3 experiments performed to disapprove the theory of spontaneous generation

Italian physician and poet, Francesco Redi (1668)- Redi’s experiment

1. Hypothesis: Maggots arose from tiny, non-visible eggs laid on meat

2. Procedures:
Put pieces of meat in several jars, leaving half open to the air
Cover the other half with thin gauze to prevent entrance of flies

3. Results:
After a few days, meat in all jars spoiled and maggots were found only on the meat in the uncovered
jars
One of the first documented experiments to use a control!

Spallanzani's Experiment (1768)

Hypothesis: Spallanzani hypothesized that if microorganisms were not spontaneously generated but
instead entered from the air, then sealing the flask after boiling would prevent microbial growth.

Procedure: He boiled broth in flasks, sealed one immediately after boiling and left the other open to
the air.

Result: The sealed flask remained free of microbial growth, while the open flask developed microbial
colonies. This indicated that microbial growth required the entry of microorganisms from the air and
did not occur spontaneously.

French scientist, Louis Pasteur (1859)

The French Academy of Sciences held a contest for the best experiment either proving or disproving
spontaneous generation

1. Hypothesis: Microorganisms do not arise from meat broth

2. Procedures:
a) Place meat broth in a flask with a long, curved neck. (This permitted air to enter, but trapped dust
and other airborne particles)
b) Boil the flask thoroughly to kill any microorganisms
c) Do NOT seal the open end of the flask
d) Wait an entire year before gathering results

3. Results:
a) After a year, no microorganisms could be found in the broth!
b) Pasteur then removed the curved neck, permitting dust and other particles to I enter. In just one
day, the flask contained microorganisms!
c) Microorganisms had clearly entered the flask with the dust particles from the air
Darwinism VS Lamarckism

Darwinism Lamarckism
This theory discredits the Internal Vital Force theory. Lamarckism strongly builds on the notion of Internal
Vital Force in organisms.
Development or disappearance of an organ happens From an evolutionary perspective, organs develop if
due to continuous variations. they are constantly used. If unused, it could
disappear.

Darwinism emphasises the struggle for existence. Lamarckism discredits the struggle for existence.

Only useful variations are transferred to the succeeding All acquired traits are transferred to the next
generation. generation.
Darwinism was built on the principle of survival of the Lamarckism was not built on the notion of survival of
fittest. the fittest.

Gene pool and Genetic drift

The gene pool is the total collection of alleles present in a population at a particular time. It
encompasses all the genetic information carried by individuals within the population, including
variations in DNA sequences that determine traits and characteristics. The composition of the gene
pool reflects the genetic diversity of the population and plays a crucial role in shaping its evolutionary
potential.
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that describes the random fluctuations in allele frequencies
within a population over time. Unlike natural selection, which results from differential reproductive
success due to heritable traits, genetic drift arises from chance events that affect the survival and
reproduction of individuals. These chance events can include random variations in birth rates, death
rates, or the distribution of alleles in mating pairs.
One of the key concepts in genetic drift is the founder effect, which occurs when a small group of
individuals colonizes a new or isolated habitat. The genetic makeup of the founding population may
differ from the original population due to the chance selection of alleles carried by the founding
individuals. As a result, the allele frequencies in the new population may be significantly different from
those in the source population, leading to genetic divergence over time.
Another important aspect of genetic drift is the bottleneck effect, which occurs when a population
undergoes a drastic reduction in size due to a catastrophic event such as a natural disaster or human
intervention. The surviving individuals may carry a subset of the original gene pool, leading to a loss
of genetic diversity. Subsequent generations may then experience increased levels of inbreeding and
genetic homogeneity, further reducing the population's ability to adapt to changing environmental
conditions.
Genetic drift is particularly influential in small or isolated populations where chance events can have a
disproportionate impact on allele frequencies. Over time, genetic drift can lead to the fixation of
certain alleles or the loss of others, resulting in evolutionary change within the population. However,
the effects of genetic drift are generally weaker in large populations, where random fluctuations in
allele frequencies are less pronounced.
Theory of Origin of Life
1. Early Theory
Theory of Special Creations: Creation by supernatural entity – based on religious belief.
OBJECTIONS TO THE THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION:
• It was purely based on religious belief.
• There were no experimental evidences to support the assumptions.
• The age of different fossils proves that living organism appear on earth in different time frame.
2. Theory of spontaneous generation
Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis)- The hypothesis that life arises regularly from non-living thing.
3. THEORY OF CATASTROPHISM:
This is the extension of the theory of special creation. This theory assumes that life is originated by the
creation and it is followed by catastrophe due to geographical disturbances. Each catastrophe
destroyed the life completely whereas each creation forms life different from the previous one. Hence,
each round of catastrophe/creation is responsible for evolvement of different types of organisms on
earth.
4. THEORY OF COSMOZOIC:
This theory was put forward by Richter and strongly supported by Arrhenius. The theory assumes that
life was present in the form of resistant spores and appeared on earth from another planet. Since the
condition of earth was supporting the life, these spores grew and evolved into different organisms.
This theory was also known as “theory of panspermia or spore theory”
OBJECTION: No scientific experiment was given to support the theory.
5. THEORY OF ETERNITY OF LIFE:
This theory assumes that life had no beginning or end. It believes that life has ever been in existence
and it will continue to be so ever. It further believes that there is no question of origin of life as it has
no beginning or end. The theory is also known as steady state theory.
OBJECTION: evidences support that initially earth forms and then life appeared on it. Where did life
exist before the formation of earth?
6. Chemical Theory
Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living
organic molecules (e.g., RNA, protein etc.) and that formation of life was preceded by chemical
evolution, i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents. He assumed that
apx. 1 billion years ago earth is very different from the current conditions. Primitive earth’s atmosphere
was reducing in nature. Under these conditions, the chemical molecules (inorganic molecules) react
with each other through a series of reactions to form organic substances and other complex
biomolecules.

Biological Evidence of Evolution:

Comparative Anatomy:
Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different organisms that have a common evolutionary
origin but may serve different functions. For example, the forelimbs of vertebrates like humans, bats,
whales, and birds.
Vestigial Organs: Structures that have lost their original function in the course of evolution. Examples
include the human appendix, vestigial hind limbs in whales, and wings in flightless birds.
Analogous Structures: Structures that serve similar functions in different organisms but have different
evolutionary origins. For instance, the wings of bats and birds, which evolved independently but serve
the same function.

Embryology:
Similarities in embryonic development among different species provide evidence for common
ancestry. For example, all vertebrate embryos possess pharyngeal pouches and tails during early
development, reflecting their shared evolutionary history.
Palaeontology Fossils:
Fossil records provide direct evidence of evolutionary change over time. Transitional fossils like
Archaeopteryx, with characteristics of both birds and reptiles, offer insight into evolutionary
transitions between major groups of organisms.

Biogeography:
The distribution of species across different geographic regions supports the concept of evolution.
Patterns of species distribution can be explained by continental drift, migration, and isolation, leading
to the diversification of species.

Molecular Biology:
DNA and protein sequences can be compared among different species, revealing similarities that
reflect their evolutionary relationships. Molecular phylogenetics uses molecular data to reconstruct
evolutionary history and infer relationships among organisms. Comparisons of DNA sequences have
provided strong evidence for the relatedness of all life forms and their evolutionary history.

Biological Theory of Evolution:

Lamarck's Theory of Evolution:

Proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in the early 19th century.
Suggested the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, where traits acquired during an
organism's lifetime could be passed on to offspring.
Lamarck believed that organisms evolved through a process of use and disuse of organs. Traits that
were used extensively would become more developed, while those that were unused would
deteriorate over time.
According to Lamarck, these acquired traits could be passed on to offspring, leading to evolutionary
change over successive generations.
However, Lamarck's theory lacked a mechanism for inheritance and did not account for the role of
genetic variation in evolution.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution:

Proposed by Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century, based on his observations during his voyage on
the HMS Beagle.
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection suggests that organisms with traits advantageous for
survival and reproduction in a given environment are more likely to survive and pass on their genes to
offspring.
Variation exists within populations, and some of this variation is heritable.
Overproduction of offspring leads to competition for limited resources, resulting in differential survival
and reproduction (natural selection).
This process leads to the gradual accumulation of advantageous traits in a population over time,
driving evolutionary change.
Darwin's theory provided a mechanism for evolution based on observable natural processes and laid
the foundation for modern evolutionary biology.
 Allopatric Speciation Sympatric Speciation
Allopatric speciation is the isolation of aSympatric speciation is the evolution of new
biological population by an external barrier,
species from a single ancestral species while
evolving an intrinsic reproductive isolation.
living in the same habitat.
Takes place through geographical isolation.Does not take place through geographic
isolation.
Major differentiation mechanism is natural Major differentiation mechanism is polyploidy.
selection.
Speed of emergence of new species is slow. Speed of emergence of new species is fast.
Common in nature. Common in plants.

Theory of Evolution
Spontaneous Generation
For a long time people believed that living beings -at least the simplest forms of life - were originated
from non-living matter, normally decaying matter. This is called SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.
Although wrong, this theory was supported by many everyday observations: small insects seemed to
emerge from rotten meat, rats from dumps, worms from mud, etc.

Panspermia
Panspermia is a theory that supports the idea that life originated from microbes present in outer space.
This theory is based on the hypothesis that microbes and amino acids came on earth through meteors.
The evidence to this theory is the capability of microbes to live and survive in harsh space-like
conditions.

Biochemical Explanation
Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living
organic molecules (e.g., RNA, protein etc.) and that formation of life was preceded by chemical
evolution, i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents. He assumed that
apx. 1 billion years ago earth is very different from the current conditions. Primitive earth’s atmosphere
was reducing in nature. Under these conditions, the chemical molecules (inorganic molecules) react
with each other through a series of reactions to form organic substances and other complex
biomolecules.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

The evolution through natural selection is proved by Charles Darwin’s theory. His theory states that
adaptive organisms are more likely to be able to survive a changing environment. These organisms will
also have higher chances of reaching the age of maturity, reproducing and passing on more evolved
genes.

Natural Selection

Natural selection is a fundamental mechanism of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin, which

describes how species evolve and adapt to their environment over time. It operates on the principle
that individuals within a population exhibit variation in traits, and those with traits better suited to
their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous traits to
future generations.

Types of natural selection include:

Stabilizing Selection:
This occurs when individuals with intermediate traits are favoured, while those with extreme traits are
selected against. It leads to a reduction in genetic diversity within a population.
Example: The birth weight of human babies. Babies born with very low or very high birth weights are
at higher risk of mortality, while those with average birth weights have a higher chance of survival.

Directional Selection:
In this type, individuals with one extreme of a trait are favoured over the other extreme. This causes
the frequency of the favoured trait to shift in one direction over time.
Example: Peppered moths during the Industrial Revolution. Dark-coloured moths became more
prevalent as industrial pollution darkened tree trunks, making them less visible to predators, while
light-coloured moths became more vulnerable.

Disruptive Selection:

Disruptive selection favours individuals at both extremes of a trait, while those with intermediate traits
are selected against. This can lead to the evolution of two distinct phenotypes within a population.
Example: Beak size in Darwin's finches. On an island with both small and large seeds, birds with
intermediate-sized beaks struggle to crack either type of seed, while those with small or large beaks
have a selective advantage, leading to the development of two distinct beak sizes.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

The Hardy-Weinberg principle, formulated independently by G.H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg in
1908, elucidates the genetic equilibrium within populations. This principle establishes a theoretical
framework for understanding how allele and genotype frequencies remain constant over generations
in an idealized non-evolving population.
According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, several conditions must be met for a population to
maintain genetic equilibrium: random mating, no natural selection, no genetic drift, no gene flow, and
a large population size. When these conditions are fulfilled, allele frequencies stabilize, and the
distribution of genotypes in the population remains constant from one generation to the next.
The principle is mathematically described by the Hardy-Weinberg equation: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1, where
p and q represent the frequencies of two alleles for a particular gene locus, and p^2, 2pq, and q^2
represent the frequencies of the three possible genotypes in a diploid population. Here, p^2
represents the frequency of homozygous dominant individuals, 2pq represents the frequency of
heterozygous individuals, and q^2 represents the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals.
Together, these genotype frequencies sum to 1, representing the entire gene pool of the population.
Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium indicate the presence of evolutionary forces such as
selection, mutation, migration, or genetic drift. By comparing observed genotype frequencies to those
expected under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, researchers can infer the relative influence of these
evolutionary mechanisms on a population.

Adaptive Radiation

Adaptive radiation is a phenomenon in evolutionary biology where a single ancestral species rapidly
diversifies into a multitude of descendant species, each adapted to exploit specific ecological niches.
It occurs when a population encounters new environmental opportunities, such as the colonization of
a new habitat or the extinction of competitors, leading to the evolution of diverse forms within a
relatively short period.
During adaptive radiation, populations undergo significant genetic and phenotypic changes, resulting
in the emergence of species with distinct morphological, physiological, and behavioural traits. These
adaptations enable the newly formed species to effectively exploit various resources and ecological
conditions, leading to their successful establishment and proliferation.
One classic example of adaptive radiation is the case of Darwin's finches in the Galápagos Islands.
These finches, believed to have descended from a common ancestor that colonized the islands,
diversified into multiple species with specialized beak shapes and sizes. Each species evolved to exploit
specific food sources and ecological niches present on different islands. For instance, finches with
smaller, more slender beaks primarily feed on insects, while those with larger, more robust beaks are
adapted to cracking seeds. This adaptive diversity allowed the finches to coexist and thrive in various
island habitats, reducing competition and maximizing resource utilization.

Mechanism of Evolution:

Natural Selection: It operates on the principle that individuals within a population exhibit variation in
traits, and those with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce,
passing on their advantageous traits to future generations.

Genetic Variation: Within a population, individuals exhibit differences in their genetic makeup due to
mutations, genetic recombination during sexual reproduction, and gene flow (migration of individuals
between populations). This variation provides the raw material upon which natural selection acts.

Mutation: Random changes in the DNA sequence can lead to new alleles, which can result in novel
traits. Mutations introduce genetic variation into populations and can lead to adaptation if the
mutation confers a selective advantage.

Gene Flow: Movement of individuals or their gametes between populations can introduce new alleles
into a population or change allele frequencies, impacting the genetic diversity of populations.

Genetic Drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies due to chance events, particularly in small
populations. Genetic drift is more pronounced in small populations and can lead to the loss of genetic
variation over time.

Non-random Mating: Certain mating preferences or behaviours can lead to non-random mating,
affecting the distribution of alleles in a population. Examples include sexual selection and assortative
mating.

Adaptive Radiation: Occurs when a single ancestral species evolves into a wide array of species to
exploit diverse ecological niches. This often happens when organisms colonize new environments with
different selective pressures.

Artificial Selection: Human-driven selection of desirable traits in domesticated plants and animals,
leading to rapid evolutionary changes over relatively short periods.

Pollen:

Structure:
Most pollen grains consist of three distinct parts.
• The central cytoplasmic part is the source of nuclei responsible for fertilization.
• The other parts include the wall of the grain- intine, the inner layer and an outer layer, the exine.
• The intine consists of cellulose or hemi cellulose or pectin.
• The outer and most resistant layer, the exine, as it is made up of sporopollenin. It is an N-free
polymeric substance belonging to terpenes family of organic compounds (C5H8).
• At cellular level a pollen grain contains 2 cells- one generative cell and one vegetative cell. The
vegetative cell gives rise to pollen tube during fertilization whereas the generative cell actually bears
the male gamete.
• In wheat pollen grains are shed at the 3-celled stage i.e., containing one vegetative cell and two
male gametes because the generative cell in the pollen grains of wheat divide mitotically to give rise
to two male gametes.

Determination of species using pollen:

1. Pollen size: different plant family has pollen of different diameters. Mimosoideae family (30-50 μm),
Cucurbitaceae family (100-200 μm) and Malvaceae family (150-200μm).
2. Pollen shape: Spheroidal or ball shaped (Cucurbitaceae, Rubiaceae), Oblate (Euphorbiaceae),
Prolate (Rhizophoraceae or mangrove).
3. Pollen Aperture: Monocolpate (Asteraceae), Tricolpate (Acanthaceae, Cucurbitaceae) and
Polycolpate (Amaranthaceae)
4. Pollen Nucleus number: Pollen grains contain high energy storage reserves in the form of Starch
(Poaceae) or Fats (Sonneratiaceae).
5. Pollen sculpturing: the arrangement of the exine can be different. Spine shaped or Echinate
(Asteraceae), Reticulate, Reguate (Acanthaceae) and Psilate.

Characteristics of Diatoms:

• Diatoms belong to the kingdom Protista. The members of the phylum bacillariophyte are known as
diatoms. Diatoms usually have a cell wall divided into two parts and hence the name given.
• Diatoms are unicellular, eukaryotic organisms and are found in both freshwater and marine water.
• Diatoms have silica in their cell wall. Their cell wall is called a shell or frustule. Apart from silica it is
also made up of cellulose.
• There are pigments like chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, and xanthophyll present in the cell. This
xanthophyll is also known as fucoxanthin. Due to these pigments’ diatoms appear golden in colour.
• Types of Diatoms

• Pennate Diatoms. These types of diatoms are elongated in shape. These diatoms can be divided
bilaterally. They are motile in nature and move by gliding movement. E.g. Achnanthidium sp.

• Centric Diatoms. These types of diatoms are round-circular in shape. They possess radial symmetry.
These forms of diatoms are non-motile in nature. E.g. Cyclotella sp.

Significance of Diatoms in the field of forensics.

Study of aquatic ecology is called limnology and Forensic limnology deals mainly with diatoms.
• Geographic location of the crime scene.
• To detect death due to drowning.
• To differentiate between wet and dry drowning.

LOCATION AND FUNCTION OF DIFFERENT TISSUES AND TISSUE SYSTEM

Plant tissue comprises of Meristematic Tissue and Permanent Tissue. Permanent Tissue comprises of
Simple Permanent Tissue and Complex Permanent Tissue and Meristematic tissue comprises of Apical
Meristem, Intercalary Meristem and Lateral Meristem.

Simple Permanent Tissue:

Parenchyma: These living cells have a large central vacuole and intercellular spaces. Chloroplast-
containing parenchyma is termed chlorenchyma, aiding in photosynthesis. Aerenchyma, with large air
voids, aids in buoyancy.

Collenchyma: Stretchable living cells with cellulose and pectin cell walls. Found in leaf margins and
stems, providing flexibility and support.

Sclerenchyma: Long, dead cells with lignin deposits. Found in seed coverings and vascular tissues,
providing strength.

Complex Permanent Tissue:

Xylem: Conducts water and minerals throughout the plant, consisting of vessels, fibres, tracheids, and
parenchyma.

Phloem: Conducts food in both directions, comprising fibres, sieve tubes, parenchyma, and companion
cells.

Xylem:

Vessels: Hollow tubes for water conduction.

Fibres and tracheid: Lignin-reinforced for structural support.

Parenchyma: Stores food and aids in water conduction.

Phloem:

Fibres: Dead cells providing mechanical strength.

Sieve tubes: Tube-like structures with sieve plates for food transport.

Parenchyma: Stores food and other substances.

Companion cells: Maintain pressure gradient for sugar transport.

Meristematic tissue:

These tissues have the capability to develop by rapid division. They assist in the major growth of the
vegetation. Growth in length and growth in diameter of the plant is carried about by these cells. The
Meristematic cells are cubical, living cells with a big nucleus. These cells are tightly packed with no
intercellular spaces. They can be further classified as:

• Apical meristem is existent at the growing tips or apical of stems and roots. Apical meristem
increases the length of the plant.

• Lateral meristem is existent in the radial portion of the stem or root. Lateral meristem increases the
thickness of the plant.
• Intercalary meristem is found at the internodes or at the base of the leaves. Intercalary meristem
increases the size of the internode.

Transport of water and minerals in plants

Absorption in Roots:

Water and minerals are absorbed by the root system.

Initially, water crosses the root epidermis.
It moves toward the centre of the root.
Ascent of Sap:

Absorbed water and minerals move upward through the xylem tissue.
This process is known as the ascent of sap.
Transpiration:

Water is released from aerial parts, especially leaves, as water vapor.

Transpiration aids in maintaining water balance and cooling the plant.

Facilitation of Absorption:

Absorption in roots is facilitated by diffusion and bulk flow.

Water molecules pass through the plasma membrane via simple diffusion.
Aquaporin proteins facilitate rapid water movement across membranes.
Traversal through Root Cortex:
Water absorbed must traverse the root cortex.
Radial movement of water occurs due to positive and negative hydrostatic pressure.
Root Pressure:

Roots generate positive hydrostatic pressure, known as root pressure.

This pressure is generated by the active transport of ions into the xylem.
However, root pressure is typically insufficient for long-distance water transport.
Cohesion-Tension Theory:

Proposed by Dixon and Jolly.

Negative hydrostatic pressure generated by transpiration creates tension.
Tension pulls water through the xylem.
Cohesive and adhesive forces between water molecules and xylem walls enable the water column to
sustain tension.
Water Vapor Exit:

Water vapor exits the plant through stomata in leaves during transpiration.
This loss of water vapor creates a negative pressure gradient in the xylem, aiding in the upward
movement of water.
Efficient Transport:

These processes ensure the efficient transport of water and minerals throughout the plant.
They are essential for growth, metabolism, and maintaining water balance.

Transpiration Guttation
Water loss takes place in vapour form Water loss happens as droplets
 Takes place through stomata, lenticel and Takes place through hydathodes
cuticles
Can cause wilting No wilting can be observed
Provides cooling effect to the plant No such effect
Takes places during the day time It occurs in the early morning

Root:

They are vital for plant stability, nutrient storage, water absorption.

Root Tip is divided into zones: zone of cell division, elongation, maturation.

In the zone of maturation cells undergo differentiation.

In the zone of Elongation newly formed cells increase in length.

Zone of cell division is closest to root tip and contains actively dividing meristem cells.

In dicots, pericycle gives rise to cambium aiding secondary growth.

Stem:

It functions include providing support, transportation, photosynthesis, and storage.

They are radially structured with continuous growth and no root hairs.

Its development starts from stem apical meristem (SAM).

SAM produces primary meristems: procambium, protoderm, ground meristem.

Protoderm differentiates into epidermal cells.

Ground meristem forms cortex and pith.

Procambium forms vascular bundles.

Leaves:

It has the following parts -

Leaf base - place in the stem in which the leaf petiole attaches.

Petiole - connects leaf blade to base.

Leaf blade/lamina - green structure with midrib and veins.

Types of venations: parallel (monocots), reticulate (dicots), palmate.

Flower:
It has the following parts -

Pedicel: it is the flower stalk.

Receptacle: it is the base above pedicel.

Calyx: protective layer, also called ‘sepal’ – singular term.

Corolla: colourful part that attracts pollinators, also called ‘petal’ – singular term.

Androecium: male reproductive part bearing one or more stamen, consisting of filament and anther.

Gynoecium: female reproductive part also called as ‘pistils’ – singular term, consisting of stigma, style,
ovary.

Flowers can be categorized by gynoecium units: syncarpous, bicarpellary, tricarpellary, tetracarpellary,

pentacarpellary.

Plant Cell:

Cell Wall: Provides structural support, composed of cellulose.

Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane): Surrounds cell, regulates entry and exit of substances.
Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance filling the cell, contains organelles.
Nucleus: Command center, stores genetic material (DNA), controls cell activities.
Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll pigment.
Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP through cellular respiration.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network of membranes, involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.
Vacuole: Large sac for storage of water, nutrients, and waste products.
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis occurs here, either free-floating or attached to ER.
Plastids: Organelles involved in storage of starch, pigments, and lipids; includes chloroplasts.
Microtubules and Microfilaments: Cytoskeletal elements, maintain cell shape, aid in cell division and
intracellular transport.
Peroxisomes: Break down toxic substances, involved in lipid metabolism.
Plasmodesmata: Channels between plant cells, facilitate communication and transport of materials.
Tonoplast: Membrane surrounding the central vacuole, regulates movement of ions and molecules.