DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 363 972 EA 025 457

AUTHOR Hutton, Susan I.; Gougeon, Thomas D.

TITLE Geneer Differences in Leadership Communications.
PUB DATE Oct 93
NOTE 52p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
University Council for Educational Administration
(Houston, TX, October 29-31, 1993).
PUB TYPE Speeches/Conference Papers (150) Reports
Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *Administrator Effectiveness; Administrator Role;
Communication (Thought Transfer); Elementary
Secondary Education; Foreign Countries;
Interprofessional Relationship; *Organizational
Communication; *Principals; *Sex Differences;
*Teacher Administrator Relationship; *Women
Administrators
IDENTIFIERS *Calgary Board of Education AB

ABSTRACT
This paper presents findings of a study that
determined relative differences in male and female teachers'
perceptions of male and female principals' intentions in the
communication process. Data were derived from administration of the
Leadership as Social Control (LASC) Model to 397 teachers in the
Calgary School District. They reported their perceptions of 20
principals (10 male and 10 female). Three orientations (personal,
official, and structural) and three motivations (authority, positive
power, and negative power) of leader communication by gender were
examined. Findings indicate that male and female teachers perceived
female principals as communicating their authentic values and verbal
expressions of expectations more than male principals. Principal
gender affected teachers' perceptions more than teacher gender. All
teachers perceived that female principals paid more attention to
their teachers' work, whether positive or negative attention. A link
was found to exist among teachers' perception of principal
effectiveness, a feeling of closeness to the principal, and the
degree of attention that principals give teachers. It is recommended
that male principals communicate interest in teachers' lives. Seven
tables and two figures are included. (LMI)

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GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LEADERSHIP COMMUNICATION'

Susan I. Hutton
Thomas D. Gougeon
University of Calgary

Paper prepared for presentation at Convention '93 of the

University Council for Educational Administration, October
1993

DRAFT ONLY: Not to be quoted without iuthors' permission

1 This paper is an extension of a paper entitled "Leadership Communication: Examination of

Gender Differences in the Social Control Communication of Principals as Perceived by Teachers"
delivered at the Canadian Association for Studies in Educational Administration Conference, Ottawa,
Canada, June 1993.

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 Introduction

The importance of leadership in education is well

documented (Bass, 1981) and is often a primary topic in
principal-teacher preparation and professional development

programs. A principal is expected "to lead" teachers in

accomplishing the mission, vision, goals and objectives of

the school community (Mitchell, Ortiz & Mitchell, 1987).

Many definitions of leadership have been offered by scholars

of leadership. Most contemporary definitions include, as

important in this definition, the aspect of communication

(Thayer, 1988; Wolcott, 1973; and Gronn, 1983).

While communication in schools has been identified as

important to leadership, another aspect, gender, is also

critical. In today's schools most principals are male and

most teachers are female. Given the differences between

males' and females' conceptions of effective communication

differ (Shakeshaft, 1968a; Helgesen, 1990; Gilligan, 1982;

and Tannen, 1990), a more precise picture of leadership

communication patterns by gender would be of use to

principals and teachers in today's schools. A clearer

understanding of gender communication differences may well

enlighten current leadership efforts in our schools and

assist practicing administrators in the many daily

communication interactions they have with their staff.

 Background

Literature in empirical gender communication studies is

virtually non-existent. However, observational and survey

research data confirm males and females view the world

differently. For example, research by Shakeshaft (1986,

1987a,b, 1989), Helgesen (1990), Gilligan (1982), and Tannen

(1990) reveal models of different conceptions between males

and females of what constitutes effective communication.

Shakeshaft and Hanson (1986) and Shakeshaft (1987b) describe

society as being androcentric, or male dominated, including
a societal knowledge base that is male defined, specifically

white male defined. Shakeshaft contends that while males

search for absolute clarity, females tend to express

themselves with room for further accommodation to others'

ideas. Shakeshaft argues that since women have been

excluded from the production of knowledge in our society

women must consciously create their own knowledge base,

define their own morality, and work .to have their knowledge

base included as different but equal with the presently

dominant white male knowledge base.

Studies regarding women and gender have increased in

the last decade. Schumck (1987) noted that research done in

the 1970's and 1980's provide scholarship specifically about

women and make possible a transformation in leadership

study. Such studies are categorized into five stages by

Schumck. These stages form a typology that characterizes

the research on women and gender as moving from: an
androcentric view where women are excluded; to compensatory

thinking where scholars note that women are left out and

begin to profile successful women; to studies that view

women from a deficit model where gender inequity is
explained by sex roles and difference; to studies which

examined the oppression of women and institutional

discriminatory practices and barriers; finally to a more

current examination entitled the "new scholarship" wherein

scholars are beginning to include both women and men as

objects of study with alternative and valid points of view.

Schumck's typology is informative in reviewing studies

regarding leadership and women's presence or absence in such

study. The study of leadership has moved from Schumck's

Stage One, exclusion of women, as depicted by the Getzels-

Guba model and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire

excluding gender, to Schumck's Stage Five, "new

scholarship" which includes an understanding by scholars

that women and men do perceive their worlds differently. An

example of this progressive investigation of women in

leadership studies is reported by Tannen (1990) who
contended that while women view the world as inclusionary

with relationship as most important, men view the world as

exclusionary with independence and status as most important.

Similar studies indicate these differences arise from both

socialization and institutional barriers. Girls are

4
,

socialized through games and by adult behavior to cooperate .

and take turns, whereas boys are socialized to compete and

win (Gilligan, 1982). Ortiz (1982) reported that

institutional barriers exist where women are perceived to

follow, nurture and teach whereas men are perceived to lead,

direct and administer.

Although there is a progressive examination of women in

leadership, a majority of existing research in educational

administration is predominantly done from an androcentric

bias or from a male view. Because such research has been

male-centered, the theories and the results of such research

based on androcentric theories may well be biased and,

therefore, flawed (Owens, 1991). However, while not

invalidating research, this androcentric view limits

application to the Temale world/reality Shakeshaft (1986).

Since schools are predominantly female workplaces

(Lieberman, 1992) while efforts to understand those

workplaces have been essentially derived from male-based

scholarship, it is important to the study of educational

administration to increasingly include female reality.

Therefore, conducting empirical research from a

communication perspective might well contribute important

new perspectives to leadership literature. Viewing female

perceptions as important and distinct from male perceptions

might well contribute knowledge to gender leadership

studies.

The Problem and. Purposes of the Study -

A review of literature in the areas of leadership,

coimunication, leadership as social control, and gender

indicates important connections. First, the study of

leadership has evolved from simplistic listing of traits to
more complex definitions which include the importance of the

leader's ability to communicate. These definitions indicate

that leadership communication does not occur in a vacuum,

but rather occurs in a social environment. This highlights

the importance of followers' perceptions of leaders'

communication. Second, socialization results in different

realities and perceptions of followers, particularly by

gender. It is argued that women need empirical validation

to challenge and redefine present conceptualizations of

leadership. As present conceptualizations of leadership are

typically defined by the traditional, androcentric and white

male criteria, they must be altered to include female

knowledge and reality.

This study sought to determine relative differences in

male and female teacher perceptions of male and female

principal intention in the communication process. The

Leadership as Social Control Model (LASC) developed by

Gougeon (1989a, b,c; Gougeon, et al. 1990, 1991a, b) was

6
utilized to characterize social control communication
between public school principals and teachers. The lack of

empirical research on leadership as social control

communication and cross gender perceptions point to a need

for investigation into specific variables of leader

communication in school systems. Therefore, the purposes of

this study were to:

1. Utilize a model of Leadership as Social Control

communication (LASC), to examine teachers' perceptions of

principals' use of social control communication;

2. Determine whether differences exist between

teachers' perceptions of principals' intentions by principal

gender;

3. Determine whether differences exist between

teachers' perceptions of principals' intentions by teacher

gender and principal gender.

Theoretical Considerations

Thayer (1988), a communication theorist proposed

"communication models may provide only for what is, rather

than what might be" (p. 310) and further that the ways in

which we traditionally and conventionally conceive of

communication are inadequate. Thus, Thayer proposed a

reconceptualization of the phenomena of leadership and

communication. He offered a fresh and new perspective of

8
leadership defining it as a subset or component of

communication in order to achieve a fundamental

understanding of the concept of leadership. Thayer

concluded that one leads through the process of

communication; and cited as support Bennis' definition of

leadership "leadership is the capacity to create a common,

compelling vision of a desired state of affairs and a

capacity to communicate the vision in order to gain support"
(Thayer, 1988, p. 242). From this perspective the process

of communication then articulates the characteristics, norms

and values of the leader. In line with attributional

theory, this must be perceived by the followers in a social

context as leadership qualities or indeed there is no

leader. It is argued that leadership is a process that is

follower-dependent, dynamic and inclusive of interactions

between the leader and follower in a social content (Spady &

Mitchell, 1977a, b).

The Leadership as Social Control model (Gougeon, 1989a)

was derived from the Social Control Theory of Mitchell and

Spady (1977) and Spady and Mitchell (1977a, b). Key to

Mitchell and Spady's Social Control Theory are the concepts

of tensions and expectations; tensions exist between

individuals and the organizations, and within individuals

themselves which gives rise to conflict of expectations.

Conflicting expectations are resolved through social control

which is defined as the ability of one person or group to

influence or control the behavior of others (see Figure 1).

This study was limited to principal-teacher

communication that connotes social control. Social control

communication occurs whenever a principal d.rectly or

indirectly communicates expectations to one or more teachers

in the school to ensure that teachers experience minimal

conflict between personal expectations and organizational

expectations in order to accomplish the work of the school.

Social control communication was categorized in this

study into two factors: Motivation and Values Orientation.

Three types of motivation are authority, positive power, and

negative power. Teachers would be motivated through

authority or the very nature or substance of the principal's

character when the principal appeals to teachers' intrinsic

values, needs, sentiments, expectations, etc. The intention

behind authoritative communication is to gain cooperation or

compliance through information. Authority is most often

observed when a principal favors being clear, honest and

frank in communicating standards to teachers. For example,

a principal takes time to talk personallir with a teacher and

models teaching techniques; directly acknowledges a
teacher's contributions verbally or with a written memo in

the teacher's file; and works together with the teacher to

write goals for professional development.

10
 Figure 1
L=ERSNI2 IS SOCIAL CONTSOL THEO2X

Organization
axpectatiou has ditterent 1
Cap) forzal
expectations.

!Leader communicatesi 'Leads,* communicates

1 with individual 1 with individual
1 using three styles' fusing three types of1
I of motivational I 1 value orientations:
I cues: 1. Authority! 1. Personal
I 2. Positive Power I 2. Official
I 3. Negative Power 1 3. Structural
1. a

121.1.1:1

indivtdual changes
personal expecta-
tions to more
closely align with
those of the
organization.

cExpectatiou overlap)

10
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i
 Power, the second motivational dimension in the model,

is defined as influencing by granting or withholding

resources available to the principal because of soci-

organizational status or economic position. Power

communication is based upon extrinsi....1 factors communicated

to teachers. Power may be positive or negative, depending

upon whether teachers sense they may be rewarded or

punished. The intention behind power communication is to

gain cooperation or compliance through rewards or

punishments. Power communication can control change even in

relatively inflexible situations. A principal conveys a

message that desirable rewards may result in return for

compliance, or failing that, punishments may result. For

example, a principal punishes irresponsible teachers by

discouraging them from developing innovations; or telling

them that their budget is dependent upon job psrformance; or

telling them that they are not doing well in comparison to
others; or limiting the amount of time they can spend with

colleagues planning instruction. Thus, positive or negative

power communications may be invoked by a principal.

The second factor in categorizing social control

communication, values orientation, has three types, namely,

personal, official and structural. Personal values

orientation in communication may be perceived by teachers as

face-to-face or direct communication from the principal as

him/herself. When principals communicate personally they

11

12
 1

may be perceived by teachers to convey subjective

interpretations of school expectations. A personal referent

then, may be perceived when a principal communicates

personally-held standards, that is, the principal

communicates personally-held values, attitudes, sentiments,

beliefs, and uses symbols which hold special meaning to

him/her. If the source of the values is the person the

referent may be perceived as personal and may imply a

psychological message. For example, a principal may

acknowledge a teacher's hard work and effort in organizing a

complicated assembly by saying from his/her own value base,

"I believe in hard work and effort to get quality results

and you have those characteristics." However, if the source

is perceived to be the "person as principal" then the

referent may be perceived as official.

Official values orientation in communication may be

perceived by teachers as face-to-face or direct

communication from the principal in his/her role.
Principals may be perceived by teachers as using an official

orientation by conveying expactations of various subgroups

of society. Official communication in the model may be

perceived by teachers when a principal communicates

officially-held standards, values, attitudes, sentiments,

and beliefs which are reflective of the school or the office

the principal holds. Principals who communicate from the

official perspective may be perceived to imply a moral

12

13
message in their communication; that is a message that
reflects the school's standards or norms and standards of

the community or society at large. For example, a teacher

organizes a holiday party and the principal responds by

saying "Great job! You had many excellent activities to keep
students productively involved, and the evening time you

chose was not too late for students to be out. That's the

way our parents like to see things done."

Structural values orientation in communication may be

perceived by followers as indirect communication as

principals develop and ue structures inherent within the

school. Principals may be perceived by teachers to convey

school expectations by creating and maintaining
organizational programs, rules, regulations, and traditions.

Structural communication in the model may be perceived to

reflect either personal or official values. What makes it

structural, and not personal or official is, it appears to

teachers in a non-verbal form. For example, a principal

institutes a silent reading program in the school and

conveys a written acknowledgement or reprimand in teachers'

files in response to each teacher's level of participation.

Values are communicated through social or organizational

structures within the school. Additional examples of

structural elements include school routines, ceremonies,

expectations and policies.

 Arising out of these concepts is a model represented by

a three by three matrix when motivation and values

orientation are considered as independent variables (See

Figure 2)

Methodology

To select the study sample, principals of Areas I and

III of the Calgary Board of Education, an urban school

district of 94,000 students, were given a short, fifteen

minute presentation briefly describing the objectives,

methodology and theoretical basis of the study. Care was

taken to describe the study in general terms only.

Principals of approximately 100 schools were in attendance.

Twenty (20) principals volunteered to involve a total of 397

teachers in the study and committed themselves to complete

the 90 item social control communication (LASC) survey in a

45 minute faculty meeting. Of the 20 principals ten were

male and ten were female.

Teachers surveyed were asked how frequently they

experienced different feelings or emotions when their

principal communicated with them. They were asked, for

example, how frequently they felt acknowledged, isolated, or

valued when talking with their principal. The LASC survey

is composed of ten items to represent each of the nine

scales of the three by three LASC matrix communication

model. A Likert-type five point frequency response scale

14

1 r.
 Figure 2
COMMUNICATION
Model

OR/ 3STITIONS
2ERSONAL 072TC:IL 3T2UCTURIL

, ,

Armrscntrrx SCALE 1 SCA= 2 SCALZ 3

(mmt=insic)

20SITIVE SCALE 4 SCA= 6 SCA= 8

20WER
(1tewards)

NEG21.7.7.77E SCA= 5 SCALE 7 SCALZ 9

20722.
(2=ish=exxts)
$

Leadership as Social Cantrsi Model

(LASC)

16
was used for each item. A detailed report of each school's

ordinal data was given to the principal, and later the

researcher met with each principal and other colleagues to

discuss the data.

Statistical procedures utilized for the five-point

Likert-type scales in the instrument included all ninety

items of the survey tested for statistical significance.
Data gathered from the surveys are ordinal in nature; i.e.'

the Likert-type scales may be viewed as ordinal in that they

are measures of subjective emotionality by participants.

Each respondent may have unique attitudinal assessments of

the points on the scale. Thus, interval-appearing data may

be accurately described as ordinal in nature as there may be

variance in response to the categories representing

different points of the scale and therefore, assumptions of

interval data may not be met. Seigal (1991) supports the

validity of using nonparametric statistical tests for

interval-appearing data. He contends, "Because the power of

any nonparametric test may be increased by simply increasing

the size of the sample . . . and yields the same power to

reject a hypotaesis as parametric tests . . . and because

behavioral scientists rarely achieve the sort of measurement

which permits the meaningful use of parametric tests,

nonparametric statistical tests deserve an increasingly

prominent role in research in the behavioral sciences"

(p.31). The nonparametric Krusv.ai-Wallis ANOVA provided

tests of significance of differences in perceptions between

teachers and principals by gender. As no suitable

nonparametric statistical test is available, the parametric

procedure, MANOVA, provided tests of significance of

differences in perceptions between teacher by gender and

principals by gender.

Findings

As a result of the high number of multivariate and

univariate statistical tests conducted, caution is noted

that many significant findings could occur simply by random

chance and thereby weaken the confidence in the conclusions
and implications noted in the report. Findings below and

approaching .05 significance were considered to be

significant.

Study Purposes:

1. Determine whether differences exist between

teachers' perceptions of principals' intention by

principal gender.
The findings as indicated in Table 1 revealed all

teachers' perceptions of male and female principals'

communication to be significantly different in only one of

the six dimensions, personal. Comparison of Kruskal-Wallis

mean ranks for personal orientation indicates all teachers

perceived female principals use of personal orientation to

be greater than male principals.

17

18
4
IMIBLZ

Mean Rank3, gi= Dinensions bv. sex of vri=oi2a1,

Iamalsal-aallis one 'gam ANclivA

Dtazus:ou iceaN 3 ,121X V

IMMN =X C32 SARE 231011===4
1212x12

PER5CL1A.T.. 184.52 211.53 5.5077 0.0139

Orr./C1'1.1', 198.88 200.08 0.0108 0.9173

STRUC73RXT. 189.07 208.30 2.7858 0.0951

AUTRORIVZ 188.35 208.98 3.2059 0.0724

POS.117:77. 195.43 203.24 0.4521 0.5013

WAWA
Nzaz=77E 195.89 200.93 .0.1920 0.6612
POWER

Nots. a 11 as 192 for teacher group retorting on male

principals.
n = 205 for teacher group reporting on eamale
principals.
Values represent .05 level of significance or
values significant at 2<.05.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

 This would be expected from a review of literature on
gender differences which indicates that females tend to be

oriented from a personal perspective more than males.

Females use a more collegial style (Charters & Jovick, 1981)

than males and image organizations from a web of inclusion

versus a male hierarchical view of organizations (Helgesen,

1990). The web imagery emphasizes interrelationships and

principles of inclusion and connection. Women's sense of

self-worth is bound in the ability to personally establish

and maintain personal relationships. Thus, consistent with

findings from gender studies, reported in the literature,

female principals in this study were not surprisingly

perceived by all teachers to use personal communication more

than male principals.

2. Determine whether differences exist between

teachers' perceptions of principals' intentions by

teacher gender and principal gender.

ADAiYaiia_kijltagllgign
The findings as indicated in Table 2 revealed no

overall interactive effect among the six dimensions, namely

the three orientations (personal, official and structural)

and the three motivations (authority, positive power and

negative power) and sex of principal and sex of teacher. In

addition no interactive effect among the six dimensions and

sex of teacher was revealed as shown in Table 3.

 =LE 2
Six /3ixensions law Sex of liTi=cia1 v Sex of Teacher4
Multi=1.4 X=4171i3 of Talriance

DIMENSION Pobserved IIRC213===?

PERSONAL 0.922 0.337

.OPTIC"..:AL 0.391 0.532

STRUCT..'"MAL 0.052 0.819

=THOR:TY 0.031 0.860

PCSITIVE 0.291 0.539

POW=.
NEGATIVE 0.631 0.427
POW=

Degrees of Freedom = (1,363).

a
= 191 for teacher group reporting on male
principals.

im 205 for teacher group reporting on female

principals.

Values represent .05 level of significance or

significant at 2<.05.

BEST COPY AVAIIABLE

 However, MANOVA multivariate findings, as shown in

Table 4 revealed a similar finding to the univariate

Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. That is, an interactive effect with

the six dimensions by sex of principal was found to be

significant in one orientation dimension, personal.

Comparison of means reveal female principals were perceived
by all teachers to use the motivation dimensions of
authority, positive power and negative power from a personal

orientation more than male principals.

Analysis by Scale
Since each dimension is an aggregation of three

individual scales, the next step of analysis included

examination of the nine individual scales in relationship to

sex of principal and sex of teacher. Use of MANOVA revealed

overall no interactive effect among the nine scales and sex

of principal by sex of teacher and further, overall no

interactive effect between the nine scales and sex of

teacher. However, an interactive effect was found between

the nine scales and sex of principal

To discover which scales might have contributed most to

this significant interactive effect, between scales by sex

of principal, subsequent univariate analysis of each scale

(see Table 5) was applied. This procedure revealed that

scales 3 and 5 may contribute most to the overall finding as

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22
sitx3r.a: 3

Itg Dimensions trio' VEX ct Teachee

Multimle Ina17sts of variance

DIMENSION 7 observed 2BDIMILITTb

PERSONAL 0.878 0.349

OFFICIAL 0.066 0.797

STRUCTURAL 0.302 0.583

AUTHORITY 0.126 0.722

POSITIVE 0.015 0.902

POWER
NEGATIVE 2.438 0.119
POWER

}totes. Degrees of Freedom =It (1,369).

a
n = 190 for teacher group reporting on male
principals.
n = 206 for teacher group reporting on female
principals.

Values represent .09 level of significance or

significant at 2<.05.

11F_ST CON AVAILABLE

23
well as scale 4 which approached .05 level of significance,

thus warranting further analysis.

Comparing means in Scale 3, Authentic Structure, (see

Table 5) revealed that female principals were perceived by

teachers to use authentic structural communication more than
male principals.

Comparing means in Scale 4, Personal Positive Power,

(see Table 5) revealed that female principals were perceived

by teachers to use personal positive power communication

more than male principals.

Comparing means in Scale 5, Personal Negative Power,

(see Table 5) revealed that female principals were perceived

by teachers to use personal negative power communication

more than male principals.

These findings are not entirely consistent with a

review of literature which would predict from attributional

theory that perception of the follower (Pfeffer, 1977), or

teacher, would be most important to the significant

interactive effect. The follower's perception and belief

about leadership would be expected from this view of

leadership to contribute most to the finding. However, sex

of principal contributed most to the effect. An explanation

may be that the definition of leadership is still primarily

TZ.B1,7.4

Sjx.gisessioas by sex of ?II-Lac-that

$sltible XsalYeit_ot variance

112:122MION SEX OP M212. 7obs DP

Mae resale
711473

Ititam SO Moan SD
PERSCNAL 8.52 1.6 8.91 1.7 5.20 0.023 1,394

OFYIC=I, 8.54 1.5 8.53 1.6 0.16 0.689 1,396

sTmacinnuu. 7.69 1.5 7.94 1.5 1.50 0.222 1,395

AUTEORZTY 10.07 2.3 10.44 2.3 1.66 0.198 1,395

POS.7.= 9.78 2.4 9.91 2.5 0.65 0.420 1,396

Poliana

!MCAT= 4.92 1.4 5.03 1.5 0.70 0.403 1,394

Notes. a
n - 192 for teacher group reporting on =ale
principals.

n si 205 for teacher group reporting an female

principals.

Values represent .05 level of significance or

values significant at 2<.05.

bEs1 COPY AVAltARI E

24

9 1
defined by white male criteria and both male and female

followers do not differentiate their own realities of what

constitutes leadership (Schein, 1973, 1975, & Brenner,

Tomkiewicz & Schein, 1989).

In addition, these findings may be a result of the

state of females in educational administration as noted by

Schumck (1987) in her typology, about women in educational
administration. Schumck contends we are only now entering

the final stage of her typology that of the "new

scholarship" where both male and female realities are

considered to be valid, and both women and men are included

as objects of study which provides alternative points of

view. We have experienced many decades of the successful

manager being defined as having traits that are of men,

where successful mid-managers have been judged by both males

and females to be those that exhibit typical male

characteristics (Brenner, Tomkeiviacz & Schein, 1989, &

Schein, 1973, 1975). Teachers' state of awareness of what

leadership might be may be evolved to the point that enables

teachers to discriminate leadership characteristics other

than those that are male and supported by androcentric

society or the white male knowledge base. This may account

for the sex of principal remaining predominant rather than

the sex of the teacher in the perception of leadership. It

may be that the view of what a leader ought to be, that of

stereotypical male characteristics, is still seen as the

25
prime determinant rather than a more eclectic

conceptualization. A more eclectic conceptualization,

characterized by Schumck's "new scholarship" state, based

upon different but valid realities, where the perception and
sex of the follower is not so constrained by white male
definition.

Analysis by Ouestionnaire Items

To discover which questionnaire items may contribute
most to this significant interactive effect between scales,
a MANOVA analysis was applied to the data to examine
questionnaire items grouped by the nine scales with sex of

principal by sex of teacher. No significant findings were

noted among any of the scales.

However, similar to the results of the univariate

analysis of the nine scales by sex of principal, an effect

was found in Scale 3 and Scale 4 by sex of principal (see

Table 6). Although no overall significant effect was found

in Scale 5 by sex of principal (see Table 6), it is included

as earlier analysis (see Table 5.0) indicated some effect.

In addition, an effect was found in Scale 5 by sex of

teacher (see Table 7.0).

Questionnaire items in Scales 3, 4, and 5 were further

examined as earlier MANOVA and ANOVA analysis indicated

these scales appear to contribute most to the overall

26

27
TABLE 5
rt=e Scales lav Sex of Vrincioal
Multiole Xnal"ritis of variamos

SCALP SEX cm plc.nc-aL

a 7.133 PEOIr DP
a31,44`.
Mean
biLa-Iftb
SM Xs= SD
PERSONAL 3.35 0.8 3.47 0.8 1.31
AZTEC2ZTY 0.254 1,9

OFTTCLAL 3.59 0.8 3.61 0.8 0.01

AUTEORITT 0.903 1,9

STRUCTURAL 3.12 0.8 3.36 0.8 5.80 0.017

AETEORI.TY 1,9

PERSONAL 3.44 0.8 3.55 0.9

POSIT:VE 2.94.-0.087 1,9
POWER
PERSONAL 1.74 0.5 1.88 0.6 6.16
NEGAT.TVE 0.014 1,9
POW=4.

OFT:CZ:AL 3.22 0.8 3.19 0.9 0.09

POSTT:7E 0.763 1,9
POWER
OFT=CLAI 1.72 0.5 1.73 0.5 0.23 0.634
WZGAT.T-TE
1,9
POWER
STRUCTURAL 3.12 0.8 3.17 0.9 0.08 0.777 1,9
POS:71-7E
POWER
STRUCTURAL 1.45 0.5 1.42 0.6 0.50 0.480 1,9
NEGAT:71
POWER

a
n AB 191 for teacher group reporting on .mae
principals.

211 205 for teacher group reporting on female

principals.

Values represent .05 level of significance or

values significant at Tc.05.

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23
TAB= 6
ritmi_ALle e "RgiZazi."em
Nul_timte Azta.173i3 01 va-,--i-ancet
s 12,-4-0 a

sc.= =cm: sirsam=mar, ADTBOBITT P(1,10)=2.434, p = 0.008a

rimm 5= 07 miscr.22i,
Nals.
a
Zs:gale
Pabs me
sea= SD Moen SD
Item 12: (aking me feel acknowledged with memos or
newsletter articles.)
3.16 1.3 3.65 1.2 5.20 0.023
Ite= 21: (Setting professional goals with me using written
goal statements.)
2.69 1.3 3.15 1;4 6.26 0.013
Ite= 39: (Bringing rules and regulations to my attention.)
2.45 1.2 2.94 1.2 6.06 0.014
Ite= 75: (Writing notes to me in ampreciation of work well
done.)

3.01 1.4 3.83 1.2 8.21 0.004

Item 84: (Asking for my support of new program initiatives.)
3.29 1.2 3.44 1.2 4.13 0.043

- _

SOX= 7017a: 7E2S0NAL POS. POWER 7(1,10)=2.092, p = 0024a

17.= SZ= OP PR=CIPAL 2obs PROlia
valez remalet
Haan SD Mean SD

Item 85: (Giving me personal support when I do good work.)

3.59 1.2 3.87 1.1 7.51 0.017

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TIBLZ 6 (Contimued)

piultim1s Xnal7si3 et var4auce,

SCLL3 P.TVZ: Mi3C2C&2 NLG. POW= 1(1,10)=1.105, p = 0.3574

IT= 07 72310=2AL 230114
Malee2 obe
Female*
Mean SO Nee= 50
Item 23: (Confronting me when I perform unreliably.)
1.72 1.0 1.88 1.2 4.73 0.030
item 41: (Caking sure I am accountable for my conduct.)
2.63 1.4 3.13 1.3 5.32 0.022
Item 86: (Making me feel responsible when I am not doing
well at work.)
1.63 1.0 1.90 1.2 4.34 0.038

Xotes. a
Values represent .05 level of significance or
values significant at 2<.05.
n = 191 for teacher group 1:eporting on male
principals.

205 for teacher group reporting on female

principals.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

TX Xi= 7

Items of Scale 74..Ye hv Sem of Teacher

nultiole xnalv,is of variance

scizz 71"72:: imasemaL sza. paw= 7(1.10)=1-993, P = 0-4334

IT= =X OP P3INC:2712.
obs 118013a
Male ;Female°
Mean SD Mean SD
Item 14: (Iaking me feel. confronted when rail to meet sat
standards.)

1.79 1.1 1.35 0.7 13.33 0.000

Item 50: (Clearly showing it when he/she is angry.)
2.73 1.2 2.27 1.3 6.86 0.009
Item 77: (Showing anger whenever he/she is angry.)

2.42 1.3 2.05 1.2 5.40 0.021

Item 86: (lakimg me feel responsible when I am not doing
well at work.)
2.00 1.3 1.72 1.0 3.93 0.048

Notes. a
Values represent .05 level of significance or
values sigmlficant at 2<.05.
n 191 for teacher group reporting on male
principals.
n - 205 for teacher group reporting on female
principals.

MAILABLE
PFST COPY
effect. In addition, it is helpful to gain further insight

into these findings by determining which specific

questionnaire items contributed most to the findings.

Consideration of the actual questionnaire items provides a

greater appreciation of the possible meanings asociated

with this statistical findings. It is for this reason that

the actual language of the questionnaire.is drawn into this

report. This analysis was done with a two sample (male,

female) MANOVA design on all ten items comprising each of

the nine scales (SPSS,1988).

In Scale 3, Authentic motivation from a Personal

orientation five of the ten questionnaire items were found

to contribute most to the effect (see Table 6): "making me

feel acknowledged with memos or newsletter articles,"

"setting professional goals with me using written goal

statements," "bringing rules and regulations to my

attention," "writing notes to me in appreciation of work

well done," and "asking for my support of new program

initiatives." Comparing means, as shown in Table 7 for

these questions, teachers perceived female principals doing

more of these actions than male principals. The five

questions not contributing to the effect are less formal.

For example, "making me feel recognized during public

meetings," and "routinely talking to me about my work."

Thus, female principals are perceived to communicate

organizational expectations and support teachers more

30

32
through written and formal structures than male principals.
When communicating from this structural orientation female

principals also tend to motivate teachers more from their

authentic or inner character rather than by use of extrinsic

positive and negative power communication. Thus, female

principals may have learned that to express expectations,

and to gain support in the school organilation, action must

be validated by formalizing and legitimating them in

writing.

In Scale 4, Positive Power motivation from a Personal

orientation (see Table 6), one of the ten questionnaire

items was found to contribute most to the effect: "giving me

personal support when I do good work." Comparing means,

teachers perceived female principals to use this action more

than male principals. The nine questions not contributing

most to the effect are all positively supporting but do not

include the phrase personal. For example, in the

questionnaire items "telling me how important my work is"

and "granting me additional responsibility and giving me

more freedom to make decision," the word personal is not

included. Thus, consistent with a review of literature,

female principals are perceived to motivate and offer

support at a more personal level than male prinCipals. It

has been reported in gender studies that females have been

socialized to seek interdependence and sustain important

relationships by emphasis on human connection more than

emphasis on content or task (Gilligan, 1982; Helgesen, 1990;

Ortiz, 1992; Tannen, 1990, & Shakeshaft, 1986).

As noted earlier in this report, MANOVA analysis of

items of scales by sex of principal does not support Scale 5

as significant (see Table 6), but is significant when
considered interactively with the other eight scales as

shown in Table 5. In addition, MANOVA analysis of scales by

sex of teacher (see Table 7.0) did indicate Scale 5 to be

significant. In spite of this inconsistency of results,

Scale 5 warrants further examination.

In Scale 5, Negative Power motivation from a Personal

orientation (see Table 6) three of the ten questionnaire

items were found to be significant: "confronting me when I

perform unreliably," "making sure I am accountable for my

conduct," and "making me feel responsible when I am not

doing well at work." Comparing means, teachers perceived

female principals to do more of these actions than male

principals. The seven questions not contributing most to

the effect are to a larger extent more direct, clear and

confrontational. For example, "making me feel confronted

when I fail to meet standards," "clearly showing it when

he/she is angry," "showing anger whenever he/she is angry,"

and "making me think that receiving a greater share of the

budget depends on how I perform in my job." Female

principals when motivating teachers through personal

negative power appear to do so in a manner that is more

often subtle and less often confrontational. They may often

express disapproval without direct expression of anger.

Females have been socialized to see relationships as most

important and may be less inclined to confront differences

openly and competitively, but rather may be more apt to
emphasize fairness, inclusion and similarities. The actions

of direct anger and confrontation are more consistent with

and characteristic of male socialization.(Tannen, 1990;

Shakeshaft, 1986).

In Scale 5, an additional finding by sex of teacher may

be helpful to gain insight into Personal Negative Power

communication (see Table 7). In no other area was sex of

teacher found to contribute to the overall interactive

effect. Of the ten questions in Scale 5, sex of teacher was

found significant for four questionnaire items: "making me

feel confronted when I fail to meet set standards," "clearly

showing it when he/she is angry," "showing anger whenever
he/she is angry," and "making me feel responsible when I am

not doing well at work." Comparing means in each of the

four questionnaire items, principals, regardless of sex, are

perceived more by male teachers than by female teachers to

use these actions. Males then, have been socialized and may

be seen to view the world or have a view of reality that is

competitive, where seeking status and independence are more

important than inclusion (Tannen, 1990). Male socialization

appears to support direct expression of anger. A review of

literature suggests that male teachers may have different

perceptions than female teachers based on socialization

differences. For example, the perception that women are

powerless and unable to use assertive communication results

in myths and barriers about how men and women behave

differently in organizations. The result is a complex set

of variables (Turner & Henzl, 1987) that indicate women are

indeed inhibited in their personal behaviors (Ortiz, 1982).

Thus, any expression of personal negative power from a

principal may well be viewed by male teachers, more than

female teachers as more direct and confrontational, whether

or not it is intended that way by the principal.

Conclusions

In this empirical study leader communication in school

systems was investigated utilizing a model of Leadership as

Social Control (LASC) communication through the use of the

LASC instrument. Specific variables of leader communication

by gender were examined. The following conclusions are

made:

1. The LASC instrument appeared to validly measure

teacher perceptions of principals' use of social control

communication with adequate reliability. Significant

differences were found in teachers' perceptions of

principals' intention in one of the six dimensions of the

34
model, and in three of the nine scales and by items of the

relevant scales.

2. Analysis indicated that principal gender did effect

teacher perceptions of principals' intentions in some

variables of social control communication. Teachers

perceived female principals, more than male principals, to

communicate authentic values and beliefs, and positive and
negative expectations verbally and nonverbally from their

personal role. For example, when communicating through

positive and negative power, teachers perceived female

principals, more than male principals, to do so verbally by

giving teachers personal support when they do well; by

confronting them when they perform unreliably, and by making

then accountable and responsible for their conduct and work

when not doing well. Use of organizational structures or

nonverbal communication was perceived by teachers to be

greater for female principals than male principals. For

example, female principals, more than male principals were

perceived by teachers to provide personal acknowledgement in

the form of memos, notes of appreciation and written goal

statements

3. Although analyses indicated that teacher gender did

effect teachers' perceptions of principals intention, this

was found to have less significance than principal gender.

In one variable, negative power communication from a

personal role, male teachers, more than female teachers

perceived principals to be more direct and confrontational.

For example, male teachers more than female teachers

perceived principals to confront and make them feel
responsible when they did not do well or did not meet

standards, and to clearly express anger.

All teachers pereived that female principals pay more

attention to their work, whether this attention manifests

itself negatively or positively. Gougeon (1991b) reports

that these same teachers surveyed perceive female principals

to be more effective, than male principals. He also reports

that a high correlation exists between teacher ratings of

"feeling close" to their principals and teacher ratings of

"being more effective." There is a reasonable connection

between the evaluation of principal effectiveness, the

feeling of closeness to the principal, and the degree of

attention principals give teachers. Thus, it is recommended

that male principals who want to be perceived by teachers as

more effective must be more aware of the lives lived by

their teachers. They must communicate this knowledge by

responding to daily achievements and dilemmas that teachers

encounter. The authors suggest that an effective principal,

male or female, talks to teachers about specific work they

do, showing appreciation for actions they take and
acknowledging accomplishments. In addition, they confront

teachers over specific problems, demanding accountability

36
and holding them responsible for interacting with students

in appropriate ways.

This study provided practical assistance to principals

and teachers by providing feedback regarding the social

control communication interactions within their schools.
Such feedback allowed participants to reflect upon the

differences and similarities between principals' intentions

and teachers' perceptions in the many daily communication

interactions in schools. Awareness of differences by gender

can provide principals with alternative communication

strategies.

This study had theoretical significance in that

findings did support the growing body of gender leadership

literature indicating that gender differences exist and that

there is a separate and valid female knowledge base. As

well, this study contributed fundamental knowledge to the

field of leadership communication, particularly social

control communication

Implications

Much has been written to classify male and female

communication and to describe characteristics of leaders.

As well, a growing body of observational and ethnographic

studies report differences in leadership between males and

females. Theoretical significance regarding difference in

male and female communication may well emerge from this

37

39
growing body of observational and ethnographic study.
However, it is important that continued empirical research

continue to be conducted to- examine and report findings in a

manner that is descriptive of the sample providing practical

information to that setting.

Traditional leadership has been white male defined.

There are limited numbers of females in leadership positions

and those entering in this early stage may well be adapting
to the expected traditional and androcentric view of the

role rather than defining leadership from their own inherent

socialization patterns. It may be too early to discriminate

between male and female characteristics. Thus, it is

recommended that continued examination of male and female

communication differences is warranted to determine if
female patterns are significantly different as partially

supported in this study.

Further, such continued empirical study is needed to

assist in determining if such differences will continue to

support the growing body of observational and ethnographic

studies. Such current ethnographic and observational study,

and continued empirical study will contribute important

knowledge to current research characterized by Schumck

(1987) as the stage of the "new scholarship" where both men

and women are considered as objects of study resulting in

alternative points of view about leadership. This effort

may assist in developing a more relevant theory of

38
4 ()
leadership; one that is inclusive of the knowledge base of

both females and males and of both realities (Shakeshaft,

1986). In addition, this effort may lend progress to

Kaufman's (1984) assertion that female strengths and values

must become normative guides for human behavior in order to
"collectively change existing institutions and the powerful

bonds that maintain status quo within modern society" (p.

164). As women gain more leadership positions through the

female filter, rather than the male filter, only then may we

see more genuine differences and learn to value both

The Leadership as Social Control Model (LASC) and

instruments can provide important practical information to

principals. Such information could assist them in the many

daily communication interactions they have with their

staffs. Much has been written about the importance of clear

communication towards the development of common goals.

Principals may utilize the LASC to discover whether there is

consistency or discord between what they intend to

communicate and what is actually perceived by their staff.

For example, understanding that male teachers, more than

female teachers, may perceive more direct confrontation and

anger than intended may assist principals in refining their

negative communication expectation statements when
communicating with male teachers if such perception results

in less effective communication. Such an examination of

LASC data may result in principals' modification in their

communication style to improve communication and
subsequently to satisfactorily accomplish the many tasks and

goals facing leaders in today's school.

Finally, it is critical to continue examination of

leadership conceptualizations to insure that they include
female reality and value the female knowledge base as equal

to that of the traditional androcentric, white male defined

knowledge base. Such inclusion may tell us more, rather

than less about leadership communication in schools today

and provide females with the support needed to use their

natural traits in their roles as leaders.

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