HOW TO MAKE CHAPTER 2 & 3:

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Chapter II (Review of Related Literature and Studies)

The purpose of Chapter 2 is to provide the reader with a comprehensive review of the literature
related to the problem under investigation. The review of related literature should greatly expand
upon the introduction and background information presented in Chapter 1. This chapter may
contain theories and models relevant to the problem, a historical overview of the problem,
current trends related to the problem, and significant research data published about the
problem.

- Discusses, investigates, and critiques what other authors and researchers have done in
relation to your present study.
- The Statement of the Problem, Theoretical/Conceptual Framework, and Background of
the Study from Chapter 1 may help you decide whether a certain literature/study is
relevant or irrelevant.
- Should include works from foreign and local authors
- As recent as possible (may be 5 years back)

Literature - published materials (books, journals. Newspaper articles, Internet articles,

pamphlets, etc.)
Studies - (researches, theses, and dissertations)

Do’s Don'ts

- Paraphrase the text - Plagiarize (use someone else’s ideas

- Cite the source properly (APA Citation without proper citation, thus making it
both in reference list and in-text your own)
- “Copy-paste” habit
Sample Chapter 2:

Related Literature (foreign)

Related Literature (Local)

How to Write Chapter 3

Chapter 3 - Methods/ Methodology

- Research Design
- Population and Sampling Techniques
- Research instruments
- Data Gathering Procedures
- Statistical Tools and Treatments

❖ Research Design
- The Brief Description and justification of the Research Design used should be explained.
- Research Design in Research is categorized according to the procedure the researcher
collects and analyzes data and her research purpose.
- Two types of Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Research.

Example:
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Similarities and Differences

Similarities Differences

Qualitative Research Share concerns “in problem Deals directly with historical
finding, in explaining the problems of cause and effect
relationships of data to claim, or interpretation of unique
in theory, building and social phenomena.
explaining particular cases in
Quantitative Research the light of established Represent the responses of
knowledge and theory. large number of individuals to
different kinds of stimuli

Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Qualitative

Procedures Experiments Observations

 Standardized instruments Open-ended interview
Structured interview Review of documents
Structured observation Participants’ observation

Data Collection Statistical operationalized Descriptive

variables Field notes
Documents interviews

❖ Population and Sampling Techniques

- In a research paper, the researcher must explain how the participants are selected and
the context.

Example: The study chose fifty Senior High School STEM students from Bayugan National
Comprehensive High School using Simple Random Sampling.

Population. If the population is too large, then a sampling method can be employed.

Having a large population is too exclusive to measure individually. Therefore, information

must be gained through a study of some PORTIONS or SAMPLES of it.

❖ Research Instruments
- It is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to your research
interests. These tools are most commonly used in health sciences, social
sciences, and education to assess patients, clients, students, teachers, staff, etc.
A research instrument can include interviews, tests, surveys, or checklists.
- Example; psychological tests, questionnaires, checklists, rating scales,
interviews, and document analysis.

Instrumentation - the process of how the instrument was made, validated, tested, and used.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

- Valid and reliable
- Based on a conceptual framework, or the researcher's understanding of how the
particular variables in the study connect with each other
- Must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic
- Able to test hypothesis and/or answer proposed research questions under investigation
- Free of bias and appropriate for the context, culture, and diversity of the study site
- Contains clear and definite instructions to use the instrument

Types of Research Instruments:

1. Interviews- or the interaction where verbal questions are posed by an interviewer to
elicit verbal responses from an interviewee.
2. Observation (watching what people do) is a type of correlational (non-experimental)
method where researchers observe ongoing behavior.
 3. Surveys encompass any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of
respondents. The types of surveys can vary on the span of time used to conduct the
study. They can be composed of cross-sectional surveys and/or longitudinal surveys.

● Validation of Instruments
○ Reliability and Validity are important considerations to test the effectiveness of
any data gathering device.
○ Through comments, suggestions, and corrections given by the experts in
connection with their area of specialization who are not participants in the
research study. It is suggested that questionnaires must be submitted to the
thesis/dissertation adviser for comments, suggestions, and corrections.

Validity - A valid instrument measures what it intends to measure.

● Types of Validity
1. Face Validity - grammar, format, alignment of questions to SOP
2. Construct Validity- the extent to which the instrument measures the criterion
being studied.
3. Content Validity- how well the instrument measures the individual aspects of the
criterion.
4. Criterion Validity - how related the instrument is to other instrument that
measures the same variable.

Reliability - Consistency of the research instrument

- “All valid instruments are reliable, but not all reliable instruments are valid”

Sample Research Instrument:

Title: SPIRAL PROGRESSION APPROACH IN MATHEMATICS AS PERCEIVED BY THE

TEACHERS IN PUBLIC JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF SANTA ROSA, LAGUNA
❖ Data Gathering Procedures
- In writing your chapter 3, Give a brief description of what are the Data Gathering
Procedures used and your Statistical approach in evaluation Data.
- Narrates how the researcher administered the test/survey
- Sources of data
 ❖ Statistical Treatment of Data
- Explains all the relevant formulas for the analysis and interpretation of data.
- Based on the SOP and research objectives.
- Verbal interpretations for the computed values may also be summarized in the tables.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research design involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g.,
text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather
in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

KINDS OF QUALITATIVE DESIGN

1. Narrative Research
- Narrative research design is a qualitative research methodology focused on collecting and
analyzing personal stories to understand individual experiences and perspectives.
- To analyze personal stories and narratives to understand how individuals make sense
of their lives.
2. Grounded Theory
- Researchers gather data and generate theories inductively, often used in social sciences
to understand behaviors and decision-making processes
3. Action Research
- Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social
change.
- Action research is a collaborative and reflective approach used to solve real-world
problems and improve practices.
4. Ethnography
 - Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their
cultures.
5. Phenomenological Research
- Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting
participants’ lived experiences.
6. Case Study
-is an in-depth analysis of a specific subject, such as an individual, group, event, or
organization, within its real-world context.
7. Content Analysis
- a research method that identifies patterns in recorded communication (like books,
writings, conversations, newspaper headlines, speeches, media, historical documents)
8. Historical Research
- Historical research is a process of collecting and interpreting data about past events or
ideas in order to find how they affected the present events and ideas. It studies possible
reasons behind certain events to explain their influence on the events that followed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Natural environment (natural setting)
- Qualitative researchers collect field data at the locations where participants
experience the problem or issue to be studied. Qualitative researchers do not
change the environmental settings and activities of the participants. Information
is gathered by talking directly to people and seeing them act directly in a natural
context.
2. Researcher as a key instrument (researcher as key instrument).
- Qualitative researchers generally collect their own research data through
participant observation, documentation, or direct interviews with participants.
These researchers generally do not use instruments or questionnaires made by
other researchers, because they are the only key to the study.
3. Multiple sources of data
- Qualitative researchers generally choose to collect the required data from
various sources such as interviews, documentation, and observations, rather
than relying only on one source data.
4. Inductive data analysis.
- Qualitative researchers build categories, patterns and themes from the
ground up (inductive) or from separate data into a complete conclusion.
5. The meaning of the participants (participant’s meaning)
- In the entire research process, the researcher must focus on studying the
meaning obtained from the participants about the issue or research problem, not
the meaning conveyed by other authors or researchers in certain literatures.
6. Design that develops (emergent design)
- Qualitative researchers argue that qualitative research is always evolving and
dynamic. This can mean that the initial plan is not a standard that must be
adhered to, all stages of research may change after the researcher goes into
the field and collects data. Provided that these changes are still in line in
 achieving the research objectives, namely obtaining information about the
problem or research issue.
7. Theoretical perspective (theoretical lens)
- Qualitative researchers often use certain perspectives in conducting research
such as ethnography, cultural concepts, gender differences, race and others.
8. Interpretive
- Qualitative researchers make an interpretation of what they see, hear and what
they understand. Usually there are differences in interpretation between
researchers and readers and participants, so it appears that qualitative research
offers different views on a content or problem.
9. Holistic account
- Qualitative researchers usually try to make a complex picture of a research
issue or problem. Researchers describe the perspectives and factors associated
with the problem as a whole.

USES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Understanding Context and Meanings- Qualitative research enables researchers to
investigate the contexts of behaviors and attitudes. By collecting comprehensive,
descriptive data, researchers can understand how individuals perceive their experiences
and the significance.
2. Exploring Complex Issues- It allows researchers to delve deeper into themes like
social justice, cultural customs, and health behaviors, providing a more complex
understanding.
3. Capturing Participant Perspectives- This method values participants' voices, allowing
them to express their thoughts and feelings in their own words.
4. Cultural Insights- Ethnographic approaches to qualitative research enable a
comprehensive investigation of cultural practices and norms. Researchers can better
grasp how culture influences behavior, beliefs, and social relationships.

ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Flexibility- The data collecting and analysis procedure can be modified when new ideas
or patterns arise.
2. Natural Settings- Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
3. Meaningful Insights- Detailed accounts of people's experiences, feelings, and
perceptions can be utilized to create, test, and improve systems or products.
4. Generation of New Ideas- Open-ended responses allow researchers to identify
unexpected challenges or possibilities that they might not have considered otherwise.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Unreliability- Qualitative research is frequently unreliable in the actual world due to
uncontrolled influences influencing the data.
2. Subjectivity- In data analysis, the researcher determines what is important and what is
irrelevant, therefore interpretations of the same data might differ greatly.
3. Limited Generalizability- Small samples are commonly employed to get detailed
information on certain contexts. It is difficult to reach general conclusions since the data
may be biased and unrepresentative of the larger population.
4. Labor-intensive- Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts
of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- Refers to the various types of research methodologies and approaches used to gather
and analyze numerical data.
- It is widely utilized across various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, and
marketing.

KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE DESIGN

1. Descriptive Research
- seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These research
projects are designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon.
- The researcher does not usually begin with a hypothesis, but is likely to develop
one after collecting data.
● Purpose: To provide a summary or description of the study variables without
inferring relationships.
● Methods:
1.) Surveys and Questionnaires- these are used to gather data from a
large number of respondents, which consist of structured questions that
can be easily quantified.
2.) Observational Studies- researchers may observe behaviors or
phenomena without manipulating variables. This method is useful for
understanding how individuals behave in natural settings.
 3.) Content Analysis: This involves analyzing existing texts or media to
quantify specific characteristics or themes relevant to the research
question.

2. Correlational Research
- Attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables
using statistical data.
- In this type of design, relationships between and among a number of facts are
sought and interpreted.
● Purpose: To investigate relationships between two or more variables without
manipulating them.
● Methods:

1.) Survey Method- researchers collect data through questionnaires or

interviews. Participants respond to structured questions related to the
variables of interest.
2.) Archival Data Analysis- Researchers analyze historical records,
databases, or previous studies to identify correlations between variables.
3.) Naturalistic Observation- This method involves observing subjects in
their natural environment without interference or manipulation by the
researcher.

3. Causal-comparative/Quasi-experimental Research
- attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables.
- An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and
effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured.
- These types of design are very similar to true experiments.
● Purpose- To explore the reasons behind a change that has already occurred,
focusing on existing differences between groups.
● Methods:
1.) Retrospective Causal Comparative- This method investigates existing
differences between groups after an event has occurred. Researchers
look back to determine if a particular variable influenced the outcome.
 2.) Cross-Sectional Studies- This method examines data from a population
at a single point in time. Researchers analyze differences between
groups based on existing characteristics rather than manipulating any
variables.
3.) Case-Control Studies- This method compares individuals with a specific
condition (cases) to those without it (controls) to identify potential causes
or risk factors associated with that condition.

4. Experimental Research
-often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the
cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study.
-An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent
variables.
● Purpose- To establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one
variable and observing the effect on another.
● Methods:
1.) Pre-experimental Design- This design is less rigorous than true
experimental designs and typically involves one group that is observed
before and after treatment without a control group.
Types:
a. One-Shot Case Study: A single group is exposed to a treatment,
and outcomes are measured afterward
b. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design: The same group is tested
before and after an intervention.
c. Static-Group Comparison: Two groups are compared, but only
one receives the treatment; however, there’s no random
assignment.
2.) Factorial Design- This method examines the effects of two or more
independent variables simultaneously, allowing researchers to study
interactions between variables.
3.) Cross-Over Design- In this design, participants receive multiple
treatments in a specific sequence. Each participant serves as their own
control, which helps reduce variability in results.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 1. Objective- It seeks accurate measurements and analysis of target concepts, as it is not
based merely on intuitions and guesses.
2. Clearly defined research questions- The research questions are well-defined for
which objective answers are sought, as the researchers know in advance what they are
looking for.
3. Structured Research Instruments- Standardized instruments guide data collection,
ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data. Data normally gathered using
structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics.
4. Numerical Data- Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in
order to show trends, relationships or differences among variables.
5. Large Sample Sizes- To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population
distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large sample size, depending on how the
characteristics of the population vary.
6. Replication- Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting.
Strengthening and reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious
conclusions.
7. Future Outcomes- By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of
computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future results.
Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

USES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Identifying Patterns and Trends- Large datasets can be analyzed to uncover common
behaviors, preferences, or outcomes among various populations.
2. Making Predictions- One of the fundamental uses of quantitative research is to make
statistically valid predictions.
3. Assessing Relationships Between Variables- Correlational studies in quantitative
research help to determine the extent and trajectory of correlations between variables.
4. Evaluating Programs and Interventions- Quantitative research is commonly used to
assess the efficacy of programs and initiatives.
5. Providing Objective Data- The structured form of quantitative research enables the
collecting of objective data that can be easily examined and presented through statistical
methods.
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Replication- the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and
tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

2. Direct Comparisons of Results- The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings,
times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.
3. Large Samples- Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable
and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.
4. Hypothesis Testing- Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures
means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables,
predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Superficiality- Using precise and limited operational definitions may not accurately
convey complicated concepts.
2. Narrow Focus- Predetermined variables and measurement methodologies may result in
ignoring other pertinent observations.
3. Structural Bias- Biases such as missing data, poor measurements, and unsuitable
sample methods can lead to incorrect findings.
4. Lack of Context- Quantitative research frequently employs unnatural settings, such as
laboratories, or fails to examine historical and cultural factors that may influence data
collecting and conclusions.

MIXED METHODS ( QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE)

Mixed methods research combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of research questions. This methodology
leverages the strengths of both types of data, allowing researchers to explore complex
phenomena from multiple perspectives.

TYPES OF MIXED METHODS

1. Convergent Parallel Design: Both qualitative and quantitative data are collected
simultaneously and analyzed separately, then compared and integrated.
 2. Explanatory Sequential Design: Quantitative data is collected first, followed by
qualitative data to explain or build upon the initial findings.

3. Exploratory Sequential Design: Qualitative data is collected first to explore a

phenomenon, followed by quantitative data to test or generalize the qualitative findings.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED METHODS

 Integration: Combines qualitative and quantitative data to answer research questions

more effectively.

 Flexibility: Allows researchers to use various methods and techniques tailored to their
specific needs.

 Contextual Understanding: Provides a richer context by incorporating different types of

data, enhancing the overall analysis.

USES OF MIXED METHODS

 Exploratory Research: To gain insights into complex issues where little prior
knowledge exists.

 Validation: To corroborate findings through triangulation, enhancing the credibility of

results.

 Theory Development: To develop or refine theories by integrating diverse perspectives.

ADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS

 Comprehensive Perspective: Offers a fuller understanding of research problems by

combining numerical data with personal experiences.

 Enhanced Validity: Triangulation strengthens the validity of research findings by cross-

verifying results from different methods.

 Rich Data: Combines statistical trends with detailed narratives, providing depth and
breadth in analysis.
DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS

 Complexity: Requires expertise in both qualitative and quantitative methods, making it

more challenging to design and implement.

 Time-Consuming: Collecting and analyzing two types of data can be resource-intensive

and time-consuming.

 Integration Difficulties: Merging qualitative and quantitative results can be challenging,

particularly in maintaining coherence between differing datasets.

In summary, mixed methods research is a versatile approach that enhances understanding

through the integration of qualitative and quantitative data. While it offers significant advantages
in terms of depth and validity, it also presents challenges related to complexity and resource
demands.