the problem
of micronutrient and vitamin deficiencies. Loss of agricultural biodiversity
can therefore threaten health, livelihood sustainability and our future
security of food and nutrition.

• Biodiversity provides important resources for medical research

Studies of wildlife anatomy, physiology and biochemistry can lead to

important developments in human medicine. Examples of species of interest
to medical science include bears (for insights into osteoporosis,
cardio-vascular disorders, renal disease and diabetes), sharks
(osmoregulation and immunology), cetaceans (respiration and treatments
for divers suffering from decompression sickness) and horse-shoe crabs
(optometry/ophthalmology and molecular biology).

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 • Biodiversity provides important resources for traditional and modern medicine

Biodiversity loss can impact on community traditions and livelihoods

centered on traditional medicinal practices that utilize wild animals and
plants, particularly for indigenous and local communities. Millions of people
depend upon
traditional medicines for their primary health care.

• Biodiversity plays a role in the regulation and control of infectious diseases

Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can increase the risk of

emergence or spread of infectious diseases in animals, plants and
humans, including economically important livestock diseases, zoonotic
outbreaks and global pandemics. In recent years outbreaks of SARS,
Ebola, Marburg, Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, avian influenza and
malaria have been attributed to human impacts on biodiversity, the
wildlife trade or unsustainable land use change. Without a greater
understanding of disease ecology, there is also a risk that
programmes to tackle infectious diseases may impact negatively on
biodiversity, through use of biocides and other chemicals and wildlife culls.

• Biodiversity has social, cultural and spiritual importance within communities

Ecosystem change can result in disconnection of populations from open

spaces or the wider countryside, with negative implications for physical and
mental well-being and loss of “sense of place”. This has been linked to
an increased prevalence of ‘disease of affluence’ (diabetes, obesity, cardio--
pulmonary illness) and psychological disorders in many communities.
Conversely, access to ‘greenspace’ (natural and artificial) are associated
with better health outcomes, shorter hospital visits and reduced
convalescence time for patients than purely urban environments. An
awareness of environmental values and respect for other species has been
associated with reduced propensity towards anti-social behavior in children
and young adults.

Threats to Biodiversity

• Habitat loss

Humans rely on technology to modify their environment and make it

habitable. Other species cannot do this. Elimination of their habitat—
whether it is a forest, coral reef, grassland, or flowing river—will kill
the individuals in the species. Remove the entire habitat and the species

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 will become extinct, unless they are among the few species that do well in
human-built environments.

• Overharvesting
Overhunting, overfishing and over-harvesting contribute greatly to the
loss of biodiversity, killing off numerous species over the past several
hundred years. Poaching and other forms of hunting for profit increase the
risk of extinction;; the extinction of an apex predator — or, a predator at
the top of a food chain — can result in catastrophic consequences for
ecosystems.

• Invasive species

Exotic species are species that have been intentionally or unintentionally

introduced by humans into an ecosystem in which they did not evolve.
Most exotic species introductions probably fail because of the low number
of individuals introduced or poor adaptation to the ecosystem they enter.
Some species, however, have characteristics that can make them especially
successful in a new ecosystem. These exotic species often undergo
dramatic population increases in their new habitat and reset the ecological
conditions in the new environment, threatening the species that exist there.
When this happens, the exotic species also becomes an invasive
species. Invasive species can threaten other species through competition for
resources, predation, or disease.

• Climate change

Climate change, and specifically the anthropogenic warming trend presently

underway, is recognized as a major extinction threat, particularly when combined
with other threats such as habitat loss. Anthropogenic warming of the planet has
been observed and is due to past and continuing emission of greenhouse gases,
primarily carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere caused by the
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Scientists overwhelmingly agree the
present warming trend is caused by humans and some of the likely
effects
include dramatic and dangerous climate changes in the coming decades.

The warming trend will shift colder climates toward the north and south
poles, forcing species to move (if possible) with their adapted climate
norms. The shifting ranges will impose new competitive regimes on
species as they find themselves in contact with other species not present in
their historic range. One such unexpected species contact is between polar
bears and grizzly bears. Previously, these two species had separate

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ranges. Now, their ranges are overlapping and there are documented cases
of these two species mating and producing viable offspring. Changing climates
also throw off the delicate timing adaptations that species have to seasonal
food resources and breeding times. Scientists have already documented many
contemporary mismatches to shifts in
resource availability and timing.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Biotechnology is a set of techniques that involves the use of biological

processes and living organisms for industry, agricultural or other activities. Its
purpose is to modify the natural and biological processes of living organisms
without necessarily altering the genes or genetic construct of the living organisms.
It has four major industrial processes based on biological systems, namely cell and
tissue culture, fermentation, enzyme technology, and genetic engineering – also
referred to as modern technology.

Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

technology differs from other forms of biotechnology as it allows the isolation and
transfer of genes coding specific characteristics between living organisms to produce
a new living organism that expresses the desired characteristics of both
organisms. Genetically modified organisms or GMOs is the common term used for
genetically engineered organisms.

For thousands of years, humans have been using traditional modification

methods like selective breeding and cross-breeding to breed plants and
animals with more desirable traits. Most of the foods today were created
through traditional breeding methods. But changing plants and animals through
traditional breeding can take a long time, and it is difficult to make very specific
changes. After scientists developed genetic engineering, they were able to make
similar changes in a more specific way and in a shorter amount of time.
(https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/science-and-history-gmos-and--
other-food-modification-processes)

Intended Uses of GMOs

Used as specific models for many different human diseases, including

multiple infectious diseases, such as HIV, immune system defects, blood
Biomedical
and metabolic disorders, muscular dystrophy, cancer immunotherapies
among others.

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 Engineering of animals used for food. Examples include, chickens
producing only female offspring for egg laying, cows producing only male
offspring for better meat yield, pigs who can be fattened with less food,
Farm/Food Animals cashmere goats for producing more meat from greater muscle mass and
longer hair for wool yield;; and efforts to facilitate greater stocking
density, such as cattle without horns and animals with greater
resistance to disease.

Genetic engineering provides a quicker and more precise way to achieve

the same goal in one generation. Genetically modified crops offer
Agriculture improved yields, enhanced nutritional value, longer shelf life, and
resistance to drought, frost, or insect pests. Examples of GM crops
include corn varieties containing a gene for a bacterial pesticide that
kills larval pests, and soybeans with an inserted gene that renders them
resistant to weed-killers.

Source: Bailey, 2019

“GMO” (genetically modified organism) has become the common term consumers
and popular media use to describe foods that have been created through genetic
engineering. Genetic engineering is a process that involves:

• Identifying the genetic information – or “gene” – that gives an

organism (plant, animal or microorganism) a desired trait.
• Copying the information from the organism that has the trait
• Inserting that information into the DNA of another organism

Some Genetically Modified Organisms developed in the

Philippines o Longer-lasting papayas

Institute of Plant Breeding in UPLB developed delayed-ripening papaya that

is resistant to ring-spot virus (PRSV). The initial project assisted by the
Australian government developed a papaya variety with a 14-day shelf life, or
double the usual 6 days. The scientists achieved this by suppressing the
generation of key enzyme in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway –ACC synthase
– through genetic manipulation. ACC synthase triggers ethylene production,
which causes ripening of fruits.

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 o Protein enriched copra meal (PECM) as feed protein for tilapia, milkfish and
shrimp aquaculture

Primarily used as animal feed, copra meal is an important feed resource in the
Philippines. In 2014, the Philippines produced about 750,000 metric tons of copra
meal as coconut by-product. About 60% of this was locally utilized mainly as
animal feed. There are, however, several concerns on the use of soybean meals
as feeding ingredient. This includes its fluctuating market price, its being
expensive import commodity, its erratic supply, and the fact that it even
competes for human food.

To address the issue on high cost of soybean importation and to ensure the
quality of animal feeds, the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural
Resources Research and Development of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST-PCARRD) supported research and development (R&D)
programs on feed resources
under its Industry Strategic Science and Technology (S&T) Program (ISP).
One of the program’s accomplishments is the use of formulated feeds for
swine, poultry and aquatic animals with Protein Enriched Copra Meal (PECM)
that was developed by the National Institute of Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology of the University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB-BIOTECH).
Through solid-state fermentation technology, the PECM is enriched with
microorganisms that increase the protein content of copra meal to about 36 to 44%
crude protein content, comparable to the 46% of soybean meal. A group of
researchers from the Institute of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries and Ocean
Sciences of the University of the Philippines Visayas studied the possibility of
substituting 50% soybean meal, as a major feed protein source, with PECM.

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 Protein enriched copra meal (PECM) used for tilapia,Milkfish and tilapia when fed with commercial feed and
PECM(photocourtesy of UP Visayas, Miagao, Iloilo)
milkfish, and shrimp aquaculture (photo courtesy of UP
Visayas, Miagao, Iloilo)

o Tomato Leaf Curve Virus (ToLCV)- resistant Variety

The Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) of the University of the Philippines Los
Banos (UPLB) has developed tomato breeding line resistant to tomato leaf curl
virus (ToLCV) in the hope of reviving tomato’s robust production in the country.

https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph

The two-year project was completed by a team composed mainly of local

scientist at the IPB-UPLB with financial support from the Department of
Agriculture Biotech Program. The research team developed the candidate ToLCV--
resistant lines from the local tomato varieties by interbreeding local varieties with
ToLCV-resistant tomato lines acquired from the Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Center (AVRDC) – The World Vegetable Center.

ToLCV-resistance in the donor parental lines, hybrids and the derived lines
from the initial hybrids was verified by exposing the plants to the ToLCV-Laguna
isolate and by marker-assisted selection (MAS). MAS can predict even at
early seedling stage whether a plant will grow to express a trait of interest based
on the mere presence or absence of gene markers. Gene markers are short
unique DNA sequences located near the DNA sequence of the gene responsible
for a desired physical characteristic/trait in each generation of plants produced. In
this case, markers for genes responsible for the resistance to ToLCV confirmed
successful transfer of the resistance gene in the genetic make-up of the developed

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tomato lines. Lines rated as highly resistant due to absence or very minimal
observed symptoms of infection and detected for presence of ToLCV
resistance genes through gene markers were considered candidate ToLCV
resistant breeding materials.

Tomato was the leading vegetable crop in the country in terms of area
planted until 1990. The peak of decline in the area of production in 1997 was
primarily due to pests and diseases as well as unfavorable climatic conditions
especially during off-season months. Virus diseases, including ToLCV, are
considered the most damaging to tomato production worldwide causing 50-100%
yield loss. Use of chemicals to stop the vector insect proved to be costly and
does not warrant sustainable protection. Moreover, the strategy can be hazardous
both to human health and environment. The use of resistant varieties offers the
most effective and practical strategy to overcome the disease. While breeding
initiatives to virus resistant varieties have been going on, the lack of varieties with
durable resistance against multiple virus diseases remains a concern to farmers. At
present, there are no commercial varieties grown in the Philippines with
durable resistance to major virus diseases such as ToLCV. Use of the
promising resistant breeding materials may improve production yield and income of
more than 18,000 tomato growers.

Bt corn
Bt corn in the Philippines was engineered to be specifically resistant to the
Asian corn borer (ACB), Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee), the most devastating corn
pests in the industry. It was introduced as a “practical and ecologically sustainable
solution” for poor corn farmers, a major bullet to combat poverty and improve
livelihood.

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 https://www.sunstar.com
Adoption rate of biotech maize in 2015 is at 63 percent. In the period 2003 to
2015, there were 13 years of consecutive growth in hectarage of Bt corn, except
for 2015 due to drought.

Potential benefits of GM crops

1. Better nutritional qualities---rice with provitamin A and iron;; corn with high lysine
and
tryptophan;; vegetables with higher ~-carotene and lycopene;; legumes with
higher
sulfur containing amino acids: sweet potato with higher protein content.

2. Engineering pest or disease resistance in important crops such as rice and corn,
various vegetables. sweet potato and others especially those important for
developing countries.

3. Edible vaccines ---aimed at providing low cost immunization strategy for

developing
countries;; banana with antigen of causal organism of diarrhea is now at
clinical trial
stage. Vaccine corn for gastroenteritis in hogs, hepatitis B in humans, etc.

4. Antibodies engineered and produced in plants---expressed antibodies in potato,

tobacco and rapeseed were stable and active;; need to increase expression
level.

5. Crops which can extract and detoxify pollutants from the environment such as
heavy
metals---this research is hampered by the lack of basic knowledge on the
molecular
mechanism involved in the uptake and storage of inorganics in plants.

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6. Crops which produce less toxic residues such as corn with low phytate, 15
Phytate complexes phosphorus and thus the latter becomes unavailable and
cannot released
by nonruminants. A large amount of phosphate is excreted and contributes to
water
pollution.

7. Production of alternative polymers which can replace o substitute plastics and

other
petrochemical products in plants and thus are renewable and biodegradable.

Risk Related to the Use of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Genetic Contamination/Interbreeding. Introduced GMOs may interbreed with the

wild-type or sexually compatible relatives. The novel trait may disappear in wild
types unless it confers a selective advantage to the recipient. However, tolerance
abilities of wild types may also develop, thus altering the native species’ ecological
relationship and behavior.

Competition with Natural Species. Faster growth of GMOs can enable them to
have a competitive advantage over the native organisms. This may allow them
become invasive, to spread into new habitats, and cause ecological and economic
damage.

Increased Selection Pressure on Target and Non-target Organisms. Pressure

may increase on target and non-target species to adapt to the introduced changes
as if to a geological change or a natural selection pressure causing them to evolve
distinct resistant populations.

Ecosystem Impacts. The effects of changes in a single species may extend well
beyond to the ecosystem. Single impacts are always joined by the risk of
ecosystem damage and destruction.

Impossibility of Follow-up. Once the GMOs have been introduced into the
environment and some problems arise, it is impossible to eliminate them.
Many of these risks are identical to those incurred with regards to the
introduction of naturally or conventionally bred species. But still this does not
suggest that GMOs are safe or beneficial, nor that they should be less scrutinized.
Horizontal Transfer of Recombinant Genes to other Microorganisms. One risk
of particular concern relating to GMOs is the risk of horizontal gene transfer (HGT).
HGT is the acquisition of foreign genes (via transformation, transduction, and
conjugation) by organisms in a variety of environmental situations. It occurs
especially in response to changing environments and provides organisms, especially
prokaryotes, with access to genes other than those that can be inherited. HGT of

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an introduced gene from a GMO may confer a novel trait in another organism,
which could be a source of potential harm to the health of people or the
environment.

Loss of Management Control Measures. Regulatory approvals for field trials of

GMOs often require measures to limit and control the release in space and time.
With the spread of the introduced gene(s) to another species by HGT, a new
GMO is created. This new GMO may give rise to adverse effects which are not
controlled by management measures imposed by the original license or permit.
Long-term Effects. Sometimes the impact of HGT may be more severe in the
long term. Even under relatively strong selection pressure, it may take thousands of
generations for a recipient organism to become the dominant form in the
population. In addition, other factors such as timing of appropriate biotic or
abiotic environmental conditions and additional changes in the recipient organism
could delay adverse effects. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2011/369573/

Antibiotic Resistance and Horizontal Gene Transfer. Most of the first generation
of GM crops have antibiotic resistance gene as selectable marker. It has been
hypothesized that such antibiotic resistance genes could lead to the innovation of
oral doses of the antibiotic, or that these genes could be transferred to pathogenic
microorganism in the gut or the soil which will render them resistant to such
antibiotics.

GMOs and Biodiversity

The impact of GMOs on biodiversity is widely debated. Pro- GMO

researchers maintain that if crops are genetically modified for pest resistance,
farmers can reduce their reliance on insecticides, so that local fauna, such as
birds, rodents, and insects, can flourish in the area. Secondary pests that
would have been eliminated through widespread insecticide application are not
suppressed by the scaled-back insecticide use permitted GMOs. Because these
secondary pests remain, other small predator – the birds and rodents that feed
on the secondary pests-remain viable. In addition, the development of drought--
resistant or flood-resistant crops allows arid or flood-prone land to be used for
growing crops. This means that less high-biodiversity terrain needs to be
converted for farming.

On the other side of the debate, GMO skeptics have argued that up to 75% of
plant genetic diversity has been lost since farmers switched to uniform GM crop
varieties. In this view, less popular, non-GM seed varieties are being neglected.
Moreover, widely used GM crop varieties can spread to neighboring fields and
eventually mix in with non-GM crops. A farmer who wishes to continue using a
non-GM seed variety, or who desires to maintain the organic status of his crops,
must adopt potentially expensive measures to protect his crops from
contamination or cross-pollination with his neighbor’s GM crops. It has also been

97
argued that the over-popularity of certain GM crops may lead to greater
susceptibility to pests and disease. Pests may evolve to target the monoculture
of popular and overused crop varieties. Moreover, it has been argued that
the evolution of glyphosate-resistant weeds has required farmers to make ever
greater use of glyphosate, the toxicity of which poses dangers for human health.

It has been hypothesized that GM crops can harm insect species that are not
pests. Insects that feed on GM crops will carry GM pollen, which may prove
toxic in the long term and result in depletion or even extinction of insect
populations. The genetic integrity of any plant or insect that lives in close
proximity to GM crops can be compromised because gene transfer from one
organism to another can occur, and such genes may pose unanticipated risks.
GM traits have been found transferred to insects, water life and soil.

Chapter 9 The Nano World

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What is Nanotechnology?

Nano is a prefix used in the metric scale to represent one billionth. A nanometer
(nm) is one billionth of a meter. Nano comes from the Greek word for dwarf, so in
combination with technology, it becomes dwarf technology. Technology applies
science and materials for human uses, and nanotechnology applies science and
materials at the nanoscale. People refer to nanotechnology as “tiny tech” or
“nanotech”. It represents the scaling down of technology to a new scale,
generally agreed to be in the range of 1 to 100 nm.

One of the main reasons for the explosion of interest in nanotechnology is the
unique properties and behavior of matter at the nanoscale. When particles are
synthesized at the nanoscale, their properties change. For one thing, nanoparticles
have much more surface area compared to their weight than larger particles. This
single property means that much less material can be used for application, allowing
us to save natural resources, energy and money, provided that it does not cost
more to produce. Using less material in products can offer both economic and
environmental benefits.

Working with matter on such a small scale represents a revolution in technology

because, at this scale, materials reveal uniquely novel physical, chemical, and
biological (including toxicological) properties when compared to their bulk
counterpart. It is akin to discovering a world of new materials emerging out of
existing materials.

Applications of Nanotechnology in All Fields of Science

The early 2000’s saw the beginning of commercial applications of

nanotechnology, although these were limited to bulk applications of
nanomaterial rather than the transformative applications envisioned by the field.
With thousands of researchers across the globe focusing on the applications of
nanomaterials and the mushrooming of many industries, it is now difficult to say
who did what first. The realization by scientists and industrialists of the ability
of the materials to dramatically change their properties as nanoscale has
opened up the possibility of making new devices, instruments and consumer
goods, etc, to function in a much better way than was possible earlier. Rapid
progress in the synthesis and understanding of nanomaterials in just a few years
has led to their entry into the world in a big way. Various fields in which
nanomaterials have already entered or about to enter can be overviewed.

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 Application of Nanotechnology in all fields of Science
Single electron transistor (SET), spin valves and magnetic tunnel junctions (MT)s
are based on nanotechnology. Spin valve-type devices are already being used
in personal computers to “read discs,” which has enabled the increase of data
storage capacity of hard discs.
Electronics
Flat-panel television or computer monitors are products of nanotechnology. Even
the coatings used on screens of TVs or monitors can be made of
nanoparticles, which have better properties in terms of color quality and
resolution than microparticle coatings.

Some metal hydride nanoparticles like nickel hydrides or high surface

area, ultra-lightweight materials like aerogels are found to be better options
than the conventional materials in improved batteries. Carbon nanomaterial
Energy
(CNM) has been used in improving the efficacy of lithium secondary batteries,
supercapacitors and in hydrogen storage.

Efficient production of nanomaterials following the low temperature synthesis

route would help to reduce industrial pollution. Use of nanomaterials as
hydrogen storage or efficient oil filters may reduce pollution from vehicles.
Efficient nanomaterials are lightweight and needed only in small quantities. This
may help reduce the price of many products, making them commonly affordable.
Environment
Some of the nanoparticle-based sensors are much more novel and
sensitive compounds to those being used. Nanomaterials-based sensors
would be smart sensors, i.e., they will be able to detect and rectify problems.
Such sensors are being developed for water purification systems, detection of
toxic ions, metal ions, pesticides, etc., and their remediation on a larger scale.

Nanosensors will help in assessing emissions from the vehicle and help in
controlling pollutants.

Car paints/coatings using nanoparticle are being used to provide smooth, thin
attractive coatings that are scratch resistant, can repel dirt and are anti--
reflective. Biocide paints and anti-fogging coatings are even being developed.

“Self-cleaning” glass for windows is being fabricated by dissolving a small

amount of titania (TiO2) nanoparticles while manufacturing it and melting it
together with other ingredients like silica (SiO2), CaO, Ba2O3, etc. Titania is able
to dissociate organic dust in the presence of UV light available in sunlight.
Automobiles
Once dissociated, it may fall down or simply evaporate.

To combat population caused by vehicles, use of efficient nanomaterial catalysts

is one solution that can convert harmful emissions into less harmful gases.

To overcome the pollution problem, cars using hydrogen as fuel are being
marketed. Hydrogen gas is normally stored in a metal cylinder under high
pressure not only can add weight to the vehicle but is also dangerous. To
overcome this problem, storing hydrogen in “nanocylinders” of carbon nanotubes
is being tried.

Application in combating plant diseases:

Agriculture and Food
• Controlled delivery of functional molecules
Nanoparticles used as Trojan horse for delivery of active ingredients.

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 • As a diagnostic tool for disease detection
For detection purpose, both nanoparticles and quantum dots (QDs) have
emerged as pivotal tools for detection of biological markers.
Nanotechnology can play important role in treatment by diagnosing a
disease at its very early stage.

Application of Nanotechnology in all fields of Science

Semiconductors and magnetic nanostructures have found maximum use in
industries pertaining to semiconductor fabrication, electronics and nanostructure--
based electro-optical devices. Based on the nanomagnetic properties of
nanostructure, photoinduced magnetism, spintronics, nanomagnetic probes,
electronic magneto-transport and micromagnetic modeling are being developed
by various industries. Nanosensors and actuators for various applications are
one of the major activities of nano- based industries. Another area being
concentrated on by industries is molecular electronics, such as for liquid crystal
Industries
displays.

Industries are involved in developing and producing nanomaterials to obtain

nano-bioproducts for bone substitutes and dentistry;; antimicrobial
applications in various products;; food and cosmetic applications;;
applications in textiles, paints, catalysis, lubricants, fuel cells and batteries;; all
of which are part of major industrial production.

Special threads and dyes used in the textile industry are products of
nanotechnology. These clothes do not require ironing or frequent cleaning.
Use of silver (Ag) nanoparticles in washing machines remove the germs
from clothes while washing. Masks made of fabrics coated with nanoparticles
for protection against microbes are already on the market. There are
Textiles
piezoelectric fibers that could allow clothing to generate electricity through
normal conditions. Fabrics composed of proteins are capable of stretching as
much as 1500 percent from their original size and can be used form-fitting
clothing.

Nanoliposomes are used as vesicular delivery systems. Liposomes are

concentric bilayer vesicles. The first liposomal cosmetic was the anti- aging
cream “Capture” manufactured by Dior.

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are nm-sized particles with a solid lipid matrix.
Cosmetics
SLNs are tested in perfume formulations. Chanel’s Allure perfume was
incorporated into SLNs and nanoemulsions.

Dendrimers were used in a formula patented by L’Oreal that forms a thin film
when deposited on a substrate. They are used in mascara and nail polish.

Nanoporous aerogel insulator is excellent for insulating walls.

Flame-retardant furniture coatings are on the market which are synthesized

carbon nanofibers.

Fishing rods are made stronger and lighter using silica nanoparticles to
Domestic Appliances
fill spaces between carbon fibers.

Antimicrobial titanium oxide nanoparticles are used in various applications as

part of a film that uses energy in light to kill bacteria on surfaces by
photocatalytic activity.

Nanomedicine researchers are looking at ways that nanotechnology can

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 improve vaccines, including vaccine delivery without the use of needles.
Researchers also are working to create a universal vaccine scaffold for the
Diagnostics and
annual flu vaccine that would cover more strains and require fewer resources to
Therapeutics
develop each year.

Commercial applications have adapted gold nanoparticles as probes for the

detection of targeted sequences of nucleic acids, and gold nanoparticles
are being clinically investigated as potential treatments for cancer and other
diseases.

Nanotechnology is being studied for both the diagnosis and treatment of

atherosclerosis. In one technique, researchers created a nanoparticle that mimics
the body’s “good” cholesterol, known as HDL (high-density lipoprotein),
which helps to shrink plaque.

Source: Sharon, 2019

Environmental Aspects of Nanotechnology

Many applications of nanotechnology benefits the environment, for example,

treating drinking water, eliminating toxic chemicals, increasing water and
energy efficiency, and harnessing cleaner energy technologies. How can the
applications of nanoscience affect the environment? It is not clear today what
the potential impacts are from nanoscale materials in the air, water and soil. For
example, it is not known to what extent nanomaterials might enter the food
supply and become part of human diet, or whether and how they can affect
forests, coral reefs, or air quality

Will there be a nano-environmental legacy? Are nanomaterials already entering

the environment in ways that will allow them to persist and enter or upset the
food chain? Will nanomaterials follow the path of other legacy pollutants, such as
lead? How will this be determined if data are not being collected? One could
argue that the amounts will be small, and in the near future, it is true that there
are few applications of nanotechnology likely to allow free nanoparticles to
enter the environment in significant amounts. However, as more and more
applications adopt nanotechnology, the production, uses, and releases of
nanoparticles will dramatically increase.

By way of example, in a hospital environment, it is very important to keep

surfaces sanitary and free from contamination, and many cleaning equipment or
washing floors and surfaces to help prevent the spread of germs. Using a
product containing a nanomaterial as a disinfectant might mean it would be
sprayed, wiped, poured into buckets and on floors, and washed down drains.
An obvious question arises: Where could the nanomaterial end up? Anytime,
chemicals are washed away with water or flushed down the drain, they are
released into the environment. From drain pipes, the materials enter the
groundwater and eventually can move to the nearest river and streams, of
course, these may affect drinking water sources and oceans.

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 Triclosan, commonly found in antimicrobial soaps and cleaning products, is
among many consumer-used chemicals found in the river and drinking water
sources. Some population of bacteria routinely exposed to substances designed
to eradicate them (e.g. pesticides and medical antibiotics) are now found in the
environment and have become resistant to antibiotics used in agriculture and
to treat human diseases. Antimicrobial resistance is a big problem because
bacteria are no longer susceptible to the treatments developed to kill them, and
outbreaks can occur that cannot be managed. Nanotechnology in the Philippines

In 2011, the government announced a 10-year strategic plan/road map for

the development of the R&D strategy of nanotechnology covering at least
six industrial sectors – the semiconductor, information technology, energy,
agriculture, medicine, and environmental protection. Nanotechnology has been
identified as one of the priority areas of research identified by the Department of
Science and Technology-Philippine Council for Advanced Science and Technology
Research and Development (DOST-PCASTRD). PCASTRD’s mandate is to
develop, integrate, and coordinate national research. Flagship projects include
chemical sensors and biosensors based on nanostructured solar energy devices.
PCASTRD also provides funds for scholarships and research fellowships.
PCASTRD has also proposed to include nanotechnology as part of all
science and engineering degrees.

In the area of agriculture, funded nano projects include rapid and early pest
and pathogen detection;; precision agriculture – monitoring of agricultural growth
parameters;; and post-harvest quality monitoring, nano-sized feedstock, nano--
sized fertilizers/nutrients, and pesticides. Research into nanocomposite films and
membranes aims to extend the shelf-life of fresh and processed produce, aid the
clarification of juices, and improve whey protein production. Projects
concerning nanotechnology for water purification and environmental remediation
are also being funded. Seedgrowth, a plant supplement consisting of nano-sized
fruit extracts and microorganisms, was developed in the Philippines and
apparently reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and increases crop yield.
Scientists from DOST have also developed a low-cost water purification
system in the form of a ceramic filter coated with silver nanoparticles. There
appears to be no nano specific regulation in the Philippines.

Risks

Historical evidence supported by scientific findings show that all new

technologies come with risks to human health and the environment, and
nanotechnology is no exception. The increasing number of engineered
nanomaterials and nanoproducts gives rise to increasing breadth and extent of the
potential risks posed to human health and the environment. For example,
engineered nanomaterials are of similar size range as exhaustion particles from
engines combustion, and certain carbon nanotubes are in many ways similar to

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asbestos fibers, substances that are known to cause adverse effects to human
health, namely, cancer and asbestosis.

Genetics/Medicine/Healthcare

Artifacts based on nanotechnology incorporate genetic material or have genetic

modification or repair as an objective.

If the artifact incorporates some kind of computing and sensing element,

say for the controlled delivery of a drug, additional risks arise for the
patient if these elements should malfunction.

Invasion of privacy and of the human body through the planting and implanting of
computing-cum-communication devices without the knowledge of those affected
has been done.

The security and safety of a person is a problematic issue, since it will be difficult
initially to detect the presence of nanosize artifacts that are capable of breaching
security and harming the individual. In warfare, controlled distribution of biological
and nerve agents may become feasible.

Materials/Composites

The general problem with composite materials is that they are more difficult
to
recycle and consume more energy during recycling than pure materials.

Wide-scale introduction of composite materials can increase environmental

problems.

In the manufacturing area, many processes will need to be redesigned to

embody new principles, particularly relating to containment of active or waste
products.

Nanotechnology and Education

Education and training in nanotechnology require special laboratory facilities

that can be quite expensive. The cost of creating and maintaining nanotechnology
facilities is a major challenge for educational institutions. But by using innovative
approaches such as inter-university collaboration, academia-industry partnerships,
and Web-based remote access to nanofabrication facilities, educational institutions
can overcome innovative nanotechnology researches.

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 To address these demands of the global marketplace, a skilled
workforce is required that can move from industry to industry without retraining.
The new workforce will consist of researchers, technicians, and educators. To
develop this workforce, new interdisciplinary educational programs need to be
developed and revised.

Economic and political implications of potential technology

These issues include the economic value of a new materials and new
industries created through nanotechnology, as well as economic dislocations caused
by shifts in investment and the decline of industries and companies tied to
displaced technologies. Other implications might include increased lifespans made
possible through nano-based medicines or diagnostic techniques, leading to greater
numbers of active senior citizens seeking employment and active participation in the
political process.

Nanotechnology and Employment

The question of impacts on employment has not yet entered into the
research agenda on the social implications of nanotechnology. Even though there
are currently relatively few products, industries, and workers involved in
nanotechnology compared to other industries, it appears clear that this technology
is high tech and highly sophisticated, which deepens the trend to reducing
workforces and automating the processes of production and services – a
trend which began with the microelectric revolution and resulted in a dramatic
reduction of employment in many sectors of the economy.

Nanotechnology products that are already on the market allow us to identify

three common characteristics: the products have multiple functions that
previously required more than one product (multifunctional), the products remain
useful longer, and the products use fewer raw materials. Some products
combine two or three of these characteristics. Taken together, this means that
manufacturing these products will lead to decreased demand for workers. In
addition, these innovations reduce the demand for traditional products that compete
them.

Social, Ethical, Legal and Cultural Implications

The list of social, ethical, legal and cultural implications includes such issues
as privacy, avoiding a ‘nano-divide’, unintended consequences,
university/industry relationships and potential conflicts of interest, research ethics,
and so on. It is widely acknowledged that, precisely because the applications of
nanotechnology are not yet clear, neither are the ethical issues clear. And yet,
many argue, the nano community must begin to address these issues now, before
they overwhelm nanotechnology and derail potential benefits.

105
Chapter 10. Gene Therapy

The genes in the body’s cells play an important role in your health –
indeed, a defective gene or genes can make someone sick. Recognizing this,
scientists have been working for decades on ways to modify genes or replace
faulty genes with healthy one to treat, cure or prevent a disease or medical
condition.

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is
composed of trillions of them. Within our cells there are thousands of genes
that provide the information for the production of specific proteins and
enzymes that make muscles, bones, and blood, which in turn support most of
our body’s functions, such as digestion, making energy and growing.

Sometimes the whole or part of a gene is defective or missing from birth, or

a gene can change or mutate during adult life. Any of these variations can disrupt
how proteins are made, which can contribute to health problems or diseases.

In gene therapy, scientist can do one of several things depending on the

problem that is present. They can replace a gene that causes a medical problem
with one that doesn’t, add genes to help the body to fight or treat disease, or turn
off genes that are causing problems. In order to insert new genes directly into
cells, scientists use a vehicle called a “vector” which is genetically engineered to
deliver the gene. Viruses, for example, have a natural ability to deliver genetic
material into cells, and therefore, can be used as vectors. Before a virus can be
used to carry therapeutic genes into human cells, however, is modified to remove
its ability to cause an infectious disease. Gene therapy can be used to modify
cells inside or outside the body. When it’s done inside the body, a doctor will

106
inject the vector carrying the gene directly into the part of the body that has
defective cells.

In gene therapy that is used to modify cells outside the body, blood, bone
marrow, or another tissue can be taken from the patient, and specific
types of cells can be separated out in the lab. The vector containing the
desired gene is introduced into these cells. The cells are left to multiply in the
laboratory and then injected back into the patient where they continue to multiply
and eventually produce the desired effect.

Approaches to Gene Therapy

1. Gene Modification
Researchers have used the following methods to modify defective genes:

• Replacement treatment: Replacing a natural gene with a non-natural gene

through homologous recombination.
• Modifier gene therapy: Restoring natural function to a defective gene
through selective reverse mutation.
• Adjustment of the expression of a specific gene.

2. Gene transfer method

There are 3 physical, chemical, and biological methods of gene transfer.

3. Gene transfer to specific cell line

This line is divided into 2 general categories of somatic gene therapy, and sex
cell gene therapy.

4. The adoption of the most appropriate genetic engineering (gene injection)

Other forms of genetic engineering include gene targeting and the elimination
of
specific genes through nuclease engineering.

Stem Cell Therapy

A stem cell therapy is any treatment that uses stem cells as the primary way of
curing or reducing the severity of a disease or disorder. There are two main ways
stem cells can be used:

1. as a transplant, where the desired stem cells are harvested either from the
patient or a donor and refined or modified in some way before being injected or
grafted into the patient, or

107
2. as a target for a drug or other biologic where the drug or biologic is
intended to activate a desired response from the stem cells that already exist in
the patient’s tissues or organs.

Ethical Dilemma

The possibility of destructive embryo research, particularly embryonic stem cell

research, presents us with a moral problem because it appears to bring
into tension two fundamental moral principles that people esteem very highly:
one principle enjoins the prevention or alleviation of suffering, and other enjoins
us to respect the value of human life. The harvesting and culturing of embryonic
stem cells has considerable potential to bring about remarkable potential
benefits in the way of alleviating debilitating medical conditions. It satisfies
the first principle to a very great degree.

On the other hand, there is a case to be made that the harvesting of

human embryonic stem cells violates the second principle in that it results in the
destruction of human life with value (i.e. human embryos). Accordingly, both
principles apparently cannot simultaneously be respected in the case of
embryonic stem cell research. The question then is which principle ought to be
given precedence in this conflict situation. If weight is given more to the first
and permit destructive embryonic stem cell research because of its remarkable
benefits? Or should be given more to the second and prohibit destructive
embryonic research because it violates respect for the value of the embryo as
the very beginnings of a possible human life? This, at bottom, is the
ethical problem generated by destructive embryo research.

Chapter 11
Climate Change, Energy Crisis and Environmental Awareness

What is climate change and what are the causes?

Climate change is a broad range of global phenomena created predominantly

by burning fossil fuels, which add heat-trapping gases to Earth’s atmosphere.
These phenomena include the increased temperature trends described by global
warming, but also encompass changes such as sea level rise;; ice mass
loss;; shifts in flower/plant blooming;; and extreme weather events.

Causes

108
 On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the
last century the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the
concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This happens because the coal
or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make CO 2. To a
lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human
activities has increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

o Greenhouse gas emissions

Evidence that CO2 emissions are the cause of global warming is very
robust. Scientists have known since the early 1800s that greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere trap heat. Global CO 2 emissions from human
activity have increased by over 400% since 1960. As a result, the
concentration of CO2 in the air has reached more than 400 parts per
million by volume (ppm), compared to about 280 ppm in 1750 (around the
start of the Industrial Revolution).

o Earth’s natural climate cycle

Over the last 800,000 years, there have been natural cycles in the Earth’s
climate, between ice ages and warmer interglacial periods. After the last ice
age 20,000 years ago, average global temperature rose by about 3°C to
8°C, over a period of about 10, 000 years.

o Solar influences
The sun is the primary source of Earth’s heat, so relatively small changes in
solar output can affect our climate. Satellite observations since the late
1970s have shown a slight decrease in the sun’s total energy output.
However, instead of cooling, the Earth has warmed over this period.

Also, warming from the sun would heat all of the atmosphere, including the
lowest few kilometers (the troposphere) and the layer above (the
stratosphere). Observations show that the stratosphere is in fact cooling while
the troposphere warms. This is consistent with greenhouse gas heating and
not solar heating. Impacts

Climate change could affect our society through impacts on a number of

different social, cultural, and natural resources. Some groups of people will
likely face greater challenges than others. Climate change my especially impact
people who live in areas that are vulnerable to coastal storms, drought, and sea
level rise or people who live in poverty, older adults, and immigrant communities.
Similarly, some types of professions and industries may face considerable
challenges from climate change. Professions that are closely linked to weather,
such as outdoor tourism, commerce, and agriculture, will likely be especially
affected.

109
Impacts on Vulnerability and Equity

1. Geographic Location
• Population in coastal areas are more sensitive to storms, drought, air
pollution and heat waves.
• Population in mountainous areas will likely face water shortages and
increased wildfires in the future.
• Arctic residents will likely experience problems caused by thawing permafrost

2. Ability to cope
• People who live in poverty may have a difficult time coping with changes.
These people have limited financial resources to cope with heat, relocate or
evacuate, or respond to increases in the cost of food.
• Older adults may be among the least able to cope with impacts of climate
change. • Elderly people are particularly prone to heat stress.
• Young children are another sensitive age group, since their immune system
and other bodily systems are still developing and they rely on others to care
for them in disaster situations.

3. Indigenous people
• Climate change will make it harder for tribes to access safe and nutritious
food, including traditional foods important to many tribes’ cultural practices.
Many tribes already lack access to safe drinking water and
wastewater treatment in their communities. Climate change is expected to
increase health risks associated with water quality problems like
contamination and may reduce availability of water, particularly during
droughts. By affecting the environment and natural resources of tribal
communities, climate change also threatens the cultural identities of
indigenous people. As plants and animals used in traditional practices or
sacred ceremonies become less available, tribal culture and ways of life
can be greatly affected.

4. Urban People
• City residents and urban infrastructure have distinct sensitivities to climate
change impacts. For example, heat waves may be amplified in cities
because cities absorb more heat during the day than suburban and rural
areas. Cities are more densely populated than suburban or rural areas.
As a result, increases in heat waves, drought, or violent storms in
cities would affect a larger number of people than in suburban or rural
areas. Higher temperatures and more extreme events will likely affect the
cost of energy, air and water quality, and human comfort and health in
cities. City dwellers may also be particularly susceptible to vulnerabilities in
aging infrastructure. This includes drainage and sewer systems, flood
and storm protection assets, transportation systems, and power supply

110
 during periods of peak demand, which typically occur during summer heat
waves.

5. Impacts on Economic Activities and Services

• Communities that developed around the production of different agricultural
crops, such as corn, wheat or cotton, depend on the climate to support
their way of life. Climate change will likely cause the ideal climate for
these crops to shift. Certain agricultural products may decline dramatically.
These crops would then have to be imported.

• Climate change will also likely affect tourism and recreational activities. A
warming climate and changes in precipitation patterns will likely decrease
the number of days when recreational snow activities such as skiing and
snowmobiling can take place. Increasing number of wildfires could affect
hiking and recreation in parks. Beaches could suffer erosion due to sea
level rise and storm surge. Changes in migration patterns of fish and
animals would affect fishing and hunting. Communities that support
themselves through these recreational activities would feel economic
impacts as tourism patterns begin to
change.(https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-
society)

In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCC) was adopted as the basis for a global response to the problem. The
Philippines signed the UNFCCC on 12 June 1992 and ratified the international
treaty on 2 August 1994. Presently, the Convention enjoys near universal
membership with 194 Country Parties.

Recognizing that the climate system is a shared resource which is greatly

affected by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, the UNFCC has set out
an overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to consider what can be done to
reduce global warming and to cope with whatever temperature increases are
inevitable. Its ultimate objective is to stabilize greenhouse concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human interference with the
climate system.

Countries are actively discussing and negotiating ways to deal with the
climate change problem within the UNFCCC using two central approaches. The first
task is to address the root cause by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from
human activity. The means to achieve this are very contentious, as it will require
radical changes in the way many societies are organized, especially in respect to
fossil fuel use, industry operations, land use, and development. Within the
climate change arena, the reduction of greenhouse gas is called mitigation.

111
 The second task in responding to climate change is to manage its impacts.
Future impacts on the environment and society are now inevitable, owing to
the amount of greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere from past decades
of industrial and other human activities, and to the added amounts from
continued emissions over the next few decades until such time as mitigation
policies and actions become effective. Taking steps to cope with the changed
climate conditions both in terms of reducing adverse impacts and taking
advantage of potential benefits is called adaptation.

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